Molecular mechanisms regulating Th1 immune responses

Artemisia argyi extract alleviates inflammation in a DSS-induced colitis mouse model and enhances immunomodulatory effects in lymphoid tissues

Background

The incidence of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), an inflammatory disorder of the gastrointestinal system has increased. IBD, characterized by aberrant immune responses against antigens, is thought to be caused by the invasion of enterobacteria. The pathogenesis of IBD is complicated, hence novel effective therapeutic agents are warranted. Therefore, this study evaluates the potential of Artemisia argyi, a medicinal herb, in alleviating IBD.

Methods

The effectiveness of the A. argyi ethanol extract was verified both in vitro and in vivo. Inflammation was induced in RAW 264.7 cells by 1 μg/mL of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and by 3% dextran sodium sulfate (DSS) in a DSS-induced colitis mouse model. During the ten-day colitis induction, 200 mg/kg of A. argyi ethanol extract was orally administered to the treatment group. Levels of inflammation-related proteins and genes were analyzed in the colon, serum, and lymphoid tissues, i.e., Peyer’s patches (PPs) and spleen. The chemical constituent of the A. argyi ethanol extract was identified using an ultra-high performance liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) analysis.

Results

A. argyi ethanol extract treatment ameliorated IBD symptoms and reduced the expression of inflammation-related proteins and genes in the colon and serum samples. Furthermore, A. argyi treatment induced the activation of anti-oxidative associated proteins, such as nuclear factor-erythroid factor 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1); and the treatment have also inhibited nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB), a central mediator of inflammatory responses. A. argyi enhanced the immunomodulatory effects in the PPs and spleen, which may stem from interleukin-10 (IL-10) upregulation. Chemical analysis identified a total of 28 chemical compounds, several of which have been reported to exert anti-inflammatory effects.

Conclusions

The effectiveness of the A. argyi ethanol extract in alleviating IBD was demonstrated; application of the extract successfully mitigated IBD symptoms, and enhanced immunomodulatory responses in lymphoid tissues. These findings suggest A. argyi as a promising herbal medicine for IBD treatment.

Sarcodia suiae Water Extract Promotes the Expression of Proinflammatory and Th1-Type Cytokines and Delay the Onset of Mortality in Cobia (Rachycentron canadum) During Photobacterium damselae subsp. damselae Infection

Cobia (Rachycentron canadum) is a marine fish of high economic value that grows at a fast rate. However, intensive fish farming has led to disease outbreaks in cobia cultures, which is highly costly to the industry. The impact of infectious diseases on cobia production has led to the inappropriate and increased use of chemicals and antibiotics, which negatively affects the environment and human health and promotes the spread of drug-resistant pathogens. Hence, prophylactic measurements, such as the use of immunomodulators, are required to improve the health of cultured animals against pathogens. In this study, we examined the effects of Sarcodia suiae water extract (SSWE) in cobia in vitro and in vivo. We found that treatment with SSWE could significantly increase the expression of cytokines (e.g., IL-1β, IL-6, IL-10, IL-12, and TNF-α) and chemokines (e.g., IL-8) in primary cultured head kidney leukocytes. Intraperitoneal injection of SSWE (20 μg/g body weight) promoted higher expression of IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, IL-12, chemokines (e.g., CC1), and antibodies (e.g., IgT) in head kidney and spleen tissues of the fish compared with other dose levels. Additionally, we describe for the second time (only after India) of the isolation of Photobacterium damselae subsp. damselae (Phdd) from a deadly epizootic in cage-farmed cobia. An intraperitoneal inoculation of SSWE before Phdd challenge showed that SSWE treatment could delay the onset of mortality of cobia. Finally, fish that received SSWE intraperitoneally before infection with Phdd exhibited elevated expression of Th1-type cytokines, namely, IL-8, IL-12, TNF-α, and IFN-γ. At the same time, the expression of Th2-related factors (such as IL-10 in the head kidney, and IgM and IgT in the spleen) were lower for the fish that received SSWE instead of PBS before the Phdd challenge. The results indicate that SSWE treatment facilitates the induction of Th1-type cytokines in cobia to fight against Phdd infection and has the potential to be used as an immunostimulant and vaccine adjuvant for fish.

Immune system and atherosclerosis: Hostile or friendly relationship

Coronary artery disease has remained a major health challenge despite enormous progress in prevention, diagnosis, and treatment strategies. Formation of atherosclerotic plaque is a chronic process that is developmentally influenced by intrinsic and extrinsic determinants. Inflammation triggers atherosclerosis, and the fundamental element of inflammation is the immune system. The immune system involves in the atherosclerosis process by a variety of immune cells and a cocktail of mediators. It is believed that almost all main components of this system possess a profound contribution to the atherosclerosis. However, they play contradictory roles, either protective or progressive, in different stages of atherosclerosis progression. It is evident that monocytes are the first immune cells appeared in the atherosclerotic lesion. With the plaque growth, other types of the immune cells such as mast cells, and T lymphocytes are gradually involved. Each cell releases several cytokines which cause the recruitment of other immune cells to the lesion site. This is followed by affecting the expression of other cytokines as well as altering certain signaling pathways. All in all, a mix of intertwined interactions determine the final outcome in terms of mild or severe manifestations, either clinical or subclinical. Therefore, it is of utmost importance to precisely understand the kind and degree of contribution which is made by each immune component in order to stop the growing burden of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. In this review, we present a comprehensive appraisal on the role of immune cells in the atherosclerosis initiation and development.

Effects of fatty acids on T cell function: role in atherosclerosis

T cells are among the most common cell types present in atherosclerotic plaques and are increasingly being recognized as a central mediator in atherosclerosis development and progression. At the same time, triglycerides and fatty acids have re-emerged as crucial risk factors for atherosclerosis. Triglycerides and fatty acids are important components of the milieu to which the T cell is exposed from the circulation to the plaque, and increasing evidence shows that fatty acids influence T cell function. In this Review, we discuss the effects of fatty acids on four components of the T cell response - metabolism, activation, proliferation and polarization - and the influence of these changes on the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. We also discuss how quiescent T cells can undergo a type of metabolic reprogramming induced by exposure to fatty acids in the circulation that influences the subsequent functions of T cells after activation, such as in atherosclerotic plaques.

Corticosteroid insensitivity persists in the absence of STAT1 signaling in severe allergic airway inflammation

Corticosteroid insensitivity in asthma limits the ability to effectively manage severe asthma, which is characterized by persistent airway inflammation, airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR), and airflow obstruction despite corticosteroid treatment. Recent reports indicate that corticosteroid insensitivity is associated with increased interferon-γ (IFN-γ) levels and T-helper (Th) 1 lymphocyte infiltration in severe asthma. Signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 (STAT1) activation by IFN-γ is a key signaling pathway in Th1 inflammation; however, its role in the context of severe allergic airway inflammation and corticosteroid sensitivity remains unclear. In this study, we challenged wild-type (WT) and Stat1^-/- mice with mixed allergens (MA) augmented with c-di-GMP [bis-(3'-5')-cyclic dimeric guanosine monophosphate], an inducer of Th1 cell infiltration with increased eosinophils, neutrophils, Th1, Th2, and Th17 cells. Compared with WT mice, Stat1^-/- had reduced neutrophils, Th1, and Th17 cell infiltration. To evaluate corticosteroid sensitivity, mice were treated with either vehicle, 1 or 3 mg/kg fluticasone propionate (FP). Corticosteroids significantly reduced eosinophil infiltration and cytokine levels in both c-di-GMP + MA-challenged WT and Stat1^-/- mice. However, histological and functional analyses show that corticosteroids did not reduce airway inflammation, epithelial mucous cell abundance, airway smooth muscle mass, and AHR in c-di-GMP + MA-challenged WT or Stat1^-/- mice. Collectively, our data suggest that increased Th1 inflammation is associated with a decrease in corticosteroid sensitivity. However, increased airway pathology and AHR persist in the absence of STAT1 indicate corticosteroid insensitivity in structural airway cells is a STAT1 independent process.

