2019 Novel Coronavirus (COVID-19) Pandemic: Built Environment Considerations To Reduce Transmission

Longitudinal analysis of built environment and aerosol contamination associated with isolated COVID-19 positive individuals

The indoor environment is the primary location for the transmission of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the causative agent of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), largely driven by respiratory particle accumulation in the air and increased connectivity between the individuals occupying indoor spaces. In this study, we aimed to track a cohort of subjects as they occupied a COVID-19 isolation dormitory to better understand the impact of subject and environmental viral load over time, symptoms, and room ventilation on the detectable viral load within a single room. We find that subject samples demonstrate a decrease in overall viral load over time, symptoms significantly impact environmental viral load, and we provide the first real-world evidence for decreased aerosol SARS-CoV-2 load with increasing ventilation, both from mechanical and window sources. These results may guide environmental viral surveillance strategies and be used to better control the spread of SARS-CoV-2 within built environments and better protect those caring for individuals with COVID-19.

Hotel building design, occupants' health and performance in response to COVID 19

In the COVID-19 pandemic, the employee realized the importance of a healthy workplace. A healthy workplace provides natural protection against respiratory disease and reduces exposure to viruses. Therefore, the current COVID-19 pandemic should be a wake-up call to understand the importance of building design and a dress rehearsal for future challenges because building-based prevention and control measures have become one of the most significant ways of fighting against the epidemic. This study investigates the role of hotel building design in employee health and performance during the COVID-19 pandemic. The study covered the LEED-certified hotel building in India. The formulated Hypothesis was tested empirically by the structural equation modeling (SEM) for determining the potential of the hotel building design. It was obtained from the study that during the COVID-19 pandemic, the hotel building design of the hospitality industry had a more significant influence on employee performance, followed by employee health.

Systematic summary and analysis of Chinese HVAC guidelines coping with COVID-19

Heating, Ventilation, and Air-Conditioning (HVAC) system that is almost indispensable service system of modern buildings is recognized as the most important engineering control measure against pandemics. However, the effectiveness of HVAC systems has been questioned on their ability to control airborne transmission. After the outbreak of COVID-19, China has controlled the spread within a relatively short period. Considering the large population, high population density, busy transportation and the overall underdeveloped economy, China's control measures may have some implications to other countries, especially those with limited resources. This paper intends to provide a systematic summary of Chinese ventilation guidelines issued to cope with COVID-19 transmission. The following three aspects are the main focus of these guidelines: (1) general operation and management schemes of various types of HVAC systems, (2) operation and management schemes of HVAC system in typical types of buildings, and (3) design schemes of HVAC system of makeshift hospitals. In addition, some important differences in HVAC guidelines between China and other countries/institutions are identified and compared, and the possible reasons are discussed. Further discussions are made on the following topics, including the required fresh air supply, the extended operation time, the use of auxiliary equipment, the limited capacity of existing systems, and the use of personalized systems.

The relationship between job components, neighbourhood walkability and African academics' physical activity: a post-COVID-19 context

Research to date suggests that physical activity (PA) among academics is insufficient globally. Academics in many African countries were recently required to resume work while observing social distancing protocols. Physical inactivity (PI) was, therefore, expected to increase in such academics. Interestingly, walkable neighbourhoods are resources that could discourage excessive sitting and PI in this situation. This study, therefore, assessed the moderating role of neighbourhood walkability in the relationship between core job components (i.e. on-site teaching, online teaching, research and student assessment) and PA among academics. The study adopted a cross-sectional design that utilized an online survey hosted by Google Forms to gather data. Participants were volunteer full-time academics in Nigeria, Ghana, Kenya and Tanzania. A total of 1064 surveys were analysed, with a sensitivity analysis utilized to select covariates for the ultimate hierarchical linear regression model. After controlling for the ultimate covariates (e.g. gender, education and income), PA was found to be positively associated with the job component 'research work' but negatively associated with student assessment. Neighbourhood walkability increased the positive relationship of research work with PA and reduced the negative relationship of student assessment with PA. The non-significant negative relationship between 'teaching online' and PA was made positively significant by neighbourhood walkability. We conclude that research as a job component is positively associated with PA, but online teaching is negatively associated with PA among African academics in a post-COVID-19 context.

COVID-19: The question of genetic diversity and therapeutic intervention approaches

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus type 2 (SARS-CoV-2), is the largest pandemic in modern history with very high infection rates and considerable mortality. The disease, which emerged in China's Wuhan province, had its first reported case on December 29, 2019, and spread rapidly worldwide. On March 11, 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared the COVID-19 outbreak a pandemic and global health emergency. Since the outbreak, efforts to develop COVID-19 vaccines, engineer new drugs, and evaluate existing ones for drug repurposing have been intensively undertaken to find ways to control this pandemic. COVID-19 therapeutic strategies aim to impair molecular pathways involved in the virus entrance and replication or interfere in the patients' overreaction and immunopathology. Moreover, nanotechnology could be an approach to boost the activity of new drugs. Several COVID-19 vaccine candidates have received emergency-use or full authorization in one or more countries, and others are being developed and tested. This review assesses the different strategies currently proposed to control COVID-19 and the issues or limitations imposed on some approaches by the human and viral genetic variability.

An overview of solutions for airborne viral transmission reduction related to HVAC systems including liquid desiccant air-scrubbing

The spread of the coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 affects the health of people and the economy worldwide. As air transmits the virus, heating, ventilation and air-conditioning (HVAC) systems in buildings, enclosed spaces and public transport play a significant role in limiting the transmission of airborne pathogens at the expenses of increased energy consumption and possibly reduced thermal comfort. On the other hand, liquid desiccant technology could be adopted as an air scrubber to increase indoor air quality and inactivate pathogens through temperature and humidity control, making them less favourable to the growth, proliferation and infectivity of microorganisms. The objectives of this study are to review the role of HVAC in airborne viral transmission, estimate its energy penalty associated with the adoption of HVAC for transmission reduction and understand the potential of liquid desiccant technology. Factors affecting the inactivation of pathogens by liquid desiccant solutions and possible modifications to increase their heat and mass transfer and sanitising characteristics are also described, followed by an economic evaluation. It is concluded that the liquid desiccant technology could be beneficial in buildings (requiring humidity control or moisture removal in particular when viruses are likely to present) or in high-footfall enclosed spaces (during virus outbreaks).

