51
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Mullick J, Kadam A, Sahu A. Herpes and pox viral complement control proteins: 'the mask of self'. Trends Immunol 2003; 24:500-7. [PMID: 12967674 DOI: 10.1016/s1471-4906(03)00207-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jayati Mullick
- National Centre for Cell Science, Pune University Campus, Ganeshkhind, Pune 411007, India
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52
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Van de Walle GR, Favoreel HW, Nauwynck HJ, Pensaert MB. Antibody-induced internalization of viral glycoproteins and gE-gI Fc receptor activity protect pseudorabies virus-infected monocytes from efficient complement-mediated lysis. J Gen Virol 2003; 84:939-947. [PMID: 12655095 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.18663-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Pseudorabies virus (PRV)-infected blood monocytes are able to transport virus throughout the body of vaccination-immune pigs. PRV-infected monocytes express viral glycoproteins in their plasma membrane that can be recognized by virus-specific antibodies. Recently, it has been shown that addition of PRV-specific polyclonal immunoglobulins to PRV-infected monocytes at 37 degrees C induces internalization of the majority of plasma membrane-expressed viral glycoproteins. This study investigated whether this process may interfere with efficient antibody-dependent complement-mediated lysis (ADCML) of infected monocytes. Therefore, an ADCML assay was set up in vitro. A significant decrease in the percentage of cells lysed by ADCML was observed when antibody-induced internalization of PRV glycoproteins occurred (P<0.005). Furthermore, it is shown (i) that the PRV gE-gI complex, which, like certain other alpha herpesvirus orthologues, possesses IgG-binding capacity, aids in avoiding efficient ADCML of PRV-infected monocytes and (ii) that the efficiency of PRV gE-gI-mediated evasion of ADCML can be decreased by the presence of gE-gI-specific antibodies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerlinde R Van de Walle
- Laboratory of Virology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Herman W Favoreel
- Laboratory of Virology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Hans J Nauwynck
- Laboratory of Virology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Maurice B Pensaert
- Laboratory of Virology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
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53
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Moorman NJ, Virgin HW, Speck SH. Disruption of the gene encoding the gammaHV68 v-GPCR leads to decreased efficiency of reactivation from latency. Virology 2003; 307:179-90. [PMID: 12667789 DOI: 10.1016/s0042-6822(02)00023-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Murine gammaherpesvirus 68 (gammaHV68; MHV68) infection of mice has been a useful model for characterizing the role of conserved herpesvirus genes in pathogenesis. One of the well conserved genes among gamma2-herpesvirus, gene 74, encodes a viral G-protein coupled receptor (v-GPCR). To examine the role of the gammaHV68 v-GPCR in pathogenesis we have generated a mutant virus in which 440 base pairs of the gene 74 open reading frame have been deleted (gammaHV68v-GPCRDelta440). This deletion did not affect the growth of the virus in single or multiple rounds of replication in vitro, nor acute replication in vivo as assessed by plaque assay of spleens and lungs on days 4, 7 and 9 post-infection (p.i.). The ability of the v-GPCR mutant virus to establish latency and to reactivate from latency was quantitated on days 16 and 42 p.i. While there was no detectable difference in the ability of the mutant virus to either establish latency or reactivate from latency on day 16 p.i., as compared to wild-type gammaHV68 and marker rescue virus, there was a significant decrease in the efficiency of virus reactivation by day 42 p.i. Notably, mice infected with the mutant virus lacking the v-GPCR contained a higher frequency of viral genome positive cells in the peritoneum by day 42 p.i. than mice infected with either wild type or marker rescue virus. However, analysis of virus reactivation demonstrated that approximately the same frequency of cells reactivated virus from mice infected with either the gammaHV68 v-GPCR mutant, wild-type virus, or marker rescue virus. From these experiments we conclude that the gammaHV68 v-GPCR is dispensable for acute virus replication in vivo, but does play a role in reactivation from latency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathaniel J Moorman
- Division of Microbiology & Immunology, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA
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54