High-Risk Human Papillomavirus and Epstein-Barr Virus Coinfection: A Potential Role in Head and Neck Carcinogenesis

Simple Summary

A subset of carcinomas that arise in the head and neck region show a viral etiology. In fact, a subgroup of oropharyngeal cancers are caused by some types of human papillomavirus (HPV), so-called high-risk (HR)-HPVs, whereas undifferentiated nasopharyngeal carcinomas are etiologically related to Epstein–Barr virus (EBV). However, studies have reported the presence of both HR-HPV and EBV in some types of head and neck cancers. In this review, we discuss the potential contribution and role of HR-HPV/EBV coinfection in head and neck carcinogenesis, as well as the mechanisms that are potentially involved. In addition, HR-HPV/EBV interaction models are proposed.

Abstract

High-risk human papillomaviruses (HR-HPVs) and Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) are recognized oncogenic viruses involved in the development of a subset of head and neck cancers (HNCs). HR-HPVs are etiologically associated with a subset of oropharyngeal carcinomas (OPCs), whereas EBV is a recognized etiological agent of undifferentiated nasopharyngeal carcinomas (NPCs). In this review, we address epidemiological and mechanistic evidence regarding a potential cooperation between HR-HPV and EBV for HNC development. Considering that: (1) both HR-HPV and EBV infections require cofactors for carcinogenesis; and (2) both oropharyngeal and oral epithelium can be directly exposed to carcinogens, such as alcohol or tobacco smoke, we hypothesize possible interaction mechanisms. The epidemiological and experimental evidence suggests that HR-HPV/EBV cooperation for developing a subset of HNCs is plausible and warrants further investigation.

Expression Regulation and Function of T-Bet in NK Cells

Natural killer (NK) cells are cytotoxic innate lymphocytes that play an important role in immune surveillance. The development, maturation and effector functions of NK cells are orchestrated by the T-box transcription factor T-bet, whose expression is induced by cytokines such as IFN-γ, IL-12, IL-15 and IL-21 through the respective cytokine receptors and downstream JAK/STATs or PI3K-AKT-mTORC1 signaling pathways. In this review, we aim to discuss the expression and regulation of T-bet in NK cells, the role of T-bet in mouse NK cell development, maturation, and function, as well as the role of T-bet in acute, chronic infection, inflammation, autoimmune diseases and tumors.

Bone Marrow Soluble Immunological Mediators as Clinical Prognosis Biomarkers in B-Cell Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia Patients Undergoing Induction Therapy

Different factors are used as predictors of unfavorable clinical outcomes in B-Cell Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia (B-ALL) patients. However, new prognostic markers are needed in order to allow treatment to be more accurate, providing better results and an improved quality of life. In the present study, we have characterized the profile of bone marrow soluble mediators as possible biomarkers for risk group stratification and minimal residual disease (MRD) detection during induction therapy. The study featured 47 newly-diagnosed B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (B-ALL) patients that were categorized into subgroups during induction therapy according to risk stratification at day 15 [Low Risk (LR), Low Risk increasing to High Risk (LR→HR) and High Risk (HR)] and the MRD detection on day 35 (MRD^(-) and MRD⁽⁺⁾). Soluble immunological mediators (CXCL8, CCL2, CXCL9, CCL5, CXCL10, IL-1β, IL-6, TNF, IFN-γ, IL-17A, IL-4, IL-5, IL-10 and IL-2) were quantified by cytometric bead array and ELISA. Our findings demonstrated that increased levels of CCL5, IFN-γ and IL-2 at baseline appeared as putative candidates of good prognosis in LR and MRD^(-) subgroups, while CCL2 was identified as a consistent late biomarker associated with poor prognosis, which was observed on D35 in HR and MRD⁽⁺⁾ subgroups. Furthermore, apparently controversial data regarding IL-17A and TNF did not allow the definition of these molecules as either positive or negative biomarkers. These results contribute to the search for novel prognostic indicators, and indicate the potential of bone marrow soluble mediators in prognosis and follow-up of B-ALL patients during induction therapy.

The role of high-density lipoprotein in the regulation of the immune response: implications for atherosclerosis and autoimmunity

Inflammation and immune dysfunction have been increasingly recognized as crucial mechanisms in atherogenesis. Modifications in cell lipid metabolism, plasma dyslipidaemia and particularly low high-density lipoprotein (HDL) levels occur both in atherosclerosis and in autoimmune rheumatic diseases (which are strongly associated with an increased risk of atherosclerosis), suggesting the presence of a crucial link. HDL, the plasma lipoprotein responsible for reverse cholesterol transport, is known for its several protective effects in the context of atherosclerosis. Among these, HDL immunomodulatory effects are possibly the less understood. Through the efflux of cholesterol from plasma cell membranes with the consequent disruption of lipid rafts and the interaction with the cholesterol transporters present in the plasma membrane, HDL affects both the innate and adaptive immune responses. Animal and human studies have demonstrated a predominance of HDL anti-inflammatory effects, despite some pro-inflammatory actions having also been reported. The HDL role on the modulation of the immune response is further suggested by the detection of low levels together with a dysfunctional HDL in patients with autoimmune diseases. Here, we review the current knowledge of the immune mechanisms of atherosclerosis and the modulatory effects HDL may have on them.

A Computational Approach to Modeling an Antagonistic Angiogenic VEGFR1-IL2 Fusion Protein for Cancer Therapy

In cancer treatment, immunotherapy has great potential for improving the prognosis of patients with hematologic and solid malignancies. In this study, various bioinformatics tools and servers were used to design an antiangiogenic fusion protein. After comprehensive evaluation, an antiangiogenic fusion protein was designed using a soluble extracellular domain of human vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 1 (sVEGFR-1) and human interleukin-2 (IL-2) joined by a flexible linker. The final construct was composed of 875 amino acids. The secondary structure of the fusion protein, obtained by CFSSP, PSIPRED, and SOPMA tools, consisted of 14.17% helices, 29.71% extended strands, 4.69% beta turns and 51.43% random coils. Tertiary structure prediction by Raptor X showed that the fusion protein comprises 3 domains with 875 modeled amino acids, out of which 26 positions (2%) were considered disordered. The Ramachandran plot revealed 89.3%, 7.1%, and 3.6% amino acid residues in favored, allowed, and outlier regions, respectively. Physical features of the Molecular Dynamic (MD) simulated system such as root mean square deviation, root mean square fluctuation, solvent-on hand surface region, and radius of gyration identified the fusion construct as a stable and compact protein with few fluctuations in its overall structure. Docking of the fusion protein showed that interaction between sVEGFR-1/VEGFA and IL-2/IL-2R still exists. In silico analysis revealed that the fusion protein comprising IL-2 and sVEGFR-1 has stable structure and the selected linker can efficiently separate the two domains. These observations may be helpful in determining protein stability prior to protein expression.

Inflammation in Asthma Pathogenesis: Role of T cells, Macrophages, Epithelial Cells and Type 2 Inflammation

Asthma is a chronic disease with abnormal inflammatory and immunological responses. The disease initiated by antigens in subjects with genetic susceptibility. However, environmental factors play a role in the initiation and exacerbation of asthma attack. Asthma is T helper 2 (Th2)-cell-mediated disease. Recent studies indicated that asthma is not a single disease entity, but it is with multiple phenotypes and endotypes. The pathophysiological changes in asthma included a series of subsequent continuous vicious circle of cellular activation contributed to induction of chemokines and cytokines that potentiate inflammation. The heterogeneity of asthma influenced the treatment response. The asthma pathogenesis driven by varied set of cells such as eosinophils, basophils, neutrophils, mast cells, macrophages, epithelial cells and T cells. In this review the role of T cells, macrophage, and epithelial cells are discussed.