Reduced Counts of Various Subsets of Peripheral Blood T Lymphocytes in Patients with Severe Course of COVID-19

This study was intended to define T lymphocyte subsets in different clinical groups of COVID-19-infected patients to explore the interaction between T cell-mediated immune response and the severity of COVID-19 course. Lymphopenia in patients with severe COVID-19 was found. In patients with severe COVID-19 course, the absolute counts of CD3+, CD4+, and CD8+ T lymphocytes at admission were lower than on day 14 after discharge. Further analysis showed that the older were the patients with COVID-19, the more likely they developed severe infection. The results confirmed the significance of T lymphocytes in the clearance of the COVID-19.

PPE pollution in the terrestrial and aquatic environment of the Chittagong city area associated with the COVID-19 pandemic and concomitant health implications

The present study focuses on the indiscriminate disposal of personal protective equipment (PPEs) and resulting environmental contamination during the 3rd wave of COVID-19-driven global pandemic in the Chittagong metropolitan area, Bangladesh. Because of the very high rate of infection by the delta variant of this virus, the use of PPEs by the public is increased significantly to protect the ingestion/inhalation of respiratory droplets in the air. However, it is a matter of solicitude that general people throw away the PPEs to the dwelling environment unconsciously. With the increase of inappropriate disposal of PPEs (i.e., mostly the disposable face masks made from plastic microfibers), the possibility of transmission of the virus to the general public cannot be neglected completely. This is because this virus can survive for several days on the inanimate matter like plastics and fibers. At the same time, the result of environmental contamination by microplastic/microfiber has been widespread which eventually creates the worst impact on ecosystems and organisms. The present results may help to increase public perception of the use and subsequent disposal of PPEs, especially the face masks.

Effectiveness of N95 Masks against SARS-CoV-2: Performance Efficiency, Concerns, and Future Directions

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) epidemic, which is caused by novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), has continued to spread around the world since December 2019. Healthcare workers and other medical first responders in particular need personal protective equipment to protect their respiratory system from airborne particulates, in addition to liquid splashes to the face. N95 respirator have become a critical component for reducing SARS-CoV-2 transmission and controlling the scale of the COVID-19 pandemic. However, a major dispute concerning the protective performance of N95 respirators has erupted, with a myriad of healthcare workers affected despite wearing N95 masks. This article reviews the most recent updates about the performance of N95 respirators in protecting against the SARS-CoV-2 virus in the present pandemic situation. A brief overview of the manufacturing methods, air filtration mechanisms, stability, and reusability of the mask is provided. A detailed performance evaluation of the mask is studied from an engineering point of view. This Review also reports on a comparative study about the protective performance of all commercially available surgical and respiratory masks used to combat the spread of COVID-19. With the aim of protecting healthcare providers more efficiently, we suggest some potential directions for the development of this respiratory mask that improve the performance efficiency of the mask.

Privacy and housing: research perspectives based on a systematic literature review

Grounded in psychological and social constructs, the need for privacy is reflected in human socio-spatial behaviour and in our own home. To discuss housing privacy, this article presents a systematic literature review (SLR) that identified theoretical and methodological aspects relevant to the topic. The research was based on consolidated protocols to identify, select and evaluate articles published between 2000 and 2021 in three databases (Web of Science, Google Scholar and Scielo), with 71 eligible articles identified for synthesis. The results showed a concentration of studies in the American, European and Islamic context, and the increase in this production since 2018. This was guided by the inadequacy of architectural and urban planning projects, by new forms of social interaction and, recently, by the COVID-19 pandemic. From a theoretical point of view, the SLR demonstrated the importance of investigating privacy in housing from a comprehensive perspective, observing its different dimensions (physical, social and psychological) and characterizing the issues involved and the context under analysis. Methodologically, the main instruments identified were: (i) to behavioural analysis, questionnaires, interviews and observations; (ii) to built environment evaluation, in addition to the previous ones, space syntax analysis, architectural design and photographs analysis; (iii) for the general characterization of users, the data collection regarding the socio-demographic and cultural context and the meanings attributed to spatial organizations; (iv) to characterize the participants of the investigations, the analysis of personality traits, the ways to personalize the space, user satisfaction/preferences and the influence of social interactions on these perceptions.

Identification of measures to contain the outbreaks on passenger ships using pedestrian simulations

The SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, since the beginning of 2020, has had a strong effect on many industry sectors including maritime transport. In this context, the passenger transport industry was the most affected and it is still in a very critical situation. Starting from the "No Sail Order" issued in March 2020, cruise companies stopped their operations. Besides the international regulatory bodies issued several guidelines for the prevention and management of pandemics onboard in order to safely resume cruises. The present work addresses this topic, aiming to discuss procedures and best practices to reduce the risk of uncontrolled spreading of SARS-CoV-2 infection on large cruise vessels. Starting from the lessons learned from the representative case of Diamond Princess, here the tools developed in the framework of Industry 4.0 have been used to highlight and handle the criticalities risen on the internal layout of passenger vessels, opening new opportunities to operate existing vessels and improve the design new buildings for outbreaks prevention and control.

Sailing through the COVID-19 Pandemic and Beyond: An Evidence-Based Analysis for Dental Healthcare and Practice

This integrative review aims to provide a consolidated evidence-based appraisal of the most up-to-date guidelines and recommendations of international public and professional health regulatory bodies in relation to preparedness framework for restructuring safe delivery of dental services amid and beyond the coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. Most recent updated guidelines for dental professionals from major international health regulatory bodies were reviewed. PubMed, Google Scholar, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, WHO COVID-19 and LILACS databases, along with relevant preprints were searched, and citations were checked up to January 23, 2021. The search was performed by one author. Shortlisted articles were read and brought to consensus to be included in the study by at least two co-authors. In case of any disagreement between the judgements, an independent co-author's decision was taken as final. Of 849 records searched, 61 articles were included in the study. Following content analysis of the global guidelines and the collected prevailing evidence, the common themes and recommendations of different guidance documents were collated and summarized into seven domains. Most guidelines have a consensus regarding implementation of rigorous administrative, engineering and environmental infection control strategies. However, variations do exist with regard to the use of respirators in non-aerosol-generating procedure (non-AGP) settings, employment of airborne precautions during non-AGPs, use of supplemental air-handling systems, and preoperative use of mouthwashes. This evidence-based analysis can serve as a useful reopening resource tool and facilitate effective restructuring for delivery of optimal, equitable and safe dental practices globally, during and while emerging from the pandemic.