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Spiller OB, Blackbourn DJ, Mark L, Proctor DG, Blom AM. Functional activity of the complement regulator encoded by Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus. J Biol Chem 2003; 278:9283-9. [PMID: 12645526 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m211579200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) is closely associated with Kaposi's sarcoma and certain B-cell lymphomas. The fourth open reading frame of the KSHV genome encodes a protein (KSHV complement control protein (KCP, previously termed ORF4)) predicted to have complement-regulating activity. Here, we show that soluble KCP strongly enhanced the decay of classical C3-convertase but not the alternative pathway C3-convertase, when compared with the host complement regulators: factor H, C4b-binding protein, and decay-accelerating factor. The equilibrium affinity constant (KD) of KCP for C3b and C4b was determined by surface plasmon resonance analysis to range between 0.47-10 microM and 0.025-6.1 microM, respectively, depending on NaCl concentration and cation presence. Soluble and cell-associated KCP acted as a cofactor for factor I (FI)-mediated cleavage of both C4b and C3b and induced the cleavage products C4d and iC3b, respectively. In the presence of KCP, FI further cleaved iC3b to C3d, which has never been described before as complement receptor 1 only mediates the production of C3dg by FI. KCP would enhance virus pathogenesis through evading complement attack, opsonization, and anaphylaxis but may also aid in targeting KSHV to one of its host reservoirs since C3d is a ligand for complement receptor 2 on B-cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- O Brad Spiller
- University of Wales College of Medicine, Virus Receptor and Immune Evasion Group, Department of Medical Biochemistry, Heath Park, Cardiff CF14 4XX, United Kingdom
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55
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Mullick J, Bernet J, Singh AK, Lambris JD, Sahu A. Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (human herpesvirus 8) open reading frame 4 protein (kaposica) is a functional homolog of complement control proteins. J Virol 2003; 77:3878-81. [PMID: 12610165 PMCID: PMC149522 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.77.6.3878-3881.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2002] [Accepted: 12/18/2002] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The genome analysis of Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) has revealed the presence of an open reading frame (ORF 4) with sequence homology to complement control proteins. To assign a function to this protein, we have now expressed this ORF using the Pichia expression system and shown that the purified protein inhibited human complement-mediated lysis of erythrocytes, blocked cell surface deposition of C3b (the proteolytically activated form of C3), and served as a cofactor for factor I-mediated inactivation of complement proteins C3b and C4b (the subunits of C3 convertases). Thus, our data indicate that this KSHV inhibitor of complement activation (kaposica) provides a mechanism by which KSHV can subvert complement attack by the host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jayati Mullick
- National Centre for Cell Science, Pune University Campus, Ganeshkhind, Pune 411007, India
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56
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Kapadia SB, Brideau-Andersen A, Chisari FV. Interference of hepatitis C virus RNA replication by short interfering RNAs. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2003; 100:2014-8. [PMID: 12566571 PMCID: PMC149950 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.252783999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 327] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is a major cause of chronic liver disease, which can lead to the development of liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Current therapy of patients with chronic HCV infection includes treatment with IFNalpha in combination with ribavirin. Because most treated patients do not resolve the infection, alternative treatment is essential. RNA interference (RNAi) is a recently discovered antiviral mechanism present in plants and animals that induces double-stranded RNA degradation. Using a selectable subgenomic HCV replicon cell culture system, we have shown that RNAi can specifically inhibit HCV RNA replication and protein expression in Huh-7 cells that stably replicate the HCV genome, and that this antiviral effect is independent of IFN. These results suggest that RNAi may represent a new approach for the treatment of persistent HCV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sharookh B Kapadia
- Department of Molecular and Experimental Medicine, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
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57
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Spiller OB, Robinson M, O'Donnell E, Milligan S, Morgan BP, Davison AJ, Blackbourn DJ. Complement regulation by Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus ORF4 protein. J Virol 2003; 77:592-9. [PMID: 12477863 PMCID: PMC140610 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.77.1.592-599.