Anemia of Chronic Disease in Patients With Cardiovascular Disease

Objective: Anemia is often found in patients with coronary artery disease (CAD) or acute coronary syndrome (ACS) and related to disease severity. Our study investigated the relationship between anemia, iron homeostasis and inflammation in CAD and examined their influence on the outcome of patients. Patients and Methods: Markers of immune activation (neopterin, interleukin [IL]-12, IL-6, high sensitive C-reactive protein (hsCRP), fibrinogen, serum amyloid A [SAA]) and iron metabolism (ferritin, transferrin saturation, hemoglobin) were determined in 2,082 patients (68.7 % men, median age 63 years) from the Ludwigshafen Risk and cardiovascular Health (LURIC) cohort. Patients were followed-up for a median of 9.81 years. Results: 960 patients (46.1 %) presented with chronic CAD, 645 patients (31.0 %) had an ACS, and 477 patients (22.9 %) presented with no CAD in coronary angiography (CAG). Anemia (n = 357, 17.1 %) was associated with disease severity (reflected by more progressed stenosis in CAG, CCS, and NYHA classes, and a lower LV-EF), a higher cardio-cerebrovascular event rate and higher levels of inflammatory markers. Interestingly, anemia was only predictive for an adverse outcome in patients with elevated inflammatory markers. Accordingly, anemia of chronic disease (ACD) was associated with a higher cardio-cerebrovascular event-rate in the subsequent 2 years as compared to patients with other types of anemia or without anemia (14.3 vs. 6.1 vs. 4.0%, p < 0.001). Conclusions: This study confirms that anemia and immune activation are strongly related to cardiovascular disease progression and an adverse outcome. Our data suggest that the association of anemia with disease severity and outcome might mainly be due to underlying inflammation.

CD4 + T cells in inflammatory diseases : pathogenic T-helper cells and the CD69-Myl9 system

CD4 + T cells direct immune responses against infectious microorganisms but are also involved in the pathogenesis of inflammatory diseases. In the last two to three decades, various researchers have identified and characterized several functional CD4 + T cell subsets, including T-helper 1 (Th1), Th2, Th9 and Th17 cells and regulatory T (Treg) cells. In this mini-review, we introduce the concept of pathogenic Th cells that induce inflammatory diseases with a model of disease induction by a population of pathogenic Th cells; "pathogenic Th population disease-induction model". We will focus on Th2 cells that induce allergic airway inflammation-pathogenic Th2 cells (Tpath2 cells)-and discuss the nature of Tpath2 cells that shape the pathology of chronic inflammatory diseases. Various Tpath2 cell subsets have been identified and their unique features are summarized in mouse and human systems. Second, we will discuss how Th cells migrate and are maintained in chronic inflammatory lesions. We propose a model known as the "CD69-Myl9 system". CD69 is a cell surface molecule expressed on activated T cells and interaction with its ligand myosin light chain 9 (Myl9) is required for the induction of inflammatory diseases. Myl9 molecules in the small vessels of inflamed lungs may play a crucial role in the migration of activated T cells into inflammatory lesions. Emerging evidence may provide new insight into the pathogenesis of chronic inflammatory diseases and contribute to the development of new therapeutic strategies for intractable inflammatory disorders.

Diversity of T Helper and Regulatory T Cells and Their Contribution to the Pathogenesis of Allergic Diseases

T helper (Th) and regulatory T (Treg) cells represent important effectors of adaptive immunity. They mediate communication between the immune system and tissue sites and thereby coordinate effective defense against environmental threats or maintain tolerance, respectively. Since the discovery of two prototypic T helper cells, Th1 and Th2, additional phenotypic and functional distinct subsets have been described ranging from Th17, Th22, Th9, and T follicular helper cells. The same holds true for regulatory T cells that represent a family with functionally distinct subsets characterized by co-expression of the transcription factors T-bet, Gata3, or RORγt. Here, we summarize the current knowledge on differentiation and function of T helper and regulatory T cell subsets and discuss their lineage stability versus plasticity towards other subsets. In addition, we highlight the direct and indirect contribution of each subset to the pathology of allergies and indicate novel therapies for specific targeting the effector functions of T helper and regulatory T cells.

Carbazole Derivatives as STAT Inhibitors: An Overview

The carbazole class is made up of heterocyclically structured compounds first isolated from coal tar. Their structural motif is preponderant in different synthetic materials and naturally occurring alkaloids extracted from the taxonomically related higher plants of the genus Murraya, Glycosmis, and Clausena from the Rutaceae family. Concerning the biological activity of these compounds, many research groups have assessed their antiproliferative action of carbazoles on different types of tumoral cells, such as breast, cervical, ovarian, hepatic, oral cavity, and small-cell lung cancer, and underlined their potential effects against psoriasis. One of the principal mechanisms likely involved in these effects is the ability of carbazoles to target the JAK/STATs pathway, considered essential for cell differentiation, proliferation, development, apoptosis, and inflammation. In this review, we report the studies carried out, over the years, useful to synthesize compounds with carbazole moiety designed to target these kinds of kinases.

Immune phase transition under steroid treatment

The steroid hormone glucocorticoid (GC) is a well-known immunosuppressant that controls T-cell-mediated adaptive immune response. In this work, we have developed a minimal kinetic network model of T-cell regulation connecting relevant experimental and clinical studies to quantitatively understand the long-term effects of GC on pro-inflammatory T-cell (T_{pro}) and anti-inflammatory T-cell (T_{anti}) dynamics. Due to the antagonistic relation between these two types of T cells, their long-term steady-state population ratio helps us to characterize three classified immune regulations: (i) weak ([T_{pro}]>[T_{anti}]), (ii) strong ([T_{pro}]<[T_{anti}]), and (iii) moderate ([T_{pro}]∼[T_{anti}]), holding the characteristic bistability. In addition to the differences in their long-term steady-state outcome, each immune regulation shows distinct dynamical phases. In the presteady state, a characteristic intermediate stationary phase is observed to develop only in the moderate regulation regime. In the medicinal field, the resting time in this stationary phase is distinguished as a clinical latent period. GC dose-dependent steady-state analysis shows an optimal level of GC to drive a phase transition from the weak or autoimmune prone to the moderate regulation regime. Subsequently, the presteady state clinical latent period tends to diverge near that optimal GC level where [T_{pro}]:[T_{anti}] is highly balanced. The GC-optimized elongated stationary phase explains the rationale behind the requirement of long-term immune diagnostics, especially when long-term GC-based chemotherapeutics and other immunosuppressive drugs are administrated. Moreover, our study reveals GC sensitivity of clinical latent period, which might serve as an early warning signal in diagnosing different immune phases and determining immune phasewise steroid treatment.

A quinazoline-based bromodomain inhibitor, CN210, ameliorates indomethacin-induced ileitis in mice by inhibiting inflammatory cytokine expression

Inhibitors of bromodomain and extra-terminal motif (BET) proteins are emerging epigenetic therapeutics that suppress gene expressions that drive cancer and inflammation. The present study examined anti-inflammatory effects of a quinazoline-based BET inhibitor, CN210, in a murine ileitis model. CN210 was given orally 30 min before and 24 h after a subcutaneous administration of indomethacin. Macroscopic and histological evidences of ileitis, mucosal myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity and cytokine expressions were evaluated 48 h after the indomethacin administration. To further characterize the anti-inflammatory pathways modulated by CN210, its effects on RAW264 cells treated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) were investigated. Competitive ligand binding and docking studies of CN210 to CREB-binding protein (CBP) and p300 were also performed. Oral administration of CN210 significantly reduced the severity of ileitis, normalized both proinflammatory MPO activity and concomitant cytokine expressions induced by indomethacin administration. Furthermore, CN210 attenuated the expression of cytokines and reversed the activation of nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) and mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK) induced by LPS. Competitive ligand binding assays showed that CN210 bound to the bromodomains of two paralogous histone acetyltransferases, CBP and p300, in addition to the bromodomains of BET proteins. Docking studies of CN210 to the bromodomains of CBP and p300 showed a similarity to the binding mode of SGC-CBP30, a specific CBP/p300 inhibitor. CN210 ameliorates indomethacin-induced ileitis by inhibiting the expression of inflammatory cytokines through the attenuation of NF-κB and MAPK pathways. CN210 thus represents a new mode of therapy for non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug-induced ileitis and inflammatory bowel disease.

