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Too Much of a Good Thing: A Neuro-Dynamic Personality Model Explaining Engagement and Its Protective Inhibition. ADVANCES IN MOTIVATION AND ACHIEVEMENT 2016. [DOI: 10.1108/s0749-742320160000019012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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52
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Evans DR, Boggero IA, Segerstrom SC. The Nature of Self-Regulatory Fatigue and "Ego Depletion": Lessons From Physical Fatigue. PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY REVIEW 2016; 20:291-310. [PMID: 26228914 PMCID: PMC4788579 DOI: 10.1177/1088868315597841] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Self-regulation requires overriding a dominant response and leads to temporary self-regulatory fatigue. Existing theories of the nature and causes of self-regulatory fatigue highlight physiological substrates such as glucose, or psychological processes such as motivation, but these explanations are incomplete on their own. Historically, theories of physical fatigue demonstrate a similar pattern of useful but incomplete explanations, as recent views of physical fatigue emphasize the roles of both physiological and psychological factors. In addition to accounting for multiple inputs, these newer views also explain how fatigue can occur even in the presence of sufficient resources. Examining these newer theories of physical fatigue can serve as a foundation on which to build a more comprehensive understanding of self-regulatory fatigue that integrates possible neurobiological underpinnings of physical and self-regulatory fatigue, and suggests the possible function of self-regulatory fatigue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel R Evans
- 1 University of Kentucky, Lexington, USA
- 2 Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Providence, RI, USA
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Abstract
Following an initial act of self-control, human performance on subsequent tasks that also require self-control exertion is impaired. This phenomenon, termed ego depletion, is constrained by beliefs and perceptions in humans. Interestingly, this effect has also been observed in dogs, which arguably do not share similar belief systems. This observation suggests that a common biological mechanism might underlie the phenomenon for both species. It also suggests that we can learn something about human self-control by conducting research with dogs. In this article, we relate findings on the depletion effect in dogs to the different mechanisms that are proposed to explain the effect in humans. Finally, we elaborate on practical implications for working dogs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Beurms
- Centre for the Psychology of Learning and Experimental Psychopathology, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, KU Leuven
| | - Holly Christine Miller
- Centre for the Psychology of Learning and Experimental Psychopathology, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, KU Leuven
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54
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Schuhr A. Seizing Control: Estimating Multiple Decision Processes and the Investigation of Self-Control. BASIC AND APPLIED SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2016. [DOI: 10.1080/01973533.2016.1207174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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55
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Parrish AE, Emerson ID, Rossettie MS, Beran MJ. Testing the Glucose Hypothesis among Capuchin Monkeys: Does Glucose Boost Self-Control? Behav Sci (Basel) 2016; 6:bs6030016. [PMID: 27527225 PMCID: PMC5039516 DOI: 10.3390/bs6030016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2016] [Revised: 07/21/2016] [Accepted: 07/27/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The ego-depletion hypothesis states that self-control diminishes over time and with exertion. Accordingly, the glucose hypothesis attributes this depletion of self-control resources to decreases in blood glucose levels. Research has led to mixed findings among humans and nonhuman animals, with limited evidence for such a link between glucose and self-control among closely-related nonhuman primate species, but some evidence from more distantly related species (e.g., honeybees and dogs). We tested this hypothesis in capuchin monkeys by manipulating the sugar content of a calorie-matched breakfast meal following a nocturnal fast, and then presenting each monkey with the accumulation self-control task. Monkeys were presented with food items one-by-one until the subject retrieved and ate the accumulating items, which required continual inhibition of food retrieval in the face of an increasingly desirable reward. Results indicated no relationship between self-control performance on the accumulation task and glucose ingestion levels following a fast. These results do not provide support for the glucose hypothesis of self-control among capuchin monkeys within the presented paradigm. Further research assessing self-control and its physiological correlates among closely- and distantly-related species is warranted to shed light on the mechanisms underlying self-control behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Audrey E Parrish
- Psychology Department, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA 30302, USA.
- Language Research Center, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA 30302, USA.
| | - Ishara D Emerson
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Spelman College, Atlanta, GA 30314, USA.
| | - Mattea S Rossettie
- Language Research Center, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA 30302, USA.
| | - Michael J Beran
- Psychology Department, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA 30302, USA.
- Language Research Center, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA 30302, USA.