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2002] [Accepted: 09/30/2002] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) is associated with three types of human tumor: Kaposi's sarcoma, multicentric Castleman's disease, and primary effusion lymphoma. The virus encodes a number of proteins that participate in disrupting the immune response, one of which was predicted by sequence analysis to be encoded by open reading frame 4 (ORF4). The predicted ORF4 protein shares homology with cellular proteins referred to as regulators of complement activation. In the present study, the transcription profile of the ORF4 gene was characterized, revealing that it encodes at least three transcripts, by alternative splicing mechanisms, and three protein isoforms. Functional studies revealed that each ORF4 protein isoform inhibits complement and retains a C-terminal transmembrane domain. Consistent with the complement-regulating activity, we propose to name the proteins encoded by the ORF4 gene collectively as KSHV complement control protein (KCP). KSHV ORF4 is the most complex alternatively spliced gene encoding a viral complement regulator described to date. KCP inhibits the complement component of the innate immune response, thereby possibly contributing to the in vivo persistence and pathogenesis of this virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- O Brad Spiller
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Wales College of Medicine, Cardiff CF14 4XX, United Kingdom
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58
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Ebrahimi B, Dutia BM, Roberts KL, Garcia-Ramirez JJ, Dickinson P, Stewart JP, Ghazal P, Roy DJ, Nash AA. Transcriptome profile of murine gammaherpesvirus-68 lytic infection. J Gen Virol 2003; 84:99-109. [PMID: 12533705 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.18639-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The murine gammaherpesvirus-68 genome encodes 73 protein-coding open reading frames with extensive similarities to human gamma(2) herpesviruses, as well as unique genes and cellular homologues. We performed transcriptome analysis of stage-specific viral RNA during permissive infection using an oligonucleotide-based microarray. Using this approach, M4, K3, ORF38, ORF50, ORF57 and ORF73 were designated as immediate-early genes based on cycloheximide treatment. The microarray analysis also identified 10 transcripts with early expression kinetics, 32 transcripts with early-late expression kinetics and 29 transcripts with late expression kinetics. The latter group consisted mainly of structural proteins, and showed high expression levels relative to other viral transcripts. Moreover, we detected all eight tRNA-like transcripts in the presence of cycloheximide and phosphonoacetic acid. Lytic infection with MHV-68 also resulted in a significant reduction in the expression of cellular transcripts included in the DNA chip. This global approach to viral transcript analysis offers a powerful system for examining molecular transitions between lytic and latent virus infections associated with disease pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bahram Ebrahimi
- Laboratory for Clinical and Molecular Virology, The University of Edinburgh, Summerhall Square, Edinburgh EH9 1QH, UK
| | - Bernadette M Dutia
- Laboratory for Clinical and Molecular Virology, The University of Edinburgh, Summerhall Square, Edinburgh EH9 1QH, UK
| | - Kim L Roberts
- Laboratory for Clinical and Molecular Virology, The University of Edinburgh, Summerhall Square, Edinburgh EH9 1QH, UK
| | - Jose J Garcia-Ramirez
- Scottish Centre for Genomic Technology and Informatics, The University of Edinburgh, Summerhall Square, Edinburgh EH9 1QH, UK
| | - Paul Dickinson
- MRC Centre for Inflammation Research, The University of Edinburgh, Summerhall Square, Edinburgh EH9 1QH, UK
- Scottish Centre for Genomic Technology and Informatics, The University of Edinburgh, Summerhall Square, Edinburgh EH9 1QH, UK
| | - James P Stewart
- Laboratory for Clinical and Molecular Virology, The University of Edinburgh, Summerhall Square, Edinburgh EH9 1QH, UK
| | - Peter Ghazal
- Scottish Centre for Genomic Technology and Informatics, The University of Edinburgh, Summerhall Square, Edinburgh EH9 1QH, UK
| | - Douglas J Roy
- Scottish Centre for Genomic Technology and Informatics, The University of Edinburgh, Summerhall Square, Edinburgh EH9 1QH, UK
| | - Anthony A Nash
- Laboratory for Clinical and Molecular Virology, The University of Edinburgh, Summerhall Square, Edinburgh EH9 1QH, UK
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59
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Favoreel HW, Van de Walle GR, Nauwynck HJ, Pensaert MB. Virus complement evasion strategies. J Gen Virol 2003; 84:1-15. [PMID: 12533696 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.18709-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The immune system has a variety of tools at its disposal to combat virus infections. These can be subdivided roughly into two categories: 'first line defence', consisting of the non-specific, innate immune system, and 'adaptive immune response', acquired over time following virus infection or vaccination. During evolution, viruses have developed numerous, and often very ingenious, strategies to counteract efficient recognition of virions or virus-infected cells by both innate and adaptive immunity. This review will focus on the different strategies that viruses use to avoid recognition by one of the components of the immune system: the complement system. Complement evasion is of particular importance for viruses, since complement activation is a crucial component of innate immunity (alternative and mannan-binding lectin activation pathway) as well as of adaptive immunity (classical, antibody-dependent complement activation).