Exploring the Biomaterial-Induced Secretome: Physical Bone Substitute Characteristics Influence the Cytokine Expression of Macrophages

In addition to their chemical composition various physical properties of synthetic bone substitute materials have been shown to influence their regenerative potential and to influence the expression of cytokines produced by monocytes, the key cell-type responsible for tissue reaction to biomaterials in vivo. In the present study both the regenerative potential and the inflammatory response to five bone substitute materials all based on β-tricalcium phosphate (β-TCP), but which differed in their physical characteristics (i.e., granule size, granule shape and porosity) were analyzed for their effects on monocyte cytokine expression. To determine the effects of the physical characteristics of the different materials, the proliferation of primary human osteoblasts growing on the materials was analyzed. To determine the immunogenic effects of the different materials on human peripheral blood monocytes, cells cultured on the materials were evaluated for the expression of 14 pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines, i.e., IL-6, IL-10, IL-1β, VEGF, RANTES, IL-12p40, I-CAM, IL-4, V-CAM, TNF-α, GM-CSF, MIP-1α, Il-8 and MCP-1 using a Bio-Plex^® Multiplex System. The granular shape of bone substitutes showed a significant influence on the osteoblast proliferation. Moreover, smaller pore sizes, round granular shape and larger granule size increased the expression of GM-CSF, RANTES, IL-10 and IL-12 by monocytes, while polygonal shape and the larger pore sizes increased the expression of V-CAM. The physical characteristics of a bone biomaterial can influence the proliferation rate of osteoblasts and has an influence on the cytokine gene expression of monocytes in vitro. These results indicate that the physical structure of a biomaterial has a significant effect of how cells interact with the material. Thus, specific characteristics of a material may strongly affect the regenerative potential in vivo.

Novel Vaccine Technologies in Veterinary Medicine: A Herald to Human Medicine Vaccines

The success of inactivated and live-attenuated vaccines has enhanced livestock productivity, promoted food security, and attenuated the morbidity and mortality of several human, animal, and zoonotic diseases. However, these traditional vaccine technologies are not without fault. The efficacy of inactivated vaccines can be suboptimal with particular pathogens and safety concerns arise with live-attenuated vaccines. Additionally, the rate of emerging infectious diseases continues to increase and with that the need to quickly deploy new vaccines. Unfortunately, first generation vaccines are not conducive to such urgencies. Within the last three decades, veterinary medicine has spearheaded the advancement in novel vaccine development to circumvent several of the flaws associated with classical vaccines. These third generation vaccines, including DNA, RNA and recombinant viral-vector vaccines, induce both humoral and cellular immune response, are economically manufactured, safe to use, and can be utilized to differentiate infected from vaccinated animals. The present article offers a review of commercially available novel vaccine technologies currently utilized in companion animal, food animal, and wildlife disease control.

From Dysbiosis to Healthy Skin: Major Contributions of Cutibacterium acnes to Skin Homeostasis

Cutibacterium acnes is the most abundant bacterium living in human, healthy and sebum-rich skin sites, such as the face and the back. This bacterium is adapted to this specific environment and therefore could have a major role in local skin homeostasis. To assess the role of this bacterium in healthy skin, this review focused on (i) the abundance of C. acnes in the skin microbiome of healthy skin and skin disorders, (ii) its major contributions to human skin health, and (iii) skin commensals used as probiotics to alleviate skin disorders. The loss of C. acnes relative abundance and/or clonal diversity is frequently associated with skin disorders such as acne, atopic dermatitis, rosacea, and psoriasis. C. acnes, and the diversity of its clonal population, contributes actively to the normal biophysiological skin functions through, for example, lipid modulation, niche competition and oxidative stress mitigation. Compared to gut probiotics, limited dermatological studies have investigated skin probiotics with skin commensal strains, highlighting their unexplored potential.

Recent advances in understanding the Th1/Th2 effector choice

For over 35 years since Mosmann and Coffman proposed the seminal “type 1 T helper (Th1)/type 2 T helper (Th2)” hypothesis in 1986, the immunological community has appreciated that naïve CD4 T cells need to make important decisions upon their activation, namely to differentiate towards a Th1, Th2, Th17 (interleukin-17-producing T helper), follicular T helper (Tfh), or regulatory T cell (Treg) fate to orchestrate a variety of adaptive immune responses. The major molecular underpinnings of the Th1/Th2 effector fate choice had been initially characterized using excellent reductionist in vitro culture systems, through which the transcription factors T-bet and GATA3 were identified as the master regulators for the differentiation of Th1 and Th2 cells, respectively. However, Th1/Th2 cell differentiation and their cellular heterogeneity are usually determined by a combinatorial expression of multiple transcription factors, particularly in vivo, where dendritic cell (DC) and innate lymphoid cell (ILC) subsets can also influence T helper lineage choices. In addition, inflammatory cytokines that are capable of inducing Th17 cell differentiation are also found to be induced during typical Th1- or Th2-related immune responses, resulting in an alternative differentiation pathway, transiting from a Th17 cell phenotype towards Th1 or Th2 cells. In this review, we will discuss the recent advances in the field, focusing on some new players in the transcriptional network, contributions of DCs and ILCs, and alternative differentiation pathways towards understanding the Th1/Th2 effector choice in vivo.

Early immune response in large yellow croaker (Larimichthys crocea) after immunization with oral vaccine

Mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs) have been used in the field of biomedicine as antigen carriers and adjuvants for protective antigens. In the present study, an oral nanovaccine against Vibrio alginolyticus was prepared employing MSNs as carriers. The uptake of the dihydrolipoamide dehydrogenase (DLDH) antigens in the intestine of large yellow croaker was evaluated using an immunohistochemistry assay. Additionally, the effects of the nanovaccine on the early immune response in large yellow croaker were investigated via oral vaccination. The presence of the antigens was detected in the mucosa and lamina propria of the foregut, midgut, and hindgut of large yellow croaker at 3 h following oral immunization. The expression levels of cytokines (i.e., lysozyme, IFN-γ, IFITM, TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-2, IL-4, IL-10, and IL-13) in the intestine, spleen, and head kidney tissues of large yellow croaker before and after the immune challenge were determined via RT-qPCR assay. The obtained results revealed that the expression levels of lysozyme, IFN-γ, IFITM, TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-2, IL-4, IL-10, and IL-13 in the intestine and head kidney of the vaccinated large yellow croaker, as well as the expression of lysozyme, IL-1β, and IL-10 in the spleen, exhibited time-dependent oscillation regulation patterns. Notably, the nanovaccine immunization could induce early (6 h) and high expression of IFN-γ in the spleen and kidney tissues after the bacterial infection. The current study supplements the available data on the early immune response to fish nanovaccines. It also provides a valuable theoretical basis for the future development of large yellow croaker oral vaccines.

Computational Identification of Master Regulators Influencing Trypanotolerance in Cattle

African Animal Trypanosomiasis (AAT) is transmitted by the tsetse fly which carries pathogenic trypanosomes in its saliva, thus causing debilitating infection to livestock health. As the disease advances, a multistage progression process is observed based on the progressive clinical signs displayed in the host’s body. Investigation of genes expressed with regular monotonic patterns (known as Monotonically Expressed Genes (MEGs)) and of their master regulators can provide important clue for the understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying the AAT disease. For this purpose, we analysed MEGs for three tissues (liver, spleen and lymph node) of two cattle breeds, namely trypanosusceptible Boran and trypanotolerant N’Dama. Our analysis revealed cattle breed-specific master regulators which are highly related to distinguish the genetic programs in both cattle breeds. Especially the master regulators MYC and DBP found in this study, seem to influence the immune responses strongly, thereby susceptibility and trypanotolerance of Boran and N’Dama respectively. Furthermore, our pathway analysis also bolsters the crucial roles of these master regulators. Taken together, our findings provide novel insights into breed-specific master regulators which orchestrate the regulatory cascades influencing the level of trypanotolerance in cattle breeds and thus could be promising drug targets for future therapeutic interventions.