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56
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Vadillo MA, Gold N, Osman M. The Bitter Truth About Sugar and Willpower. Psychol Sci 2016; 27:1207-14. [DOI: 10.1177/0956797616654911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2015] [Accepted: 05/25/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Miguel A. Vadillo
- Department of Primary Care and Public Health Sciences, King’s College London
| | | | - Magda Osman
- Biological and Experimental Psychology Group, School of Biological and Chemical Sciences, Queen Mary University of London
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Neural mechanisms underlying the impact of daylong cognitive work on economic decisions. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2016; 113:6967-72. [PMID: 27274075 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1520527113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The ability to exert self-control is key to social insertion and professional success. An influential literature in psychology has developed the theory that self-control relies on a limited common resource, so that fatigue effects might carry over from one task to the next. However, the biological nature of the putative limited resource and the existence of carry-over effects have been matters of considerable controversy. Here, we targeted the activity of the lateral prefrontal cortex (LPFC) as a common substrate for cognitive control, and we prolonged the time scale of fatigue induction by an order of magnitude. Participants performed executive control tasks known to recruit the LPFC (working memory and task-switching) over more than 6 h (an approximate workday). Fatigue effects were probed regularly by measuring impulsivity in intertemporal choices, i.e., the propensity to favor immediate rewards, which has been found to increase under LPFC inhibition. Behavioral data showed that choice impulsivity increased in a group of participants who performed hard versions of executive tasks but not in control groups who performed easy versions or enjoyed some leisure time. Functional MRI data acquired at the start, middle, and end of the day confirmed that enhancement of choice impulsivity was related to a specific decrease in the activity of an LPFC region (in the left middle frontal gyrus) that was recruited by both executive and choice tasks. Our findings demonstrate a concept of focused neural fatigue that might be naturally induced in real-life situations and have important repercussions on economic decisions.
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58
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Schnitker SA, Felke TJ, Fernandez NA, Redmond N, Blews AE. Efficacy of self-control and patience interventions in adolescents. APPLIED DEVELOPMENTAL SCIENCE 2016. [DOI: 10.1080/10888691.2016.1178578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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59
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Abstract
In this response, we address eight issues concerning our proposal that human minds contain adaptations for revenge and forgiveness. Specifically, we discuss (a) the inferences that are and are not licensed by patterns of contemporary behavioral data in the context of the adaptationist approach; (b) the theoretical pitfalls of conflating proximate and ultimate causation; (c) the role of development in the production of adaptations; (d) the implications of proposing that the brain’s cognitive systems are fundamentally computational in nature; (e) our preferred method for considering the role of individual differences in computational systems; (f) applications of our proposal to understanding conflicts between groups; (g) the possible implications of our views for understanding the operation of contemporary criminal justice systems; and (h) the question of whether people ever “genuinely” forgive.
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Inzlicht M, Marcora SM. The Central Governor Model of Exercise Regulation Teaches Us Precious Little about the Nature of Mental Fatigue and Self-Control Failure. Front Psychol 2016; 7:656. [PMID: 27199874 PMCID: PMC4854881 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2015] [Accepted: 04/19/2016] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Self-control is considered broadly important for many domains of life. One of its unfortunate features, however, is that it tends to wane over time, with little agreement about why this is the case. Recently, there has been a push to address this problem by looking to the literature in exercise physiology, specifically the work on the central governor model of physical fatigue. Trying to explain how and why mental performance wanes over time, the central governor model suggests that exertion is throttled by some central nervous system mechanism that receives information about energetic bodily needs and motivational drives to regulate exertion and, ultimately, to prevent homeostatic breakdown, chiefly energy depletion. While we admire the spirit of integration and the attempt to shed light on an important topic in psychology, our concern is that the central governor model is very controversial in exercise physiology, with increasing calls to abandon it altogether, making it a poor fit for psychology. Our concerns are threefold. First, while we agree that preservation of bodily homeostasis makes for an elegant ultimate account, the fact that such important homeostatic concerns can be regularly overturned with even slight incentives (e.g., a smile) renders the ultimate account impotent and points to other ultimate functions for fatigue. Second, despite the central governor being thought to take as input information about the metabolic needs of the body, there is no credible evidence that mental effort actually consumes inordinate amounts of energy that are not already circulating in the brain. Third, recent modifications of the model make the central governor appear like an all-knowing homunculus and unfalsifiable in principle, thus contributing very little to our understanding of why people tend to disengage from effortful tasks over time. We note that the latest models in exercise physiology have actually borrowed concepts and models from psychology to understand physical performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Inzlicht