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Affiliation(s)
- Herman W Favoreel
- Laboratory of Virology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Gerlinde R Van de Walle
- Laboratory of Virology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Hans J Nauwynck
- Laboratory of Virology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Maurice B Pensaert
- Laboratory of Virology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
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60
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Gangappa S, Kapadia SB, Speck SH, Virgin HW. Antibody to a lytic cycle viral protein decreases gammaherpesvirus latency in B-cell-deficient mice. J Virol 2002; 76:11460-8. [PMID: 12388707 PMCID: PMC136779 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.76.22.11460-11468.2002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
While antiviral antibody plays a key role in resistance to acute viral infection, the contribution of antibody to the control of latent virus infection is less well understood. Gammaherpesvirus 68 (gammaHV68) infection of mice provides a model well suited to defining contributions of specific immune system components to the control of viral latency. B cells play a critical role in regulating gammaHV68 latency, but the mechanism(s) by which B cells regulate latency is not known. In the experiments reported here, we determined the effect of passively transferred antibody on established gammaHV68 latency in B-cell-deficient (B-cell(-/-)) mice. Immune antibody decreased the frequency of cells reactivating ex vivo from latency in splenocytes (>10-fold) and peritoneal cells (>100-fold) and the frequency of cells carrying latent viral genome in splenocytes (>5-fold) and peritoneal cells (>50-fold). This effect required virus-specific antibody and was observed when total and virus-specific serum antibody concentrations in recipient B-cell(-/-) mice were <8% of those in normal mice during latent infection. Passive transfer of antibody specific for the lytic cycle gammaHV68 RCA protein, but not passive transfer of antibody specific for the v-cyclin protein or the latent protein M2, decreased both the frequency of cells reactivating ex vivo from latency and the frequency of cells carrying the latent viral genome. Therefore, antibody specific for lytic cycle viral antigens can play an important role in the control of gammaherpesvirus latency in immunocompromised hosts. Based on these findings, we propose a model in which ongoing productive replication is essential for maintaining high levels of latently infected cells in immunocompromised hosts. We confirmed this model by the treatment of latently infected B-cell(-/-) mice with the antiviral drug cidofovir.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shivaprakash Gangappa
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, Missouri 63110, USA
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61
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Lubinski JM, Jiang M, Hook L, Chang Y, Sarver C, Mastellos D, Lambris JD, Cohen GH, Eisenberg RJ, Friedman HM. Herpes simplex virus type 1 evades the effects of antibody and complement in vivo. J Virol 2002; 76:9232-41. [PMID: 12186907 PMCID: PMC136467 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.76.18.9232-9241.2002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) encodes a complement-interacting glycoprotein, gC, and an immunoglobulin G (IgG) Fc binding glycoprotein, gE, that mediate immune evasion by affecting multiple aspects of innate and acquired immunity, including interfering with complement components C1q, C3, C5, and properdin and blocking antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity. Previous studies evaluated the individual contributions of gC and gE to immune evasion. Experiments in a murine model that examines the combined effects of gC and gE immune evasion on pathogenesis are now reported. Virulence of wild-type HSV-1 is compared with mutant viruses defective in gC-mediated C3 binding, gE-mediated IgG Fc binding, or both immune evasion activities. Eliminating both activities greatly increased susceptibility of HSV-1 to antibody and complement neutralization in vitro and markedly reduced virulence in vivo as measured by disease scores, virus titers, and mortality. Studies with C3 knockout mice indicated that other activities attributed to these glycoproteins, such as gC-mediated virus attachment to heparan sulfate or gE-mediated cell-to-cell spread, do not account for the reduced virulence of mutant viruses. The results support the importance of gC and gE immune evasion in vivo and suggest potential new targets for prevention and treatment of HSV disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- John M Lubinski