Nanodrug with dual-sensitivity to tumor microenvironment for immuno-sonodynamic anti-cancer therapy

Although a combination with photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a potential means to improve the immune checkpoint blockade (ICB)-based anticancer immunotherapy, this strategy is subjected to the extremely poor light penetration in melanoma. Herein, we develop a lipid (LP)-based micellar nanocarrier encapsulating sonosensitizer chlorin e6 (Ce6) in the core, conjugating anti-PD-L1 antibody (aPD-L1) to the interlayer through MMP-2-cleavable peptide, and bearing a PEG coating sheddable at low pH value (≈6.5) of tumor microenvironment. The unique nanocarrier design allows a tumor-targeting delivery to activate the anti-tumor immunity and meanwhile to reduce immune-related adverse effects (irAEs). Moreover, a sonodynamic therapy (SDT) is triggerable by using ultrasonic insonation to produce tumor-killing reactive oxygen species (ROS), thereby bypassing the poor light penetration which restricts PDT in melanoma. A combination of SDT with aPD-L1 immunotherapy effectively promotes tumor infiltration and activation of cytotoxic T cells, which resulted in robust anti-cancer immunity and long-term immune memory to effectively suppress melanoma growth and postoperative recurrence. This strategy for tumor-targeting codelivery of immune checkpoint inhibitors and SDT agents could be readily extended to other tumor types for better immunotherapeutic outcome and reduced irAEs.

High-flow hydrogen inhalation might suppresses the immune function of middle-aged participants: a self-controlled study

Hydrogen inhalation therapy has been proven to be safe and effective in disease treatment in multiple clinical reports, but the gas flow rates used in different studies vary greatly. Since there is no upper limit for the safe concentration of hydrogen, this study tested the effects of high-flow (not high concentration) hydrogen inhalation on immune function. From October 2019 to January 2020, 20 adult participants (31-60 years old) were enrolled in a self-controlled study to check the immune function in peripheral blood lymphocyte subsets before and after a 2-week hydrogen inhalation protocol. The participants inhaled hydrogen for 2 or 4 hours each day. After 2 weeks of hydrogen inhalation, statistically significant changes were observed in follicular helper T cells, helper and cytotoxic T cells, natural killer and natural killer T cells, and gamma delta T cells, generally suggesting a decrease in their proportions. These results show that high-flow hydrogen inhalation has an inhibitory effect on the immune function of healthy participants. The study protocol received ethical approval from the Ethics Committee of Fuda Cancer Hospital, Jinan University on December 7, 2018 (approval No. Fuda20181207).

Immunomodulatory effects of mesenchymal stem cells for the treatment of cardiac allograft rejection

Heart transplantation continues to be the gold standard clinical intervention to treat patients with end-stage heart failure. However, there are major complications associated with this surgical procedure that reduce the survival prognosis of heart transplant patients, including allograft rejection, malignancies, infections, and other complications that arise from the use of broad-spectrum immunosuppression drugs. Recent studies have demonstrated the use of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) against allotransplantation rejection in both in vitro and in vivo settings due to their immunomodulatory properties. Therefore, utilization of MSCs provides new and exciting strategies to improve heart transplantation and potentially reduce the use of broad-spectrum immunosuppression drugs while alleviating allograft rejection. In this review, we will discuss the current research on the mechanisms of cardiac allograft rejection, the physiological and immunological characteristics of MSCs, the effects of MSCs on the immune system, and immunomodulation of heart transplantation by MSCs.

IL-2-Agonist-Induced IFN-γ Exacerbates Systemic Anaphylaxis in Food Allergen-Sensitized Mice

Food allergies are common, costly and potentially life-threatening disorders. They are driven by Th2, but inhibited by Th1 reactions. There is also evidence indicating that IL-2 agonist treatment inhibits allergic sensitization through expansion of regulatory T cells. Here, we tested the impact of an IL-2 agonist in a novel model for food allergy to hen´s egg in mice sensitized without artificial adjuvants. Prophylactic IL-2 agonist treatment expanded Treg populations and inhibited allergen-specific sensitization. However, IL-2 agonist treatment of already sensitized mice increased mast cell responses and allergic anaphylaxis upon allergen re-challenge. These effects depended on allergen-specific IgE and were mediated through IFN-γ, as shown by IgE transfer and blockade of IFN-γ with monoclonal antibodies. These results suggest that although shifting the allergic reaction toward a Treg/Th1 response inhibits allergic sensitization, the prototypic Th1 cytokine IFN-γ promotes mast cell activation and allergen-induced anaphylaxis in individuals that are already IgE-sensitized. Hence, while a Th1 response can prevent the development of food allergy, IFN-γ has the ability to exacerbate already established food allergy.

Macrophages in Organ Transplantation

Current immunosuppressive therapy has led to excellent short-term survival rates in organ transplantation. However, long-term graft survival rates are suboptimal, and a vast number of allografts are gradually lost in the clinic. An increasing number of animal and clinical studies have demonstrated that monocytes and macrophages play a pivotal role in graft rejection, as these mononuclear phagocytic cells recognize alloantigens and trigger an inflammatory cascade that activate the adaptive immune response. Moreover, recent studies suggest that monocytes acquire a feature of memory recall response that is associated with a potent immune response. This form of memory is called “trained immunity,” and it is retained by mechanisms of epigenetic and metabolic changes in innate immune cells after exposure to particular ligands, which have a direct impact in allograft rejection. In this review article, we highlight the role of monocytes and macrophages in organ transplantation and summarize therapeutic approaches to promote tolerance through manipulation of monocytes and macrophages. These strategies may open new therapeutic opportunities to increase long-term transplant survival rates in the clinic.

The main bioactive compounds of Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi. for alleviation of inflammatory cytokines: A comprehensive review

Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi., a plant used in traditional Chinese medicine, has multiple biological activities, including anti-inflammatory, antiviral, antitumor, antioxidant, and antibacterial effects, and can be used to treat respiratory tract infections, pneumonia, colitis, hepatitis, and allergic diseases. The main active substances of S. baicalensis, baicalein, baicalin, wogonin, wogonoside, and oroxylin A, can act directly on immune cells such as lymphocytes, macrophages, mast cells, dendritic cells, monocytes, and neutrophils, and inhibit the production of the inflammatory cytokines IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, and TNF-α, and other inflammatory mediators such as nitric oxide, prostaglandins, leukotrienes, and reactive oxygen species. The molecular mechanisms underlying the immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory effects of the active compounds of S. baicalensis include downregulation of toll-like receptors, activation of the Nrf2 and PPAR signaling pathways, and inhibition of the nuclear thioredoxin system and inflammation-associated pathways such as those of MAPK, Akt, NFκB, and JAK-STAT. Given that in addition to the downregulation of cytokine production, the active constituents of S. baicalensis also have antiviral and antibacterial effects, they may be more promising candidate therapeutics for the prevention of infection-related cytokine storms than are drugs having only antimicrobial or anti-inflammatory activities.

T-cell dysregulation in COVID-19

T-cells play key roles in immunity to COVID-19 as well as the development of severe disease. T-cell immunity to COVID-19 is mediated through differentiated CD4⁺ T-cells and cytotoxic CD8⁺ T-cells, although their differentiation is often atypical and ambiguous in COVID-19 and single cell dynamics of key genes need to be characterized. Notably, T-cells are dysregulated in severe COVID-19 patients, although their molecular features are still yet to be fully revealed. Importantly, it is not clear which T-cell activities are beneficial and protective and which ones can contribute to the development of severe COVID-19. In this article, we examine the latest evidence and discuss the key features of T-cell responses in COVID-19, showing how T-cells are dysregulated in severe COVID-19 patients. Particularly, we highlight the impairment of FOXP3 induction in CD4⁺ T-cells and how the impaired FOXP3 expression can lead to the differentiation of abnormally activated (hyperactivated) T-cells and the dysregulated T-cell responses in severe patients. Furthermore, we characterise the feature of hyperactivated T-cells, showing their potential contribution to T-cell dysregulation and immune-mediated tissue destruction (immunopathology) in COVID-19.