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto ScarboroughToronto, ON, Canada
- Rotman School of Management, University of TorontoToronto, ON, Canada
| | - Samuele M. Marcora
- Endurance Research Group, School of Sport and Exercise Sciences, University of Kent at MedwayChatham, England
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61
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Reynolds JJ, McCrea SM. The dual component theory of inhibition regulation: A new model of self-control. NEW IDEAS IN PSYCHOLOGY 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.newideapsych.2015.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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62
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Boyle N, Lawton C, Allen R, Croden F, Smith K, Dye L. No effects of ingesting or rinsing sucrose on depleted self-control performance. Physiol Behav 2016; 154:151-60. [DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2015.11.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2015] [Revised: 11/19/2015] [Accepted: 11/22/2015] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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63
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64
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Framing effortful strategies as easy enables depleted individuals to execute complex tasks effectively. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2015.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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65
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Carbohydrate ingestion but not mouth rinse maintains sustained attention when fasted. Physiol Behav 2015; 153:33-9. [PMID: 26498427 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2015.10.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2015] [Revised: 10/19/2015] [Accepted: 10/20/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Carbohydrate (CHO) receptors in the mouth signal brain areas involved in cognitive tasks relying upon motivation and task persistence; however, the minimal CHO dose that improves mental activity is unclear. PURPOSE To determine if CHO (via ingestion or oral rinse) influences sustained attention without eliciting glycemic responses when in a fasted state. METHODS Study A: Six healthy adults completed five treatment trials, ingesting 0-6% CHO solutions to evaluate glycemic response. Peak blood glucose for 6% and 1.5% CHO was greater (p<0.05) than 0% and 0.4% CHO; thus, the low 0.4% CHO was evaluated further. Study B: Following an overnight fast, ten healthy adults completed three trials in a crossover design: 1) 400 ml 0.4% CHO ingested serially via 25 ml boluses, 2) 375 ml 0% CHO control (CON) ingested followed by one 25 ml 6% CHO isocaloric (1.5 g CHO) mouth rinse, and 3) CON ingest followed by CON rinse. Following treatments, a 20 min Continuous Performance Task (CPT) was performed to assess accuracy and precision. RESULTS Accuracy and precision were not different during the first 5 min of CPT. However, accuracy was maintained with CHO ingest (p=1.0) but decreased over 20 min (p<0.05) with both CHO and CON rinse treatments. Precision tended to decline over 20 min CPT with CON (p=0.06) and CHO rinse (p=0.05) but were maintained with CHO ingest (p=1.0). No differences in glycemic responses were observed between treatments. CONCLUSIONS Compared to mouth rinsing CON or CHO (1.5 g in 6% CHO), ingestion of an isocaloric low-CHO drink maintained sustained attention over a mentally fatiguing task and appears effective after fasting without eliciting a glycemic response.
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Inzlicht M, Berkman E. Six Questions for the Resource Model of Control (and Some Answers). SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY PSYCHOLOGY COMPASS 2015; 9:511-524. [PMID: 28966660 DOI: 10.1111/spc3.12200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The resource model of self-control casts self-control as a capacity that relies on some limited resource that exhausts with use. The model captured our imagination and brought much-needed attention on an important yet neglected psychological construct. Despite its success, basic issues with the model remain. Here, we ask six questions: (i) Does self-control really wane over time? (ii) Is ego depletion a form of mental fatigue? (iii) What is the resource that is depleted by ego depletion? (iv) How can changes in motivation, perception, and expectations replenish an exhausted resource? (v) Has the revised resource model unwittingly become a model about motivation? (vi) Do self-control exercises increase self-control? By providing some answers to these questions - including conducting a meta-analysis of the self-control training literature - we highlight how the resource model needs to be revised if not supplanted altogether.