Discarded masks as hotspots of antibiotic resistance genes during COVID-19 pandemic

The demand for facial masks remains high. However, little is known about discarded masks as a potential refuge for contaminants and to facilitate enrichment and spread of antibiotic resistance genes (ARG) in the environment. We address this issue by conducting an in-situ time-series experiment to investigate the dynamic changes of ARGs, bacteria and protozoa associated with discarded masks. Masks were incubated in an estuary for 30 days. The relative abundance of ARGs in masks increased after day 7 but levelled off after 14 days. The absolute abundance of ARGs at 30 days was 1.29 × 1012 and 1.07 × 1012 copies for carbon and surgical masks, respectively. According to normalized stochasticity ratio analysis, the assembly of bacterial and protistan communities was determined by stochastic (NST = 62%) and deterministic (NST = 40%) processes respectively. A network analysis highlighted potential interactions between bacteria and protozoa, which was further confirmed by culture-dependent assays, that showed masks shelter and enrich microbial communities. An antibiotic susceptibility test suggested that antibiotic resistant pathogens co-exist within protozoa. This study provides an insight into the spread of ARGs through discarded masks and highlights the importance of managing discarded masks with the potential ecological risk of mask contamination.

The lockdown, mobility, and spatial health disparities in COVID-19 pandemic: A case study of New York City

The world has adopted unprecedented lockdown as the key method to mitigate COVID-19; yet its effect on pandemic outcomes and health disparities remains largely unknown. Adopting a multilevel conceptual framework, this research investigates how city-level lockdown policy and public transit system shape mobility and thus intra-city health disparities, using New York City as a case study. With a spatial method and multiple sources of data, this research demonstrates the uneven impact of the lockdown policy and public transit system in shaping local pandemic outcomes. Census tracts with people spending more time at home have lower infection and death rates, while those with a higher density of transit stations have higher infection and death rates. Residential profile matters and census tracts with a higher concentration of disadvantaged population, such as Blacks, Hispanics, poor and elderly people, and people with no health insurance, have higher infection and death rates. Spatial analyses identify clusters where the lockdown policy was not effective and census tracts that share similar pandemic characteristics. Through the lens of mobility, this research advances knowledge of health disparities by focusing on institutional causes for health disparities and the role of the government through intervention policy and public transit system.

Plastic accumulation during COVID-19: call for another pandemic; bioplastic a step towards this challenge?

Plastic pollution has become a serious transboundary challenge to nature and human health, with estimation of reports published - predicting a twofold increase in plastic waste by 2030. However, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the excessive use of single-use plastics (including face masks, gloves and personal protective equipment) would possibly exacerbate such forecasts. The transition towards eco-friendly alternatives like bio-based plastics and new emerging sustainable technologies would be vital to deal with future pandemics, even though the use or consumption of plastics has greatly enhanced our quality of life; it is however critical to move towards bioplastics. We cannot deny the fact that bioplastics have some challenges and shortcomings, but still, it is an ideal option for opt. The circular economy is the need of the hour for waste management. Along with all these practices, individual accountability, corporate intervention and government policy are also needed to prevent us from moving from one crisis to the next. Only through cumulative efforts, we will be able to cope up with this problem. This article collected scattered information and data about accumulation of plastic during COVID-19 worldwide. Additionally, this paper illustrates the substitution of petroleum-based plastics with bio-based plastics. Different aspects are discussed, ranging from advantages to challenges in the way of bioplastics.

Rapid estimation of viral emission source location via genetic algorithm

Indoor spread of infectious diseases is well-studied as a common transmission route. For highly infectious diseases, like Sars-CoV-2, considering poorly or semi ventilated areas outdoors is increasingly important. This is important in communities with high proportions of infected people, highly infectious variants, or where spread is difficult to manage. This work develops a simulation framework based on probabilistic distributions of viral particles, decay, and infection. The methodology reduces the computational cost of generating rapid estimations of a wide variety of scenarios compared to other simulation methods with high computational cost and more fidelity. Outdoor predictions are provided in example applications for a gathering of five people with oscillating wind and a public speaking event. The results indicate that infection is sensitive to population density and outdoor transmission is plausible and likely locations of a virtual super-spreader are identified. Outdoor gatherings should consider precautions to reduce infection spread.

Pathogen Control in the Built Environment: A Probiotic-Based System as a Remedy for the Spread of Antibiotic Resistance

The high and sometimes inappropriate use of disinfectants and antibiotics has led to alarming levels of Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) and to high water and hearth pollution, which today represent major threats for public health. Furthermore, the current SARS-CoV-2 pandemic has deeply influenced our sanitization habits, imposing the massive use of chemical disinfectants potentially exacerbating both concerns. Moreover, super-sanitation can profoundly influence the environmental microbiome, potentially resulting counterproductive when trying to stably eliminate pathogens. Instead, environmentally friendly procedures based on microbiome balance principles, similar to what applied to living organisms, may be more effective, and probiotic-based eco-friendly sanitation has been consistently reported to provide stable reduction of both pathogens and AMR in treated-environments, compared to chemical disinfectants. Here, we summarize the results of the studies performed in healthcare settings, suggesting that such an approach may be applied successfully also to non-healthcare environments, including the domestic ones, based on its effectiveness, safety, and negligible environmental impact.

Facial mask personalization encourages facial mask wearing in times of COVID-19

One of the most cost-effective strategies for fighting the spread of COVID-19 is the use of facial masks. Despite health officials’ strong efforts to communicate the importance or wearing a mask, compliance has been low in many countries. In the present paper we propose a novel behavior-intervention strategy to encourage people to wear facial masks. Three studies show that the personalization of a mask, as a form of identity expression, increases mask wearing intentions and, by extension, the percentage of individuals who wear facial masks. Given that mask wearing remains a necessity after deployment of the first vaccines, novel approaches to encouraging mask wearing are essential. Linking facial mask wearing to an individual’s identity is a promising strategy.

Social Cohesion and Neighbor Interactions within Multifamily Apartment Buildings: Challenges of COVID-19 and Directions of Action

Relations among neighbors are a key indicator of the strength of a local social community, contribute to social cohesion and are an important factor in achieving a higher level of social sustainability. On the other hand, the environment in which people live plays an important role in encouraging social contacts and developing relationships between people. In order to establish social interactions between neighbors within a multifamily apartment building (MFAB), it is necessary to provide adequate spaces for communication between residents. This was especially emphasized during the mobility restrictions caused by COVID-19, although this necessity is permanent. This paper analyzes the influence of the physical characteristics of common spaces in MFABs on the quality and intensity of contacts among residents of MFABs in the City of Niš, Serbia. In order to determine the current quality of these spaces as a physical framework for interactions among residents and to identify the wishes of users regarding interactions with neighbors in these spaces before and during COVID-19 pandemic restrictions, a survey was conducted. The analysis of the survey results and numerous examples of housing design led to (1) the formation of guidelines for future designs of MFABs and (2) recommendations for redefining the standards regulating the field of housing construction in the region, both applicable during the period of the pandemic and after it.