Human Peripheral Blood Dendritic Cell and T Cell Activation by Codium fragile Polysaccharide

Natural polysaccharides exhibit an immunostimulatory effect with low toxicity in humans and animals. It has shown that polysaccharide extracted from Codium fragile (CFP) induces anti-cancer immunity by dendritic cell (DC) activation, while the effect of CFP has not examined in the human immune cells. In this study, we found that CFP promoted the upregulation of CD80, CD83 and CD86 and major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I and II in human monocyte-derived dendritic cells (MDDCs). In addition, CFP induced the production of proinflammatory cytokines in MDDCs. Moreover, CFP directly induced the activation of Blood Dendritic Cell Antigen (BDCA)1⁺ and BDCA3⁺ subsets of human peripheral blood DCs (PBDCs). The CFP-stimulated BDCA1⁺ PBDCs further promoted activation and proliferation of syngeneic CD4 T cells. The CFP-activated BDCA3⁺ PBDCs activated syngeneic CD8 T cells, which produced cytotoxic mediators, namely, cytotoxic T lymphocytes. These results suggest that CFP may be a candidate molecule for enhancing immune activation in humans.

Inflammatory cytokines in the pathogenesis of cardiovascular disease and cancer

Inflammatory cytokines are highly inducible small glycoproteins or regulatory proteins of low molecular weight secreted by different cell types. They regulate intercellular communication and mediate a number of physiological functions in the human immune system. Numerous prospective studies report that inflammatory cytokines strongly predict coronary artery disease, myocardial infarction, heart failure and other adverse cardiac events. Inflammatory cascade is believed to be a causative factor in the development of atherosclerotic process. Several aspects of atherogenesis are accelerated by cytokines. This article provides an overall overview of current understanding of cytokines in various cardiovascular events. Besides, inflammatory cytokines trigger cellular events that can induce malignancy and carcinogenesis. Elevated expression of several cytokines such as interleukin-1, interleukin-6, interleukin-10, tumor necrosis factor-α, macrophage migration inhibitory factor and transforming growth factor-β are involved in tumor initiation and progression. Thus, they exert a pivotal role in cancer pathogenesis. This review highlights the role of several cytokines in various events of tumorigenesis. Actually, this article summarizes the contributions of cytokines in the pathogenesis of cardiovascular disease and cancer.

Cytokines and transcription factors in the differentiation of CD4+ T helper cell subsets and induction of tissue inflammation and autoimmunity

CD4⁺T helper (Th) cells are critical in homeostasis and host defense but are also central to the development of various autoimmune diseases if they become dysregulated. Specifically, pathogenic Th1 and Th17 cells contribute to autoimmune inflammation whereas Treg and Tr1 cells are important for maintaining immune tolerance and resolution of inflammation, respectively. Cytokines trigger signaling pathways in naive T cells that induce lineage-defining transcription factors that direct their differentiation into the distinct T helper cell subsets. It has become clear that the differentiation of T helper cells is not only influenced by the cytokine milieu but also by their metabolic state, cues from the microbiota and the tissue they reside in. A comprehensive understanding how these various stimuli contribute to T helper cell differentiation and phenotype could potentially provide novel ways for therapeutic intervention in autoimmunity and tissue inflammation.

Characterization of amoxicillin and clavulanic acid specific T-cell clones from patients with immediate drug hypersensitivity

BACKGROUND

Betalactam (BL) antibiotics are the most common cause of drug hypersensitivity. Amoxicillin (AX), which is often prescribed alongside clavulanic acid (Clav), is the most common elicitor. The aim of this study was to determine whether AX and Clav-responsive T-cells are detectable in patients with immediate hypersensitivity to AX-Clav, to assess whether these T-cells display the same specificity as that detected in skin and provocation testing, and to explore T-cell activation pathways.

METHODS

Drug-specific T-cell clones were generated from immediate hypersensitive patients´ blood by serial dilution and repetitive mitogen stimulation. Antigen specificity was assessed by measurement of proliferation and cytokine release. CD4+ /CD8+ phenotype and chemokine receptor expression were analyzed by flow cytometry.

RESULTS

110 AX-specific and 96 Clav-specific T-cell clones were generated from seven patients with positive skin test to either AX or Clav. Proliferation of AX- and Clav-specific clones was dose-dependent, and no cross-reactivity was observed. AX- and Clav-specific clones required antigen-presenting cells to proliferate, and drugs were presented to CD4+ and CD8+ T-cells by MHC class-II and I, respectively. A higher secretion of IL-13 and IL-5 was detected in presence of the culprit drug compared with the alternative drug. Clones expressed CD69, CCR4, CXCR3, and CCR10.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study details the antigen specificity and phenotype of T-cell clones generated from patients with AX-Clav-induced immediate hypersensitivity diagnosed by positive skin test. AX- and Clav-specific clones were generated from patients irrespective of whether AX or Clav was the culprit, although differences in cytokine secretion were observed.

Semaphorin4A-Plexin D1 Axis Induces Th2 and Th17 While Represses Th1 Skewing in an Autocrine Manner

Semaphorin (Sema)4A is a transmembrane glycoprotein that is elevated in several autoimmune diseases such as systemic sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis and multiple sclerosis. Sema4A has a key role in the regulation of Thelper Th1 and Th2 differentiation and we recently demonstrated that CD4⁺ T cell activation induces the expression of Sema4A. However, the autocrine role of Sema4A on Th cell differentiation remains unknown. Naïve Th cells from healthy controls were cell sorted and differentiated into Th1, Th2 and Th17 in the presence or absence of a neutralizing antibody against the Sema4A receptor PlexinD1. Gene expression was determined by quantitative PCR and protein expression by ELISA and flow cytometry. We found that the expression of Sema4A is induced during Th1, Th2 and Th17 differentiation. PlexinD1 neutralization induced the differentiation of Th1 cells, while reduced the Th2 and Th17 skewing. These effects were associated with an upregulation of the transcription factor T-bet by Th1 cells, and to downregulation of GATA3 and RORγt in Th2 cells and Th17 cells, respectively. Finally, PlexinD1 neutralization regulates the systemic sclerosis patients serum-induced cytokine production by CD4⁺ T cells. Therefore, the autocrine Sema4A-PlexinD1 signaling acts as a negative regulator of Th1 skewing but is a key mediator on Th2 and Th17 differentiation, suggesting that dysregulation of this axis might be implicated in the pathogenesis of CD4⁺ T cell-mediated diseases.

IL-2/IL-7-inducible factors pioneer the path to T cell differentiation in advance of lineage-defining factors

When dormant naïve T cells first become activated by antigen-presenting cells, they express the autocrine growth factor IL-2 which transforms them into rapidly dividing effector T cells. During this process, hundreds of genes undergo epigenetic reprogramming for efficient activation, and also for potential reactivation after they return to quiescence as memory T cells. However, the relative contributions of IL-2 and T cell receptor signaling to this process are unknown. Here, we show that IL-2 signaling is required to maintain open chromatin at hundreds of gene regulatory elements, many of which control subsequent stimulus-dependent alternative pathways of T cell differentiation. We demonstrate that IL-2 activates binding of AP-1 and STAT5 at sites that can subsequently bind lineage-determining transcription factors, depending upon what other external factors exist in the local T cell environment. Once established, priming can also be maintained by the stroma-derived homeostatic cytokine IL-7, and priming diminishes if Il7r is subsequently deleted in vivo. Hence, IL-2 is not just a growth factor; it lays the foundation for T cell differentiation and immunological memory.