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67
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Voce AC, Moston S. Does Monitoring Performance Eliminate the Ego-depletion Phenomenon and Influence Perception of Time? SELF AND IDENTITY 2015. [DOI: 10.1080/15298868.2015.1074101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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68
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Petrillo FD, Micucci A, Gori E, Truppa V, Ariely D, Addessi E. Self-control depletion in tufted capuchin monkeys (Sapajus spp.): does delay of gratification rely on a limited resource? Front Psychol 2015; 6:1193. [PMID: 26322001 PMCID: PMC4531513 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2015] [Accepted: 07/28/2015] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Self-control failure has enormous personal and societal consequences. One of the most debated models explaining why self-control breaks down is the Strength Model, according to which self-control depends on a limited resource. Either previous acts of self-control or taking part in highly demanding cognitive tasks have been shown to reduce self-control, possibly due to a reduction in blood glucose levels. However, several studies yielded negative findings, and recent meta-analyses questioned the robustness of the depletion effect in humans. We investigated, for the first time, whether the Strength Model applies to a non-human primate species, the tufted capuchin monkey. We tested five capuchins in a self-control task (the Accumulation task) in which food items were accumulated within individual’s reach for as long as the subject refrained from taking them. We evaluated whether capuchins’ performance decreases: (i) when tested before receiving their daily meal rather than after consuming it (Energy Depletion Experiment), and (ii) after being tested in two tasks with different levels of cognitive complexity (Cognitive Depletion Experiment). We also tested, in both experiments, how implementing self-control in each trial of the Accumulation task affected this capacity within each session and/or across consecutive sessions. Repeated acts of self-control in each trial of the Accumulation task progressively reduced this capacity within each session, as predicted by the Strength Model. However, neither experiencing a reduction in energy level nor taking part in a highly demanding cognitive task decreased performance in the subsequent Accumulation task. Thus, whereas capuchins seem to be vulnerable to within-session depletion effects, to other extents our findings are in line with the growing body of studies that failed to find a depletion effect in humans. Methodological issues potentially affecting the lack of depletion effects in capuchins are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca De Petrillo
- Unità di Primatologia Cognitiva e Centro Primati, Istituto di Scienze e Tecnologie della Cognizione - Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche Rome, Italy ; Dipartimento di Biologia Ambientale, Sapienza Università di Roma Rome, Italy
| | - Antonia Micucci
- Unità di Primatologia Cognitiva e Centro Primati, Istituto di Scienze e Tecnologie della Cognizione - Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche Rome, Italy
| | - Emanuele Gori
- Unità di Primatologia Cognitiva e Centro Primati, Istituto di Scienze e Tecnologie della Cognizione - Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche Rome, Italy
| | - Valentina Truppa
- Unità di Primatologia Cognitiva e Centro Primati, Istituto di Scienze e Tecnologie della Cognizione - Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche Rome, Italy
| | | | - Elsa Addessi
- Unità di Primatologia Cognitiva e Centro Primati, Istituto di Scienze e Tecnologie della Cognizione - Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche Rome, Italy
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69
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Charek DB, Meyer GJ, Mihura JL. The Impact of an Ego Depletion Manipulation on Performance-Based and Self-Report Assessment Measures. Assessment 2015; 23:637-49. [PMID: 26002059 DOI: 10.1177/1073191115586580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
We investigated the impact of ego depletion on selected Rorschach cognitive processing variables and self-reported affect states. Research indicates acts of effortful self-regulation transiently deplete a finite pool of cognitive resources, impairing performance on subsequent tasks requiring self-regulation. We predicted that relative to controls, ego-depleted participants' Rorschach protocols would have more spontaneous reactivity to color, less cognitive sophistication, and more frequent logical lapses in visualization, whereas self-reports would reflect greater fatigue and less attentiveness. The hypotheses were partially supported; despite a surprising absence of self-reported differences, ego-depleted participants had Rorschach protocols with lower scores on two variables indicative of sophisticated combinatory thinking, as well as higher levels of color receptivity; they also had lower scores on a composite variable computed across all hypothesized markers of complexity. In addition, self-reported achievement striving moderated the effect of the experimental manipulation on color receptivity, and in the Depletion condition it was associated with greater attentiveness to the tasks, more color reactivity, and less global synthetic processing. Results are discussed with an emphasis on the response process, methodological limitations and strengths, implications for calculating refined Rorschach scores, and the value of using multiple methods in research and experimental paradigms to validate assessment measures.