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, USA
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62
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Kapadia SB, Levine B, Speck SH, Virgin HW. Critical role of complement and viral evasion of complement in acute, persistent, and latent gamma-herpesvirus infection. Immunity 2002; 17:143-55. [PMID: 12196286 DOI: 10.1016/s1074-7613(02)00369-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Several gamma-herpesviruses encode homologs of host regulators of complement activation (RCA) proteins, suggesting that they have evolved immune evasion strategies targeting complement. We evaluated the role of complement factor C3 (C3) and the murine gamma-herpesvirus 68 (gammaHV68) RCA protein in viral pathogenesis. Deletion of the gammaHV68 RCA protein decreased virulence during acute CNS infection, and this attenuation was specifically reversed by deletion of host C3. The gammaHV68 RCA protein was also important for persistent viral replication and virulence in IFNgammaR(-/-) mice. In addition, C3 played a role in regulating latency, but this was not counteracted by the gammaHV68 RCA protein. We conclude that complement is a key host defense against gamma-herpesvirus infection and that gamma-herpesviruses have evolved an immune evasion strategy that is effective against complement-mediated antiviral responses during acute but not latent infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sharookh B Kapadia
- Department of Immunology and Pathology, Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, Box 8118, 660 South Euclid Avenue, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
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63
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van Berkel V, Levine B, Kapadia SB, Goldman JE, Speck SH, Virgin HW. Critical role for a high-affinity chemokine-binding protein in gamma-herpesvirus-induced lethal meningitis. J Clin Invest 2002; 109:905-14. [PMID: 11927617 PMCID: PMC150927 DOI: 10.1172/jci14358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Chemokines are involved in recruitment and activation of hematopoietic cells in sites of infection and inflammation. The M3 gene of the gamma-herpesvirus gammaHV68 encodes an abundant secreted protein that binds CC chemokines with high affinity. We report here that this gene is essential for efficient induction of lethal meningitis by gammaHV68. An M3 mutant gammaHV68 (gammaHV68-M3.stop) was 100-fold less virulent than wild-type or marker rescue control (gammaHV68-M3.MR) viruses after intracerebral inoculation. After intracerebral inoculation, gammaHV68-M3.stop grew to lower titers than gammaHV68 or gammaHV68-M3.MR in the brain but spread to and grew normally in the spleen and lung. Expression of several CC chemokines was significantly induced in the CNS by gammaHV68 infection. Consistent with M3 acting by blockade of CC chemokine action, gammaHV68 induced a neutrophilic meningeal inflammatory infiltrate, while gammaHV68-M3.stop induced an infiltrate in which lymphocytes and macrophages predominated. In contrast to the important role of M3 in lethal meningitis, M3 was not required for establishment or reactivation from latent infection or induction of chronic arteritis. These data suggest a role for chemokines in the protection of the nervous system from viral infection and that the M3 protein acts in a tissue-specific fashion during acute but not chronic gammaHV68 infection to limit CC chemokine-induced inflammatory responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victor van Berkel
- Departments of Pathology and Immunology and Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, USA
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64
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Spear GT, Hart M, Olinger GG, Hashemi FB, Saifuddin M. The role of the complement system in virus infections. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2001; 260:229-45. [PMID: 11443876 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-662-05783-4_12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/20/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- G T Spear