The C-C Chemokine Receptor Type 4 Is an Immunomodulatory Target of Hydroxychloroquine

The emergence of a severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2; COVID-19) in China, reported to the World Health Organization on December 31, 2019, has led to a large global pandemic and is a major public health issue. As a result, there are more than 200 clinical trials of COVID-19 treatments or vaccines that are either ongoing or recruiting patients. One potential therapy that has garnered international attention is hydroxychloroquine; a potent immunomodulatory agent FDA-approved for the treatment of numerous inflammatory and autoimmune conditions, including malaria, lupus, and rheumatoid arthritis. Hydroxychloroquine has demonstrated promise in vitro and is currently under investigation in clinical trials for the treatment of COVID-19. Despite an abundance of empirical data, the mechanism(s) involved in the immunomodulatory activity of hydroxychloroquine have not been characterized. Using the unbiased chemical similarity ensemble approach (SEA), we identified C-C chemokine receptor type 4 (CCR4) as an immunomodulatory target of hydroxychloroquine. The crystal structure of CCR4 was selected for molecular docking studies using the SwissDock modeling software. In silico, hydroxychloroquine interacts with Thr-189 within the CCR4 active site, presumably blocking endogenous ligand binding. However, the CCR4 antagonists compound 18a and K777 outperformed hydroxychloroquine in silico, demonstrating energetically favorable binding characteristics. Hydroxychloroquine may subject COVID-19 patients to QT-prolongation, increasing the risk of sudden cardiac death. The FDA-approved CCR4 antagonist mogalizumab is not known to increase the risk of QT prolongation and may serve as a viable alternative to hydroxychloroquine. Results from this report introduce additional FDA-approved drugs that warrant investigation for therapeutic use in the treatment of COVID-19.

Effects of thermal therapy combined with blue light-emitting diode irradiation on trimellitic anhydride-induced acute contact hypersensitivity mouse model

BACKGROUD

The biological effect of phototherapy, which involves using visible light for disease treatment, has attracted recent attention, especially in dermatological practice. Light-emitting diode (LED) irradiation increases dermal collagen level and reduces inflammation. It has been suggested that thermal therapy and LED irradiation can modulate inflammatory processes. However, little is known about the molecular mechanism of the anti-inflammatory effects of thermal therapy and LED irradiation.

OBJECTIVE

This study was to determine the anti-inflammatory effect of thermal therapy combined with LED irradiation on trimellitic anhydride (TMA)-induced acute contact hypersensitivity (CHS) mouse model.

METHODS

Twenty-four BALB/c mice were randomly divided into the following groups: Vehicle group, TMA group, TMA + alternating thermal therapy group (Alternating group), and TMA + alternating + LED group (LED group). Ear swelling was measured based on the thickness of ear before and after each TMA challenge. Vascular permeability was evaluated by the extravasation of Evans blue dye. Serum IgE level, Th1/Th2/Th17 cytokines, and related transcription factors were measured using ELISA kits, and histological examination was illustrated in ear tissue.

RESULTS

The LED group showed reduction in ear swelling response, vascular permeability, serum IgE levels, Th2/Th17 cytokine levels, and inflammatory cell infiltration. Moreover, the LED group showed increased Th1 cytokine levels.

CONCLUSIONS

These results indicate that thermal therapy combined with LED irradiation alleviated TMA-induced acute CHS in the mouse model. Thermal therapy and phototherapy should be considered as a novel therapeutic tool for the treatment of skin inflammation.

The Role of T Cells and Macrophages in Asthma Pathogenesis: A New Perspective on Mutual Crosstalk

Asthma is associated with innate and adaptive immunity mediated by immune cells. T cell or macrophage dysfunction plays a particularly significant role in asthma pathogenesis. Furthermore, crosstalk between them continuously transmits proinflammatory or anti-inflammatory signals, causing the immune cell activation or repression in the immune response. Consequently, the imbalanced immune microenvironment is the major cause of the exacerbation of asthma. Here, we discuss the role of T cells, macrophages, and their interactions in asthma pathogenesis.

Cutaneous lupus erythematosus and cardiovascular disease: current knowledge and insights into pathogenesis

Multiple autoinflammatory diseases, including psoriasis, psoriatic arthritis, and systemic lupus erythematosus, have been linked to increased risk of cardiovascular disease. Inflammation is known to play a key role in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis, thus the contribution of systemic immune dysregulation, which characterizes such inflammatory conditions, towards the development of cardiovascular disease has garnered considerable interest. Cutaneous lupus erythematosus (CLE) is a chronic inflammatory skin disease, but risk of cardiovascular disease amongst patients with cutaneous lupus is less well known. Observational studies, including those of large nationwide cohorts, have been conducted to examine cardiovascular disease risk in CLE, with varying findings. As with other inflammatory diseases, immunologic mechanisms may provide plausible causal links between CLE and cardiovascular risk. On a macrolevel, several disease-related characteristics may also contribute to cardiovascular risk amongst CLE patients. This represents an area of research that should be prioritized, as understanding cardiovascular disease risk has important clinical implications for CLE patients.

Suppression of microRNA-155 exerts an anti-inflammatory effect on CD4+ T cell-mediated inflammatory response in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis

In the current study, we aimed to investigate the effects of miR-155 on CD4+ T cell-mediated immune response in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. CD34+ hematopoietic stem cells, CD4+ T lymphocytes, endothelial cells (ECs), and vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) were harvested from the same donor. Knockdown of miR-155 in the CD4+ T cells was achieved by lentiviral transfection, whereas control RNA-transfected or untransfected lymphocytes were used as controls. The transfected CD4+ T cells were activated by incubating with oxidized low-density lipoprotein-treated dendritic cells. The proliferative capacities, phenotype distribution, and cytokine secretion profiles of the activated CD4+ T cells from different groups were evaluated. The activated lymphocytes were used to treat ECs co-cultivated with VSMCs. The ability of the CD4+ T cells to induce the apoptosis of the ECs and to promote the proliferation of the VSMCs was investigated. Inhibition of miR-155 was found to significantly reduce the proliferation rate of the transfected CD4+ T cells. CD4+ T lymphocytes transfected with the miR-155 inhibitor showed increased populations of T helper type 2 and regulatory T cells, as well as more production of anti-inflammatory cytokines. MiR-155 knockdown was also shown to significantly hamper the ability to CD4+ T cells to induce EC apoptosis and to promote the growth of VSMCs. Our data suggested that inhibition of miR-155 in CD4+ T cells could slow down the formation of atherosclerotic plaques. These results lay the groundwork for future research on the therapeutic potential of miR-155 against atherosclerosis-associated cardiovascular diseases.

Interaction Between Virus-Like Particles (VLPs) and Pattern Recognition Receptors (PRRs) From Dendritic Cells (DCs): Toward Better Engineering of VLPs

Virus-like particles (VLPs) have been shown to be strong activators of dendritic cells (DCs). DCs are the most potent antigen presenting cells (APCs) and their activation prompts the priming of immunity mediators based on B and T cells. The first step for the activation of DCs is the binding of VLPs to pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) on the surface of DCs, followed by VLP internalization. Like wild-type viruses, VLPs use specific PRRs from the DC; however, these recognition interactions between VLPs and PRRs from DCs have not been thoroughly reviewed. In this review, we focused on the interaction between proteins that form VLPs and PRRs from DCs. Several proteins that form VLP contain glycosylations that allow the direct interaction with PRRs sensing carbohydrates, prompting DC maturation and leading to the development of strong adaptive immune responses. We also discussed how the knowledge of the molecular interaction between VLPs and PRRs from DCs can lead to the smart design of VLPs, whether based on the fusion of foreign epitopes or their chemical conjugation, as well as other modifications that have been shown to induce a stronger adaptive immune response and protection against infectious pathogens of importance in human and veterinary medicine. Finally, we address the use of VLPs as tools against cancer and allergic diseases.