Quantifying environmental mitigation of aerosol viral load in a controlled chamber with participants diagnosed with COVID-19

Background

Several studies indicate that COVID-19 is primarily transmitted within indoor spaces. Therefore, environmental characterization of SARS-CoV-2 viral load with respect to human activity, building parameters, and environmental mitigation strategies is critical to combat disease transmission.

Methods

We recruited 11 participants diagnosed with COVID-19 to individually occupy a controlled chamber and conduct specified physical activities under a range of environmental conditions; we collected human and environmental samples over a period of three days for each participant.

Results

Here we show that increased viral load, measured by lower RNA cycle threshold (C_T) values, in nasal samples is associated with higher viral loads in environmental aerosols and on surfaces captured in both the near field (1.2 m) and far field (3.5 m). We also found that aerosol viral load in far field is correlated with the number of particles within the range of 1 µm -2.5 µm. Furthermore, we found that increased ventilation and filtration significantly reduced aerosol and surface viral loads, while higher relative humidity resulted in lower aerosol and higher surface viral load, consistent with an increased rate of particle deposition at higher relative humidity. Data from near field aerosol trials with high expiratory activities suggest that respiratory particles of smaller sizes (0.3 µm -1 µm) best characterize the variance of near field aerosol viral load.

Conclusions

Our findings indicate that building operation practices such as ventilation, filtration, and humidification substantially reduce the environmental aerosol viral load, and therefore inhalation dose, and should be prioritized to improve building health and safety.

Indonesia medical students' knowledge, attitudes, and practices toward COVID-19

Implementing health protocols and preventive measures are the only effective ways to suppress COVID-19 transmission before vaccines and antiviral drugs are developed. The implementation of health protocols and preventive measures are influenced by one's knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) toward this pandemic. Medical students as candidates for healthcare workers and role models for the community should have a good KAP. This study intends 1) to explore the KAP of medical students in Indonesia toward COVID-19 and 2) to assess which demographic factors have a significant effect on their KAP scores. An online questionnaire consisting of 18 items of knowledge, six items of attitudes, and 12 items of practices were used as instruments in this study. After being distributed for two weeks in June 2020, 525 respondents whose data were worth analyzing were obtained. The respondents consisted of male and female students, from diploma to bachelor degree, and came from all four types of higher education institutions in Indonesia. The results, 48% of respondents had good knowledge, 81% had good attitudes, and 43.5% had good practices toward COVID-19. The location of students' residence has no significant effect on their KAP score. Gender has a significant effect on knowledge and practice scores. Age, institution type, and institution status have a significant effect on their three KAP domains. The KAP survey results can be used as a reflection of the importance of the curriculum that prepares medical students for the pandemic. Medical students are also expected to be able to actively participate in educating people around them on how to minimize the transmission of COVID-19 during the pandemic.

Toward human-centric urban infrastructure: Text mining for social media data to identify the public perception of COVID-19 policy in transportation hubs

The COVID-19 pandemic has made transportation hubs vulnerable to public health risks. In response, policies using nonpharmaceutical interventions have been implemented, changing the way individuals interact within these facilities. However, the impact of building design and operation on policy efficacy is not fully discovered, making it critical to investigate how these policies are perceived and complied in different building spaces. Therefore, we investigate the spatial drivers of user perceptions and policy compliance in airports. Using text mining, we analyze 103,428 Google Maps reviews of 64 major hub airports in the US to identify representative topics of passenger concerns in airports (i.e., Staff, Shop, Space, and Service). Our results show that passengers express having positive experiences with Staff and Shop, but neutral or negative experiences with Service and Space, which indicates how building design has impacted policy compliance and the vulnerability of health crises. Furthermore, we discuss the actual review comments with respect to 1) spatial design and planning, 2) gate assignment and operation, 3) airport service policy, and 4) building maintenance, which will construct the foundational knowledge to improve the resilience of transportation hubs to future health crises.

Prediction and control of aerosol transmission of SARS-CoV-2 in ventilated context: from source to receptor

Global spread of COVID-19 has seriously threatened human life and health. The aerosol transmission route of SARS-CoV-2 is observed often associated with infection clusters under poorly ventilated environment. In the context of COVID-19 pandemic, significant transformation and optimization of traditional ventilation systems are needed. This paper is aimed to offer better understanding and insights into effective ventilation design to maximize its ability in airborne risk control, for particularly the COVID-19. Comprehensive reviews of each phase of aerosol transmission of SARS-CoV-2 from source to receptor are conducted, so as to provide a theoretical basis for risk prediction and control. Infection risk models and their key parameters for risk assessment of SARS-CoV-2 are analyzed. Special focus is given on the efficacy of different ventilation strategies in mitigating airborne transmission. Ventilation interventions are found mainly impacting on the dispersion and inhalation phases of aerosol transmission. The airflow patterns become a key factor in controlling the aerosol diffusion and distribution. Novel and personalized ventilation design, effective integration with other environmental control techniques and resilient HVAC system design to adapt both common and epidemic conditions are still remaining challenging, which need to be solved with the aid of multidisciplinary research and intelligent technologies.

Measured influence of overhead HVAC on exposure to airborne contaminants from simulated speaking in a meeting and a classroom

Tracer gas experiments were conducted in a 158 m³ room with overhead supply diffusers to study dispersion of contaminants from simulated speaking in physically distanced meeting and classroom configurations. The room was contained within a 237 m³ cell with open plenum return to the HVAC system. Heated manikins at desks and a researcher operating the tracer release apparatus presented 8-9 thermal plumes. Experiments were conducted under conditions of no forced air and neutral, cooled, or heated air supplied at 980-1100 cmh, and with/out 20% outdoor air. CO₂ was released at the head of one manikin in each experiment to simulate small (<5 µm diameter) respiratory aerosols. The metric of exposure relative to perfectly mixed (ERM) is introduced to quantify impacts, based on measurements at manikin heads and at three heights in the center and corners of the room. Chilled or neutral supply air provided good mixing with ERMs close to one. Thermal stratification during heating produced higher ERMs at most manikins: 25% were ≥2.5 and the highest were >5× perfectly mixed conditions. Operation of two within-zone air cleaners together moving ≥400 cmh vertically in the room provided enough mixing to mitigate elevated exposure variations.