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70
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Chow JT, Hui CM, Lau S. A depleted mind feels inefficacious: Ego-depletion reduces self-efficacy to exert further self-control. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/ejsp.2120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Shun Lau
- The University of Hong Kong; Hong Kong
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71
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Kelly CL, Sünram-Lea SI, Crawford TJ. The role of motivation, glucose and self-control in the antisaccade task. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0122218. [PMID: 25826334 PMCID: PMC4380463 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0122218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2014] [Accepted: 02/19/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Research shows that self-control is resource limited and there is a gradual weakening in consecutive self-control task performance akin to muscle fatigue. A body of evidence suggests that the resource is glucose and consuming glucose reduces this effect. This study examined the effect of glucose on performance in the antisaccade task - which requires self-control through generating a voluntary eye movement away from a target - following self-control exertion in the Stroop task. The effects of motivation and individual differences in self-control were also explored. In a double-blind design, 67 young healthy adults received a 25g glucose or inert placebo drink. Glucose did not enhance antisaccade performance following self-control exertion in the Stroop task. Motivation however, predicted performance on the antisaccade task; more specifically high motivation ameliorated performance decrements observed after initial self-control exertion. In addition, individuals with high levels of self-control performed better on certain aspects of the antisaccade task after administration of a glucose drink. The results of this study suggest that the antisaccade task might be a powerful paradigm, which could be used as a more objective measure of self-control. Moreover, the results indicate that level of motivation and individual differences in self-control should be taken into account when investigating deficiencies in self-control following prior exertion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire L. Kelly
- Department of Psychology, Fylde College, Lancaster University, Lancaster, LA1 4YF, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
| | - Sandra I. Sünram-Lea
- Department of Psychology, Fylde College, Lancaster University, Lancaster, LA1 4YF, United Kingdom
| | - Trevor J. Crawford
- Department of Psychology, Fylde College, Lancaster University, Lancaster, LA1 4YF, United Kingdom
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72
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Buczny J, Layton RL, Muraven M. The role of implicit affective responses and trait self-control in ego resource management. MOTIVATION AND EMOTION 2015; 39:669-679. [PMID: 26380534 PMCID: PMC4565882 DOI: 10.1007/s11031-015-9489-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Exertion of self-control requires reliance on ego resources. Impaired performance typically results once those resources have been depleted by previous use. Yet the mechanism behind the depletion processes is little understood. Beliefs, motivation, and physiological changes have been implicated, yet the source behind these remains unknown. We propose that implicit may form the fundamental building blocks that these processes rely upon to operate. Implicit affective responses to energy may trigger management of ego resources after depletion. Findings suggest that inhibitory trait self-control may interact with the depletion effect, indicating the importance of taking individual differences in chronic availability of ego-resources into account. After depletion, individuals high in trait self-control may be less motivated to conserve remaining resources than those low in self-control. This mechanism may also help explain the conservation of resources observed when expecting multiple tasks requiring self-control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacek Buczny
- University of Social Sciences and Humanities, Polna 16/20, 81745 Sopot, Poland
| | - Rebekah L Layton
- University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC USA
| | - Mark Muraven
- University at Albany, State University of New York, Albany, NY USA
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Abstract
We introduce a two-perception probabilistic concept of adaptation (TPPCA), which accounts for fast and slow adaptation processes. The outcome of both processes depends on the perceptual difference (termed herein aquantum) of how an individual perceives his or her abilities, skills, and capacities (βv) to interact, cope, and perform a given task (δi). Thus, the adaptation process is determined by (βv– δi). Fast adaptation processes target aspects that require immediate responses while slow adaptation processes involve ongoing adaptation to long-term demands. We introduce the TPPCA in several domains of inquiry, which rely on fast adaptation processes (perceptual–cognitive–action coupling, performance routines, psychological crisis, reversal states), slow adaptation processes (i.e., career aspirations, burnout), and processes that can be either fast or slow (i.e., flow, affect and mood changes, emotion regulation).