- Department of Immunology/Microbiology, 1653 W, Congress Parkway, Rush-Presbyterian-St. Luke's Medical Center, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
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65
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Doherty PC, Christensen JP, Belz GT, Stevenson PG, Sangster MY. Dissecting the host response to a gamma-herpesvirus. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2001; 356:581-93. [PMID: 11313013 PMCID: PMC1088446 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2000.0786] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The murine gamma-herpesvirus 68 (MHV-68) provides a unique experimental model for dissecting immunity to large DNA viruses that persist in B lymphocytes. The analysis is greatly facilitated by the availability of genetically disrupted (-/-) mice that lack key host-response elements, and by the fact that MHV-68 is a lytic virus that can readily be manipulated for mutational analysis. The mutant virus strategy is being used, for example, to characterize the part played in vivo by an MHV-68-encoded chemokine-binding protein that may ultimately find an application in human therapeutics. Experiments with various -/- mice and monoclonal antibody depletion protocols have shown very clearly that type I interferons (IFNs) are essential for the early control of MHV-68 replication, while CD4+ T cells producing IFN-gamma function to limit the consequences of viral persistence. Virus-specific CD8+ effectors acting in the absence of the CD4+ subset seem initially to control the lytic phase in the lung following respiratory challenge, but are then unable to prevent the reactivation of replicative infection in epithelia and the eventual death of CD4+ T-cell-deficient mice. This could reflect the fact that the interaction between the CD8+ T cells and the virus-infected targets is partially compromised by the MHV-68 K3 protein, which inhibits antigen presentation by MHC class I glycoproteins. Immunization strategies focusing on the CD8+ T-cell response to epitopes expressed during the lytic phase of MHV-68 infection can limit virus replication, but are unable to prevent the establishment of latency. Other experiments with mutant viruses also suggest that there is a disconnection between lytic MHV-68 infection and latency. The massive nonspecific immunoglobulin response and the dramatic expansion of Vbeta4+ CD8+ T cells, which is apparently MHC independent, could represent some sort of 'smoke screen' used by MHV-68 to subvert immunity. Although MHV-68 is neither Epstein-Barr virus nor human herpesvirus-8, the results generated from this system suggest possibilities that may usefully be addressed with these human pathogens. Perhaps the main lesson learned to date is that all the components of immunity are likely to be important for the control of these complex viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- P C Doherty
- Department of Immunology, St Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105, USA.
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66
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Dal Canto AJ, Swanson PE, O'Guin AK, Speck SH, Virgin HW. IFN-gamma action in the media of the great elastic arteries, a novel immunoprivileged site. J Clin Invest 2001; 107:R15-22. [PMID: 11160143 PMCID: PMC199178 DOI: 10.1172/jci11540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Infection of medial smooth muscle cells with gamma-herpesvirus 68 (gammaHV68) causes severe chronic vasculitis that is restricted to the great elastic arteries. We show here that persistence of disease in the great elastic arteries is (a) due to inefficient clearance of viral infection from this site compared with other organs or other vascular sites, and (b) associated with failure of T cells and macrophages to enter the virus-infected elastic media. These findings demonstrate immunoprivilege of the media of the great elastic arteries. We found that IFN-gamma acted on somatic cells during acute infection to prevent the establishment of medial infection and on hematopoietic cells to determine the severity of disease in this site. The immunoprivileged elastic media may provide a site for persistence of pathogens or self antigens leading to chronic vascular disease, a process regulated by IFN-gamma actions on both somatic and hematopoietic cells. These concepts have significant implications for understanding immune responses contributing to or controlling chronic inflammatory diseases of the great vessels.