Considerations for the Safe Operation of Schools During the Coronavirus Pandemic

During the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic, providing safe in-person schooling has been a dynamic process balancing evolving community disease burden, scientific information, and local regulatory requirements with the mandate for education. Considerations include the health risks of SARS-CoV-2 infection and its post-acute sequelae, the impact of remote learning or periods of quarantine on education and well-being of children, and the contribution of schools to viral circulation in the community. The risk for infections that may occur within schools is related to the incidence of SARS-CoV-2 infections within the local community. Thus, persistent suppression of viral circulation in the community through effective public health measures including vaccination is critical to in-person schooling. Evidence suggests that the likelihood of transmission of SARS-CoV-2 within schools can be minimized if mitigation strategies are rationally combined. This article reviews evidence-based approaches and practices for the continual operation of in-person schooling.

Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 Indoor and Outdoor Environments

Since the outbreak in late December 2019, the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has spread across the globe, causing great damage to human life and property. A lot of researchers around the world have devoted themselves to the study of its origin, pathogenic mechanism, and transmission route, and this article gives a summary. First, both humans and animals can act as the host of coronavirus. In indoor environments, the virus may exist in aerosols, droplets, saliva, etc., from the nose and mouth connected to the respiratory system, as well as feces, urine, etc., from the digestive and urinary systems. In addition, other substances, such as breast milk, eye feces, and blood, released from the host can carry viruses. The virus transmitted indoors is affected by indoor machinery, natural forces, and human activities, and spreads in different distances. Second, the virus spreads outdoors through three kinds of media: solid, liquid, and gas, and is affected by their survival time, the temperature, and humidity in the environment.

Exploring the nexus between social vulnerability, built environment, and the prevalence of COVID-19: A case study of Chicago

COVID-19 has significantly and unevenly impacted the United States, disproportionately affecting socially vulnerable communities. While epidemiologists and public health officials have suggested social distancing and shelter-in-place orders to halt the spread of this virus, the ability to comply with these guidelines is dependent on neighborhood, household, and individual characteristics related to social vulnerability. We use structural equation modeling and multiple data sources, including anonymized mobile phone location data from SafeGraph, to examine the effects of different social vulnerability and built environment factors on COVID-19 prevalence over two overlapping time periods (March to May and March to November of 2020). We use Chicago, Illinois as a case study and find that zip codes with low educational attainment consistently experienced higher case rates over both periods. Though population density was not significantly related to the prevalence in any period, movement of people made a significant contribution only during the longer time period. This finding highlights the significance of analyzing different timeframes for understanding social vulnerability. Our results suggest social vulnerability played an influential role in COVID-19 prevalence, highlighting the needs to address socioeconomic barriers to pandemic recovery and future pandemic response.

Evaluating heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning systems toward minimizing the airborne transmission risk of Mucormycosis and COVID-19 infections in built environment

This ongoing global pandemic of the COVID-19 has generated a significant international concern for our respiratory health. For instance, the breakout of the COVID-19 pandemic was directly linked to the spread of infectious particles in indoor environments between humans, underlining the significance of rigorous and effective actions to limit the transmission of diseases. Recently, Mucormycosis infections in COVID-19 patients have been identified. This investigation aims to investigate potential infection control HVAC solutions for indoor environments, as well as their core mechanisms for reducing infectious disease risk through simulation models of a valid building in a hot climatic region. Considering recent international recommendations, the investigation relies on a methodology of testing a validated building energy model to several systems in the light of infectious diseases prevention. All proposed models are exposed to cost analysis in line with carbon emissions, and indoor thermal conditions. The analysis outlined through parametric simulations, the effectiveness of the proposed DOAS in supplying 100% fresh ventilation air and enhancing the control of the indoor relative humidity simultaneously. Finally, through an enviro-economic assessment, the study concluded that the DOAS model reduced the CO₂ emissions to 691 tons, with a potential of reducing HVAC and whole-building energy use by 37% and 16%, respectively in the hot arid climate, with a return on investment of about 6%.

Psychosocial and Behavioral Outcomes and Transmission Prevention Behaviors: Working During the Coronavirus Disease 2019 Pandemic

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the impact of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) on psychosocial and behavioral responses of the non-health care workforce and to evaluate transmission prevention behavior implementation in the workplace.

PARTICIPANTS AND METHODS

We deployed the baseline questionnaire of a prospective online survey from November 20, 2020, through February 8, 2021 to US-based employees. The survey included questions on psychosocial and behavioral responses in addition to transmission prevention behaviors (e.g., mask wearing). Select questions asked employees to report perceptions and behaviors before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. Data were analyzed descriptively and stratified by work from home (WFH) percentage.

RESULTS

In total, 3607 employees from 8 companies completed the survey. Most participants (70.0%) averaged 90% or more of their time WFH during the pandemic. Employees reported increases in stress (54.0%), anxiety (57.4%), fatigue (51.6%), feeling unsafe (50.4%), lack of companionship (60.5%), and feeling isolated from others (69.3%) from before to during the pandemic. Productivity was perceived to decrease for 42.9% of employees and non-work-related screen time and alcohol consumption to increase for 50.7% and 25.1% of employees, respectively, from before to during the pandemic. Adverse changes were worse among those with lower WFH percentages. Most employees reported wearing a mask (98.2%), washing hands regularly (95.7%), and physically distancing (93.6%) in the workplace.

CONCLUSION

These results suggest worsened psychosocial and behavioral outcomes from before to during the COVID-19 pandemic and higher transmission prevention behavior implementation among non-health care employees. These observations provide novel insight into how the COVID-19 pandemic has impacted non-health care employees.

Stakeholder based weights of new sustainability indicators providing pandemic resilience for residential buildings

During COVID-19, the building and service characteristics of residential buildings turned out to be more critical due to lockdowns. The present research assesses the importance of new sustainability indicators for residential buildings in three categories (e.g., Health and Safety, Environmental Resources Consumption, and Comfort) that provide resilience for pandemic periods. The opinions of stakeholders on the identified indicators were collected and then analyzed. 'Health and Safety' category is found to be the most critical among the others. The prevention of virus propagation, mental health, and building air quality are three crucial indicators playing essential roles in the health and safety category. In more detail, innovative smart technologies, including touchless technologies, are identified as a priority in preventing virus propagation. Outdoor spaces and safe indoor places for socialization are weighted as essential in supporting the well-being and mental health of the resident. Finally, air filtration and segregation of medical waste indicators are considered critical in preventing the spread of viruses. There was a consensus among the local and international experts since they did not significantly report differing opinions for the majority of the indicators. However, there was a shift in experts' opinions towards pandemic-oriented indicators compared to conventional sustainability indicators.