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74
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Egan PM, Clarkson JJ, Hirt ER. Revisiting the restorative effects of positive mood: An expectancy-based approach to self-control restoration. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2014.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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75
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Lange F. If ego depletion cannot be studied using identical tasks, it is not ego depletion. Appetite 2015; 84:325-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.appet.2014.10.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2014] [Revised: 09/26/2014] [Accepted: 10/28/2014] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Zadra JR, Proffitt DR. Implicit associations have a circadian rhythm. PLoS One 2014; 9:e110149. [PMID: 25365254 PMCID: PMC4217730 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0110149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2014] [Accepted: 09/17/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The current study shows that people's ability to inhibit implicit associations that run counter to their explicit views varies in a circadian pattern. The presence of this rhythmic variation suggests the involvement of a biological process in regulating automatic associations—specifically, with the current data, associations that form undesirable social biases. In 1998, Greenwald, McGhee, and Schwartz introduced the Implicit Association Test as a means of measuring individual differences in implicit cognition. The IAT is a powerful tool that has become widely used. Perhaps most visibly, studies employing the IAT demonstrate that people generally hold implicit biases against social groups, which often conflict with their explicitly held views. The IAT engages inhibitory processes similar to those inherent in self-control tasks. Because the latter processes are known to be resource-limited, we considered whether IAT scores might likewise be resource dependent. Analyzing IAT performance from over a million participants across all times of day, we found a clear circadian pattern in scores. This finding suggests that the IAT measures not only the strength of implicit associations, but also the effect of variations in the physiological resources available to inhibit their undesirable influences on explicit behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan R. Zadra
- Department of Psychology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah, United States of America
- Department of Psychology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Dennis R. Proffitt
- Department of Psychology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, United States of America
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Chatzisarantis NLD, Hagger MS. Illusionary delusions. Willingness to exercise self-control can mask effects of glucose on self-control performance in experimental paradigms that use identical self-control tasks. Appetite 2014; 84:322-4. [PMID: 25450893 DOI: 10.1016/j.appet.2014.10.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2014] [Revised: 09/26/2014] [Accepted: 10/28/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of the present article is to highlight limitations of Lange and Eggert's methodology of using identical self-control tasks in testing effects of glucose on depletion of self-control resources and self-control performance. We suggest that when participants engage in two identical self-control tasks, cognitions developed during initial act of self-control may mask the effects of glucose on self-control performance by undermining willingness to exert effort during the second act of self-control. As a consequence, glucose may increase ability to exercise self-control but participants may not want to capitalize on this "ability advantage" because they are unwilling to exercise self-control. The present article concludes that researchers who test the glucose hypothesis in the context of a depletion paradigm should employ dissimilar acts of self-control and ensure that depleted participants are sufficiently motivated to exercise self-control.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Martin S Hagger
- School of Psychology and Speech Pathology, Curtin University, Perth, Australia
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78
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Curtis J, Burkley E, Burkley M. The Rhythm Is Gonna Get You: The Influence of Circadian Rhythm Synchrony on Self-Control Outcomes. SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY PSYCHOLOGY COMPASS 2014. [DOI: 10.1111/spc3.12136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
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79
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Masicampo EJ, Martin SR, Anderson RA. Understanding and Overcoming Self-control Depletion. SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY PSYCHOLOGY COMPASS 2014. [DOI: 10.1111/spc3.12139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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80
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The opportunity cost model: automaticity, individual differences, and self-control resources. Behav Brain Sci 2014; 36:687-8; discussion 707-26. [PMID: 24304785 DOI: 10.1017/s0140525x1300099x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
I contend that Kurzban et al.'s model is silent on three issues. First, the extent to which opportunity-cost computations are automatic or deliberative is unclear. Second, the role of individual differences in biasing opportunity-cost computations needs elucidating. Third, in the absence of "next-best" tasks, task persistence will be indefinite, which seems unfeasible, so perhaps integration with a limited-resource account is necessary.
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81
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Abstract
An opportunity cost model of effort requires flexible integration of valuation and self-control systems. Reciprocal connections between these networks and brainstem neuromodulatory systems are likely to provide the signals that affect subsequent persistence or failure when faced with effort challenges. The interaction of these systems should be taken into account to strengthen a normative neural model of effort.