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Affiliation(s)
- A J Dal Canto
- Departments of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, 660 South Euclid Avenue, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, USA
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67
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Adler H, Messerle M, Wagner M, Koszinowski UH. Cloning and mutagenesis of the murine gammaherpesvirus 68 genome as an infectious bacterial artificial chromosome. J Virol 2000; 74:6964-74. [PMID: 10888635 PMCID: PMC112213 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.74.15.6964-6974.2000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 279] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Gammaherpesviruses cause important infections of humans, in particular in immunocompromised patients. Recently, murine gammaherpesvirus 68 (MHV-68) infection of mice has been developed as a small animal model of gammaherpesvirus pathogenesis. Efficient generation of mutants of MHV-68 would significantly contribute to the understanding of viral gene functions in virus-host interaction, thereby further enhancing the potential of this model. To this end, we cloned the MHV-68 genome as a bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) in Escherichia coli. During propagation in E. coli, spontaneous recombination events within the internal and terminal repeats of the cloned MHV-68 genome, affecting the copy number of the repeats, were occasionally observed. The gene for the green fluorescent protein was incorporated into the cloned BAC for identification of infected cells. BAC vector sequences were flanked by loxP sites to allow the excision of these sequences using recombinase Cre and to allow the generation of recombinant viruses with wild-type genome properties. Infectious virus was reconstituted from the BAC-cloned MHV-68. Growth of the BAC-derived virus in cell culture was indistinguishable from that of wild-type MHV-68. To assess the feasibility of mutagenesis of the cloned MHV-68 genome, a mutant virus with a deletion of open reading frame 4 was generated. Genetically modified MHV-68 can now be analyzed in functionally modified mouse strains to assess the role of gammaherpesvirus genes in virus-host interaction and pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Adler
- Max von Pettenkofer-Institut für Hygiene und Medizinische Mikrobiologie, Lehrstuhl Virologie, Genzentrum, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, D-81377 Munich, Germany
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68
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van Berkel V, Barrett J, Tiffany HL, Fremont DH, Murphy PM, McFadden G, Speck SH, Virgin HW IV. Identification of a gammaherpesvirus selective chemokine binding protein that inhibits chemokine action. J Virol 2000; 74:6741-7. [PMID: 10888612 PMCID: PMC112190 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.74.15.6741-6747.2000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 149] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Chemokines are involved in recruitment and activation of hematopoietic cells at sites of infection and inflammation. The M3 gene of gammaHV68, a gamma-2 herpesvirus that infects and establishes a lifelong latent infection and chronic vasculitis in mice, encodes an abundant secreted protein during productive infection. The M3 gene is located in a region of the genome that is transcribed during latency. We report here that the M3 protein is a high-affinity broad-spectrum chemokine scavenger. The M3 protein bound the CC chemokines human regulated upon activation of normal T-cell expressed and secreted (RANTES), murine macrophage inflammatory protein 1alpha (MIP-1alpha), and murine monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 (MCP-1), as well as the human CXC chemokine interleukin-8, the murine C chemokine lymphotactin, and the murine CX(3)C chemokine fractalkine with high affinity (K(d) = 1. 6 to 18.7 nM). M3 protein chemokine binding was selective, since the protein did not bind seven other CXC chemokines (K(d) > 1 microM). Furthermore, the M3 protein abolished calcium signaling in response to murine MIP-1alpha and murine MCP-1 and not to murine KC or human stromal cell-derived factor 1 (SDF-1), consistent with the binding data. The M3 protein was also capable of blocking the function of human CC and CXC chemokines, indicating the potential for therapeutic applications. Since the M3 protein lacks homology to known chemokines, chemokine receptors, or chemokine binding proteins, these studies suggest a novel herpesvirus mechanism of immune evasion.
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Affiliation(s)
- V van Berkel
- Center for Immunology and Departments of Pathology and Immunology and Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
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69
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Abstract
In the past year, important advances have been made in the area of host-related immunomodulatory genes encoded by the larger DNA viruses, particularly for the poxviruses and herpesviruses. Not only has the repertoire of viral immunomodulator homologs expanded as a result of sequencing the complete genome of another six, large DNA viruses, but also new concepts of how they work have been proposed and in some cases supported by in vivo evidence. Recent developments have been made in understanding a spectrum of host-related viral modulators, including complement control proteins, TNF-receptor homologs, IL-18 binding proteins, viral interleukins (vIL-6 and vIL-10), chemokine mimics and chemokine receptor homologs.
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Affiliation(s)
- G McFadden
- The John P Robarts Research Institute, and Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The University of Western Ontario, London, Canada.