Comparing the space-time patterns of high-risk areas in different waves of COVID-19 in Hong Kong

This study compares the space-time patterns and characteristics of high-risk areas of COVID-19 transmission in Hong Kong between January 23 and April 14 (the first and second waves) and between July 6 and August 29 (the third wave). Using space-time scan statistics and the contact tracing data of individual confirmed cases, we detect the clusters of residences of, and places visited by, both imported and local cases. We also identify the built-environment and demographic characteristics of the high-risk areas during different waves of COVID-19. We find considerable differences in the space-time patterns and characteristics of high-risk residential areas between waves. However, venues and buildings visited by the confirmed cases in different waves have similar characteristics. The results can inform policymakers to target mitigation measures in high-risk areas and at vulnerable groups, and provide guidance to the public to avoid visiting and conducting activities at high-risk places.

Global acceptance and hesitancy of COVID-19 vaccination: A narrative review

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), is a major global health threat to human civilization and has disrupted many aspects of the community around the globe. Vaccination is one of the prominent measures to control the COVID-19 pandemic. More than 120 vaccines have entered human clinical trials and at least 8 vaccines have been fully approved. However, the success of the COVID-19 vaccination programs depends on how the community accepts the vaccines. Despite COVID-19 vaccination having been initiated for a while now, more than 50% of the global population have not been vaccinated. In some low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), the vaccine coverage is less than 20%. Since the decision to accept the new vaccine is complex, understanding the factors underpinning vaccine acceptance is critical. This review aimed to summarize the COVID-19 vaccine acceptance rate around the globe as well as its associated determinants. Information from this study might be important to formulate effective strategies to increase the COVID-19 vaccine coverage, and to be able to achieve herd immunity.

Alcohol-Based Sanitizers: An Effective Means for Preventing the Spread of Contagious Viral Diseases Including COVID-19

The global community is struggling with the highly contagious COVID-19. Returning to \normal life" now poses risks, and the use of appropriate protective measures has become necessary to continue daily life and protect public health. The main protective measures to prevent transmission of COVID-19 are masks, soaps and disinfectants. Because coronavirus is a \lipid-enveloped virus", it is very sensitive to lipid-dissolving chemicals and can therefore be effectively removed by washing hands sufficiently with soap and water. However, using an alcohol-based disinfectant is a more viable option for outdoor use. Alcohol-based disinfectants are inexpensive, immediately effective, easy to use and better tolerated by the skin compared to other disinfectants. WHO recommends disinfectants containing 75% isopropanol or 80% ethanol as highly effective in inactivating the SARS-CoV-2-virus. The current review discusses the role of alcohol-based hand sanitizers (ABHS) in preventing the spread of viruses, their side effects on human health, and suggests the use of alcohol-based sanitizers as potentially effective in combating the current epidemic.

Housing and Health: Here We Go Again

Housing is one of the major determinants of human health and the current COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted its relevance. The authors summarize the main issues, including dimensional standards, indoor air quality, safety, accessibility, neighborhoods, and area characteristics. The authors propose an operating scheme in order to implement actions to improve residential wellbeing on a local, national, and international level.

Evaluation of a bioaerosol sampler for indoor environmental surveillance of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2

The worldwide spread of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has ubiquitously impacted many aspects of life. As vaccines continue to be manufactured and administered, limiting the spread of SARS-CoV-2 will rely more heavily on the early identification of contagious individuals occupying reopened and increasingly populated indoor environments. In this study, we investigated the utility of an impaction-based bioaerosol sampling system with multiple nucleic acid collection media. Heat-inactivated SARS-CoV-2 was utilized to perform bench-scale, short-range aerosol, and room-scale aerosol experiments. Through bench-scale experiments, AerosolSense Capture Media (ACM) and nylon flocked swabs were identified as the highest utility media. In room-scale aerosol experiments, consistent detection of aerosol SARS-CoV-2 was achieved at an estimated aerosol concentration equal to or greater than 0.089 genome copies per liter of room air (gc/L) when air was sampled for eight hours or more at less than one air change per hour (ACH). Shorter sampling periods (75 minutes) yielded consistent detection at ~31.8 gc/L of room air and intermittent detection down to ~0.318 gc/L at (at both 1 and 6 ACH). These results support further exploration in real-world testing scenarios and suggest the utility of indoor aerosol surveillance as an effective risk mitigation strategy in occupied buildings.

Atomic Force Microscopy and Infrared Nanospectroscopy of COVID-19 Spike Protein for the Quantification of Adhesion to Common Surfaces

The COVID-19 pandemic has claimed millions of lives worldwide, sickened many more, and has resulted in severe socioeconomic consequences. As society returns to normal, understanding the spread and persistence of SARS CoV-2 on commonplace surfaces can help to mitigate future outbreaks of coronaviruses and other pathogens. We hypothesize that such an understanding can be aided by studying the binding and interaction of viral proteins with nonbiological surfaces. Here, we propose a methodology for investigating the adhesion of the SARS CoV-2 spike glycoprotein on common inorganic surfaces such as aluminum, copper, iron, silica, and ceria oxides as well as metallic gold. Quantitative adhesion was obtained from the analysis of measured forces at the nanoscale using an atomic force microscope operated under ambient conditions. Without imposing further constraints on the measurement conditions, our preliminary findings suggest that spike glycoproteins interact with similar adhesion forces across the majority of the metal oxides tested with the exception to gold, for which attraction forces ∼10 times stronger than all other materials studied were observed. Ferritin, which was used as a reference protein, was found to exhibit similar adhesion forces as SARS CoV-2 spike protein. This study results show that glycoprotein adhesion forces for similar ambient humidity, tip shape, and contact surface are nonspecific to the properties of metal oxide surfaces, which are expected to be covered by a thin water film. The findings suggest that under ambient conditions, glycoprotein adhesion to metal oxides is primarily controlled by the water capillary forces, and they depend on the surface tension of the liquid water. We discuss further strategies warranted to decipher the intricate nanoscale forces for improved quantification of the adhesion.