Influence of an Exergaming Training Program on Reducing the Expression of IL-10 and TGF-β in Cancer Patients

Objective: To evaluate the effect of exergaming in the plasma levels of adipokines (interleukin [IL]-1β, IL-6, IL-8, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha [TNF-α]), Th1 (IL-2, IL-12, and interferon gamma [IFN-γ]), Th2 (IL-4 and IL-33), Th17 (IL-17 and IL-23), and regulatory T (Treg) (IL-10 and transforming growth factor-beta [TGF-β]) in cancer patients undergoing treatment. Materials and Methods: We conducted a quasi-experimental control clinical trial using exergaming in all groups through the Xbox 360 Kinect™. The game used in this study was called Your Shape Fitness Evolved 2012. The volunteer participants played the game two to three times per week, for a total of 20 sessions. Forty-five volunteer participants were divided into 3 groups: cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy and/or radiotherapy treatment (chemotherapy and/or radiotherapy group CRG; n = 15); cancer patients who finished chemotherapy and/or radiotherapy treatment (cancer accompaniment group CAG; n = 15); and the control group (volunteers without a cancer diagnosis CG; n = 15). In the pre- and post-training period, all volunteers submitted to blood collection procedures using the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). This test was used to obtain the levels of adipokines expression (IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, and TNF-α) and the cytokine profiles Th1 (IL-2, IL-12, and IFN-γ), Th2 (IL-4 and IL-33), Th17 (IL-17 and IL-23), and Treg (IL-10 and TGF-β). Results: After exergaming, the CRG showed significant reductions in proinflammatory cytokines (IL-6: P < 0.05; IL-10: P = 0.038; TGF-β: P = 0.049) and for CAG (IL-10: P = 0.034), as well as a reduction in the expression of cytokines related to the action of T lymphocytes. Conclusion: Exergaming promoted changes in the expression of cytokine profiles IL-6, IL-10, and TGF-β, which correlated with the action profiles of CD4⁺ T lymphocytes.

New Insights into Mechanisms of Long-term Protective Anti-tumor Immunity Induced by Cancer Vaccines Modified by Virus Infection

The topic is how to achieve long-term protective anti-tumor immunity by anti-cancer vaccination and what are its mechanisms. Cancer vaccines should instruct the immune system regarding relevant cancer targets and contain signals for innate immunity activation. Of central importance is T-cell mediated immunity and thus a detailed understanding of cognate interactions between tumor antigen (TA)-specific T cells and TA-presenting dendritic cells. Microbes and their associated molecular patterns initiate early inflammatory defense reactions that can contribute to the activation of antigen-presenting cells (APCs) and to costimulation of T cells. The concommitant stimulation of naive TA-specific CD4+ and CD8+ T cells with TAs and costimulatory signals occurs in T-APC clusters that generate effectors, such as cytotoxic T lymphocytes and T cell mediated immunological memory. Information about how such memory can be maintained over long times is updated. The role that the bone marrow with its specialized niches plays for the survival of memory T cells is emphasized. Examples are presented that demonstrate long-term protective anti-tumor immunity can be achieved by post-operative vaccination with autologous cancer vaccines that are modified by virus infection.

A self-aggregating peptide: implications for the development of thermostable vaccine candidates

BACKGROUND

The use of biomaterials has been expanded to improve the characteristics of vaccines. Recently we have identified that the peptide PH_(1-110) from polyhedrin self-aggregates and incorporates foreign proteins to form particles. We have proposed that this peptide can be used as an antigen carrying system for vaccines. However, the immune response generated by the antigen fused to the peptide has not been fully characterized. In addition, the adjuvant effect and thermostability of the particles has not been evaluated.

RESULTS

In the present study we demonstrate the use of a system developed to generate nano and microparticles carrying as a fusion protein peptides or proteins of interest to be used as vaccines. These particles are purified easily by centrifugation. Immunization of animals with the particles in the absence of adjuvant result in a robust and long-lasting immune response. Proteins contained inside the particles are maintained for over 1 year at ambient temperature, preserving their immunological properties.

CONCLUSION

The rapid and efficient production of the particles in addition to the robust immune response they generate position this system as an excellent method for the rapid response against emerging diseases. The thermostability conferred by the particle system facilitates the distribution of the vaccines in developing countries or areas with no electricity.

DGK α and ζ Activities Control TH1 and TH17 Cell Differentiation

CD4⁺ T helper (T_H) cells are critical for protective adaptive immunity against pathogens, and they also contribute to the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases. How T_H differentiation is regulated by the TCR's downstream signaling is still poorly understood. We describe here that diacylglycerol kinases (DGKs), which are enzymes that convert diacylglycerol (DAG) to phosphatidic acid, exert differential effects on T_H cell differentiation in a DGK dosage-dependent manner. A deficiency of either DGKα or ζ selectively impaired T_H1 differentiation without obviously affecting T_H2 and T_H17 differentiation. However, simultaneous ablation of both DGKα and ζ promoted T_H1 and T_H17 differentiation in vitro and in vivo, leading to exacerbated airway inflammation. Furthermore, we demonstrate that dysregulation of T_H17 differentiation of DGKα and ζ double-deficient CD4⁺ T cells was, at least in part, caused by increased mTOR complex 1/S6K1 signaling.

Vulvar Lichen Sclerosus: Current Perspectives

Vulvar lichen sclerosus (LS) is a chronic, inflammatory dermatosis that may lead to scarring of the vulva and sexual dysfunction. LS affects women of all ages and often goes unrecognized and underreported. Uncertainty continues to exist around its pathogenesis, histologic diagnosis, and treatment. However, there have been great advances in our understanding of autoimmunogenic targets in disease formation and progression. In addition, there has been recent investigation of potential non-steroid-based treatments, including platelet-rich plasma therapy and energy-based modalities such as the fractional CO2 laser, photodynamic therapy, and high intensity focused ultrasound. Refinement of surgical techniques for restoring vulvar anatomy and treating clitoral phimosis, introital stenosis, and vulvar granuloma fissuratum is leading to improved patient outcomes. This review summarizes current perspectives on the pathogenesis, symptomatology, diagnosis, and treatment for vulvar lichen sclerosus.

COVID-19 in Children: A Review and Parallels to Other Hyperinflammatory Syndromes

During the COVID-19 pandemic, children have had markedly different clinical presentations and outcomes compared to adults. In the acute phase of infection, younger children are relatively spared the severe consequences reported in adults. Yet, they are uniquely susceptible to the newly described Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MIS-C). This may result from the developmental "immunodeficiency" resulting from a Th2 polarization that starts in utero and is maintained for most of the first decade of life. MIS-C may be due to IgA complexes in a Th2 environment or a Th1-like response to COVID-19 antigens that developed slowly. Alternatively, MIS-C may occur in vulnerable hosts with genetic susceptibilities in other immune and non-immune pathways. Herein, we present a brief overview of the host immune response, virologic and genetic factors, and comparable inflammatory syndromes that may explain the pathophysiology leading to drastic differences in clinical presentation and outcomes of COVID-19 between children and adults.

Thymoquinone promotes mouse mesenchymal stem cells migration in vitro and induces their immunogenicity in vivo

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have unique potentials, including migration and immunomodulation. Identification of the factors that enhance these activities can improve clinical applications of MSCs. This study aimed to investigate total antioxidant capacity (TAC) and migration potential of mouse MSCs exposed to thymoquinone (TQ) in vitro, and to examine the effect of TQ-treated MSCs on the expression of mouse immune cell markers. The results of total antioxidant capacity and wound healing assays showed that TQ increased the rate of MSCs TAC and migration in a dose- and time-dependent manner. The maximum TAC and migration were detected at 600 and 250 ng/ml of TQ, respectively. Functionally, the real-time PCR data analysis indicated that TQ induced c-Met and Cxcr4 expression and therefore, there may be a correlation between upregulation of these genes and increased MSCs migration. TQ also enhanced the up and down regulating impact of MSCs on Rorγt and Plzf expression and the expression of Tcf4 in mouse immune cells, respectively. Overall, this study declares that TQ increases the TAC of MSCs. It also proposes that TQ may, through activation of c-MET and CXCR4 signalling pathways, promote MSCs migration. TQ may also augment MSCs immunogenicity through its influence on the expression of genes involved in commitment of mouse immune system cells in vivo.