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70
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van Dyk LF, Virgin HW, Speck SH. The murine gammaherpesvirus 68 v-cyclin is a critical regulator of reactivation from latency. J Virol 2000; 74:7451-61. [PMID: 10906198 PMCID: PMC112265 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.74.16.7451-7461.2000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Gamma-2 herpesviruses encode a homolog of mammalian D-type cyclins. The v-cyclin encoded by murine gammaherpesvirus 68 (gammaHV68) induces cell cycle progression and is an oncogene (L. F. van Dyk, J. L. Hess, J. D. Katz, M. Jacoby, S. H. Speck, and H. W. Virgin IV, J. Virol. 73:5110-5122, 1999). However, the role of the pro-proliferative v-cyclins in gamma-2 herpesvirus pathogenesis is not known. Here we report the generation and characterization of a gammaHV68 v-cyclin mutant (v-cyclin.LacZ) that is unable to express a functional v-cyclin protein. Notably, although the gammaHV68 v-cyclin is expressed from an early-late lytic transcript, v-cyclin. LacZ replicated normally in fibroblasts in vitro and during acute infection in the spleen, liver, and lungs in vivo. Moreover, v-cyclin.LacZ exhibited wild-type (wt) virulence in mice with severe combined immunodeficiency. In addition, in a model of gammaHV68-induced chronic disease in mice lacking the gamma interferon receptor (IFNgammaR(-/-)), v-cyclin.LacZ virus was similar to wt gammaHV68 in terms of the incidence of mortality and vasculitis. Further analysis revealed that the frequencies of splenocytes and peritoneal cells harboring the latent gammaHV68 genome in normal and B-cell-deficient mice infected with wt gammaHV68 or v-cyclin.LacZ were very similar. However, v-cyclin.LacZ was significantly compromised in its capacity to reactivate from latency. This phenotype was conclusively mapped to the v-cyclin gene by (i) generating a marker rescue virus (v-cyclin.MR) from the v-cyclin.LacZ mutant, which restored the frequency of cells in which virus reactivated from latency to the levels observed with wt gammaHV68; and (ii) generating a second v-cyclin mutant virus containing a translation stop codon within the v-cyclin gene (v-cyclin.stop), which was compromised in reactivation from latency. These studies demonstrate that despite expression as a lytic cycle gene, the pro-proliferative gammaHV68 v-cyclin is not required for gammaHV68 replication either in vitro or during acute infection in vivo but rather is a critical determinant of reactivation from latency.
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Affiliation(s)
- L F van Dyk
- Department of Pathology and Immunology and Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
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71
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Abstract
This review describes the diverse array of pathways and molecular targets that are used by viruses to elude immune detection and destruction. These include targeting of pathways for major histocompatibility complex-restricted antigen presentation, apoptosis, cytokine-mediated signaling, and humoral immune responses. The continuous interactions between host and pathogens during their coevolution have shaped the immune system, but also the counter measures used by pathogens. Further study of their interactions should improve our ability to manipulate and exploit the various pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Tortorella
- Department of Pathology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
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72
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Gronowski AM, Hilbert DM, Sheehan KC, Garotta G, Schreiber RD. Baculovirus stimulates antiviral effects in mammalian cells. J Virol 1999; 73:9944-51. [PMID: 10559307 PMCID: PMC113044 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.73.12.9944-9951.1999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/1999] [Accepted: 09/14/1999] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Herein, we report that Autographa californica nucleopolyhedrovirus, a member of the Baculoviridae family, is capable of stimulating antiviral activity in mammalian cells. Baculoviruses are not pathogenic to mammalian cells. Nevertheless, live baculovirus is shown here to induce interferons (IFN) from murine and human cell lines and induces in vivo protection of mice from encephalomyocarditis virus infection. Monoclonal antibodies specific for the baculovirus envelope gp67 neutralize baculovirus-dependent IFN production. Moreover, UV treatment of baculovirus eliminates both infectivity and IFN-inducing activity. In contrast, the IFN-inducing activity of the baculovirus was unaffected by DNase or RNase treatment. These data demonstrate that IFN production can be induced in mammalian cells by baculovirus even though the cells fail to serve as a natural host for an active viral infection. Baculoviruses, therefore, provide a novel model in which to study at least one alternative mechanism for IFN induction in mammalian cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- A M Gronowski
- Department of Pathology, Center for Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, Missouri 63110, USA
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