COVID-19: The impact in US high-rise office buildings energy efficiency

The COVID-19 pandemic, through stay-at-home orders, forced rapid changes to social human behavior and interrelations, targeting the work environments to protect workers and users. Rapidly, global organizations, US associations, and professionals stepped in to mitigate the virus's spread in buildings' living and work environments. The institutions proposed new HVAC settings without efficiency concerns, as improved flow rates and filtering for irradiation, humidity, and temperature. Current literature consensually predicted an increase in energy consumption due to new measures to control the SARS-CoV-2 spread. The research team assumed the effort of validating the prior published outcomes, applied to US standardized high-rise office buildings, as defined and set by the key entities in the field, by resorting to a methodology based on software energy analysis. The study compares a standard high-rise office building energy consumption, CO₂ emissions and operations costs in nine US climate zones - from 0 to 8, south to north latitudes, respectively -, assessed in the most populated cities, between the previous and post COVID-19 scenarios. The outcomes clarify the gathered knowledge, explaining that climate zones above mixed-humid type tend to increase relative energy use intensity by 21.72%, but below that threshold the zones decrease relative energy use intensity by 11.92%.

COVID-19 and urban spaces: A new integrated CFD approach for public health opportunities

Safe urban public spaces are vital owing to their impacts on public health, especially during pandemics such as the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. Urban public spaces and urbanscape elements must be designed with the risk of viral transmission in mind. This work therefore examines how the design of urbanscape elements can be revisited to control COVID-19 transmission dynamics. Nine proposed models of urban public seating were thus presented and assessed using a transient three-dimensional computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model, with the Eulerian-Lagrangian method and discrete phase model (DPM). The proposed seating models were evaluated by their impact on the normalized air velocity, the diameter of coughing droplets, and deposition fraction. Each of the proposed models demonstrated an increase in the normalized velocity, and a decrease in the deposition fraction by >29%. Diagonal cross linear and curved triangle configurations demonstrated an improved airflow momentum and turbulent flow, which decreased the droplets deposition fraction by 68%, thus providing an improved, healthier urban public seating option.

Factors Affecting COVID-19 Transmission and Modelling of Close Contact Tracing Strategies

BACKGROUND

Close contact tracing is an essential measure that countries are applying to combat the epidemic of COVID-19. The purpose of contact tracing is to rapidly identify potentially infected individuals and prevent further spread of the disease. In this study, based on the factors affecting the COVID-19 transmission, a scoring protocol is provided for close contact tracing.

METHODS

First, the factors affecting the COVID-19 transmission in close contacts were identified by a rapid review of the literature. Data were gathered by searching the Embase, PubMed, Google Scholar, and Scopus databases. Then, by formulating and scoring the identified factors with two sessions of the expert panel, close contact transmission risk score determined, and a protocol for contacts tracing was designed.

RESULTS

Close contact transmission risk depends on the contact environment characteristics, the infectivity (virus shedding) of the sentinel case, and contact characteristics. Based on these factors, the close contact transmission risk score and contact tracing protocol were prepared.

CONCLUSION

The close contact transmission risk scores will provide the ability to contact classifications and developing specific tracing strategies for them. Given that there are not any specific treatments for COVID-19 and lack of universal vaccination, applying nonpharmaceutical measures such as contact tracing along with physical distancing is very crucial. Therefore, we recommended this model to the evaluation of exposure risk and contact tracing.

Modeling aerosol transmission of SARS-CoV-2 from human-exhaled particles in a hospital ward

The COVID-19 pandemic has plunged the world into uncharted territory, leaving people feeling helpless in the face of an invisible threat of unknown duration that could adversely impact the national economic growths. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the SARS-CoV-2 spreads primarily through droplets of saliva or discharge from the mouth or nose when an infected person coughs or sneezes. However, the transmission of the SARS-CoV-2 through aerosols remains unclear. In this study, computational fluid dynamic (CFD) is used to complement the investigation of the SARS-CoV-2 transmission through aerosol. The Lagrangian particle tracking method was used to analyze the dispersion of the exhaled particles from a SARS-CoV-2-positive patient under different exhale activities and different flow rates of chilled (cooling) air supply. Air sampling of the SARS-CoV-2 patient ward was conducted for 48-h measurement intervals to collect the indoor air sample for particulate with diameter less than 2.5 μm. Then, the reverse transcription quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) was conducted to analyze the collected air sample. The simulation demonstrated that the aerosol transmission of the SARS-CoV-2 virus in an enclosed room (such as a hospital ward) is highly possible.

Critical Capability Needs for Reduction of Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 Indoors

Coordination of efforts to assess the challenges and pain points felt by industries from around the globe working to reduce COVID-19 transmission in the indoor environment as well as innovative solutions applied to meet these challenges is mandatory. Indoor infectious viral disease transmission (such as coronavirus, norovirus, influenza) is a complex problem that needs better integration of our current knowledge and intervention strategies. Critical to providing a reduction in transmission is to map the four core technical areas of environmental microbiology, transmission science, building science, and social science. To that end a three-stage science and innovation Summit was held to gather information on current standards, policies and procedures applied to reduce transmission in built spaces, as well as the technical challenges, science needs, and research priorities. The Summit elucidated steps than can be taken to reduce transmission of SARS-CoV-2 indoors and calls for significant investments in research to enhance our knowledge of viral pathogen persistence and transport in the built environment, risk assessment and mitigation strategy such as processes and procedures to reduce the risk of exposure and infection through building systems operations, biosurveillance capacity, communication form leadership, and stakeholder engagement for optimal response. These findings reflect the effective application of existing knowledge and standards, emerging science, and lessons-learned from current efforts to confront SARS-CoV-2.

SARS-CoV-2 variants and environmental effects of lockdowns, masks and vaccination: a review

The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is continuously evolving and four variants of concern have been identified so far, including Alpha, Beta, Gamma and Delta variants. Here we review the indirect effect of preventive measures such as the implementation of lockdowns, mandatory face masks, and vaccination programs, to control the spread of the different variants of this infectious virus on the environment. We found that all these measures have a considerable environmental impact, notably on waste generation and air pollution. Waste generation is increased due to the implementation of all these preventive measures. While lockdowns decrease air pollution, unsustainable management of face mask waste and temperature-controlled supply chains of vaccination potentially increases air pollution.

Associations between older African academics' physical activity, walkability and mental health: a social distancing perspective

This study aimed to assess the moderating influence of neighborhood walkability on the association between physical activity (PA) and mental health among older African academics aged 50 years or more in cities with social distancing protocols in response to the Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). A total of 905 volunteer academics participated in the study. A hierarchical linear regression analysis was employed to conduct sensitivity analyses and test the study hypotheses. After controlling for sex, education and age, there was a positive association between PA and mental health. Neighborhood walkability moderated the relationship between PA and mental health, which suggests that during the pandemic PA was associated with higher mental health scores in more walkable neighborhoods. The study concludes that PA was beneficial to mental health in the social distancing context and was associated with higher mental health in more walkable neighborhoods, particularly in a social distancing context.

Development of a novel silver ions-nanosilver complementary composite as antimicrobial additive for powder coating

Applying silver into coatings has become a prevalent method in fabricating antimicrobial surfaces. However, the concerns about durability always exist and limit its applications. Here, a highly inhibitory, active, durable, and easy-to-use silver ions-nanosilver antimicrobial additive for powder coatings was fabricated in this study. Silver nanoparticles were chemically bonded to the Ag, Cu, and Zn-ternary ion-exchanged zeolite by α -lipoic acid, which was then encapsulated by hydrophilic polymers. The fabricated silver ions and silver nanoparticles (Ag+-AgNPs) complementary structure provides a synergistic effect. Ag+ is the main antimicrobial agent, while AgNPs act as a supplementary reservoir of Ag+. As well, the formed thin layer of silver nanoparticles and hydrophilic film prolongs the release of active Ag+ from zeolite, and Ag+ facilitates the activation of AgNPs. The results show that this additive indicates excellent antimicrobial activity to E. coli, S. aureus, P. aeruginosa, and C. albicans, and that the coatings with the additive exhibit over 99.99% reduction rate for the tested bacteria and fungi. The coating film is able to maintain over 99% antimicrobial reduction even after 1200 repeated solution wipings, or over 30 wash cycles of artificial sweat solution, indicating high durability. Furthermore, the yellowness of the coating is not evident (Δb < 2) despite the high loading of silver, and the silver nanoparticles have little impact on gloss, haze, and distinctness of the coating film image.

Occupational Health and Safety Measures in Healthcare Settings during COVID-19: Strategies for Protecting Staff, Patients and Visitors

The COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic has profoundly impacted almost every aspect of healthcare systems worldwide, placing the health and safety of frontline healthcare workers at risk, and it still continues to remain an important public health challenge. Several hospitals have put in place strategies to manage space, staff, and supplies in order to continue to deliver optimum care to patients while at the same time protecting the health and safety of staff and patients. However, the emergence of the second and third waves of the virus with the influx of new cases continue to add an additional level of complexity to the already challenging situation of containing the spread and lowering the rate of transmission, thus pushing healthcare systems to the limit. In this narrative review paper, we describe various strategies including administrative controls, environmental controls, and use of personal protective equipment, implemented by occupational health and safety departments for the protection of healthcare workers, patients, and visitors from SARS-CoV-2 virus infection. The protection and safeguard of the health and safety of healthcare workers and patients through the implementation of effective infection control measures, adequate management of possible outbreaks and minimization of the risk of nosocomial transmission is an important and effective strategy of SARS-CoV-2 pandemic management in any healthcare facility. High quality patient care hinges on ensuring that the care providers are well protected and supported so they can provide the best quality of care to their patients.

Post-pandemic lifestyle changes and their interaction with resident behavior in housing and neighborhoods: Bursa, Turkey

COVID-19 pandemic has re-raised questions about healthy housing and residential environments. The aim of this study is to examine lifestyle changes during the pandemic and their reflections in the use of housing. The study also compares households on different socioeconomic levels in Bursa, the study area. Bursa is a Turkish metropolis that was affected by the spread of COVID-19. Data were collected from 500 residents of 30 neighborhoods in the city's three most populous districts, Osmangazi, Nilüfer and Yildirim. The participants were selected using stratified sampling and interviewed face-to-face using questionnaires. Reliability analysis, frequency distributions, descriptive statistics, ANOVA and the chi-squared test were used to evaluate the data. The results indicate that the participants' hygiene habits, shopping behaviors, transportation habits and frequency of their contact with neighbors and friends have changed. Most of the participants live in apartments, and they need flexible designs that can be used for different purposes. They need toilets and ventilation spaces at the entrances of their homes. The use of balconies has increased. During the pandemic, the use of urban green spaces decreased in general, and the use of open areas around homes increased. High-income residents have advantages in terms of lifestyle, housing and residential environments, so their awareness about and observance of pandemic rules were higher. Lifestyles, housing, residential environments and urban opportunities differ as a result of socioeconomic segregation, and lower-income residents are more vulnerable to disease. Future studies should consider potential risks to humanity in order to address the housing-related problems of disadvantaged groups.

Monitoring the presence and persistence of SARS-CoV-2 in water-food-environmental compartments: State of the knowledge and research needs

The recent spread of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SAR-CoV-2) and the accompanied coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has continued ceaselessly despite the implementations of popular measures, which include social distancing and outdoor face masking as recommended by the World Health Organization. Due to the unstable nature of the virus, leading to the emergence of new variants that are claimed to be more and rapidly transmissible, there is a need for further consideration of the alternative potential pathways of the virus transmissions to provide the needed and effective control measures. This review aims to address this important issue by examining the transmission pathways of SARS-CoV-2 via indirect contacts such as fomites and aerosols, extending to water, food, and other environmental compartments. This is essentially required to shed more light regarding the speculation of the virus spread through these media as the available information regarding this is fragmented in the literature. The existing state of the information on the presence and persistence of SARS-CoV-2 in water-food-environmental compartments is essential for cause-and-effect relationships of human interactions and environmental samples to safeguard the possible transmission and associated risks through these media. Furthermore, the integration of effective remedial measures previously used to tackle the viral outbreaks and pandemics, and the development of new sustainable measures targeting at monitoring and curbing the spread of SARS-CoV-2 were emphasized. This study concluded that alternative transmission pathways via human interactions with environmental samples should not be ignored due to the evolving of more infectious and transmissible SARS-CoV-2 variants.

What Could Explain the Lower COVID-19 Burden in Africa despite Considerable Circulation of the SARS-CoV-2 Virus?

The differential spread and impact of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), causing Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19), across regions is a major focus for researchers and policy makers. Africa has attracted tremendous attention, due to predictions of catastrophic impacts that have not yet materialized. Early in the pandemic, the seemingly low African case count was largely attributed to low testing and case reporting. However, there is reason to consider that many African countries attenuated the spread and impacts early on. Factors explaining low spread include early government community-wide actions, population distribution, social contacts, and ecology of human habitation. While recent data from seroprevalence studies posit more extensive circulation of the virus, continuing low COVID-19 burden may be explained by the demographic pyramid, prevalence of pre-existing conditions, trained immunity, genetics, and broader sociocultural dynamics. Though all these prongs contribute to the observed profile of COVID-19 in Africa, some provide stronger evidence than others. This review is important to expand what is known about the differential impacts of pandemics, enhancing scientific understanding and gearing appropriate public health responses. Furthermore, it highlights potential lessons to draw from Africa for global health on assumptions regarding deadly viral pandemics, given its long experience with infectious diseases.