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82
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Imhoff R, Schmidt AF, Gerstenberg F. Exploring the Interplay of Trait Self–Control and Ego Depletion: Empirical Evidence for Ironic Effects. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF PERSONALITY 2014. [DOI: 10.1002/per.1899] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Trait self–control (TSC) has been conceptualized as a general and abstract ability to exert self–regulation across multiple domains that has mostly beneficial effects. However, its relationship to situational depletion of self–regulatory resources has received little attention. We systematically explore the interplay of trait and situational self–control in two studies (total N = 264). In contrast with a positive view of TSC, the results show greater ego depletion effects for high (vs. low) self–control abilities across such diverse domains as candy consumption (Study 1), risk–taking behaviour (Study 2) and achievement motivation (Study 2). It is proposed that these ironic effects are attributable to high–TSC individuals’ less frequent active inhibition of impulses in everyday life and their resulting lack of experience in resisting acute temptations. A third study (N> = 358) corroborated this general reasoning by showing that TSC is indeed associated with less frequent impulse inhibition in daily routines. Our data point to a downside of dispositional self–control in ego depletion paradigms. Other explanations and potential future avenues for resolving inconsistent findings across the literature are discussed. Copyright © 2013 European Association of Personality Psychology
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Affiliation(s)
- Roland Imhoff
- Department of Psychology, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
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83
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Turn It All You Want: Still No Effect of Sugar Consumption on Ego Depletion. JOURNAL OF EUROPEAN PSYCHOLOGY STUDENTS 2014. [DOI: 10.5334/jeps.cc] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
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84
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Xu H, Bègue L, Sauve L, Bushman BJ. Sweetened blood sweetens behavior. Ego depletion, glucose, guilt, and prosocial behavior. Appetite 2014; 81:8-11. [PMID: 24882450 DOI: 10.1016/j.appet.2014.05.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2014] [Revised: 05/07/2014] [Accepted: 05/20/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Although guilt feels bad to the individual, it is good for society because guilty feelings can prompt people to perform good deeds. Previous research shows that fatigue decreases guilty feelings and helpful behavior. This present research tests whether glucose restores guilty feelings and increases helpful behavior. Depleted participants watched a movie about butchering animals for their meat or skin and were told to express no emotions, whereas non-depleted participants watched the same movie, but could express their emotions. Afterwards they drank a glucose or placebo beverage. Having participants play a game in which another person was punished for their errors induced guilt. Finally, participants played a dictator game in which they could leave lottery tickets for the next participant. Depleted participants felt less guilty and helped less than non-depleted participants, and those who consumed a placebo beverage felt less guilt and helped less than those who consumed a glucose beverage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanyi Xu
- Laboratoire Interuniversitaire de Psychologie, University of Grenoble 2, UFR SHS, 1251 avenue Centrale, BP 47, 38040, Grenoble Cedex 9, France
| | - Laurent Bègue
- Laboratoire Interuniversitaire de Psychologie, University of Grenoble 2, UFR SHS, 1251 avenue Centrale, BP 47, 38040, Grenoble Cedex 9, France
| | - Laure Sauve
- Laboratoire Interuniversitaire de Psychologie, University of Grenoble 2, UFR SHS, 1251 avenue Centrale, BP 47, 38040, Grenoble Cedex 9, France
| | - Brad J Bushman
- School of Communication and the Department of Psychology, The Ohio State University, 3016 Derby Hall, 154 N Oval Mall, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; Department of Communication Science, VU University Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1081, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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85
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Sweet delusion. Glucose drinks fail to counteract ego depletion. Appetite 2014; 75:54-63. [DOI: 10.1016/j.appet.2013.12.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2013] [Revised: 12/18/2013] [Accepted: 12/19/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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86
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Inzlicht M, Schmeichel BJ, Macrae CN. Why self-control seems (but may not be) limited. Trends Cogn Sci 2014; 18:127-33. [PMID: 24439530 DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2013.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 383] [Impact Index Per Article: 38.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2013] [Revised: 12/13/2013] [Accepted: 12/16/2013] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Michael Inzlicht
- University of Toronto, Department of Psychology, Toronto, Canada; Rotman School of Management, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada.
| | | | - C Neil Macrae
- University of Aberdeen, School of Psychology, Aberdeen, UK
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87
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Abstract
In this paper, we contend that the psychology of addiction is similar to the psychology of ordinary, non-addictive temptation in important respects, and explore the ways in which these parallels can illuminate both addiction and ordinary action. The incentive salience account of addiction proposed by Robinson and Berridge (1-3) entails that addictive desires are not in their nature different from many of the desires had by non-addicts; what is different is rather the way that addictive desires are acquired, which in turn affects their strength. We examine these "incentive salience" desires, both in addicts and non-addicts, contrasting them with more cognitive desires. On this account, the self-control challenge faced by addicted agents is not different in kind from that faced by non-addicted agents - though the two may, of course, differ greatly in degree of difficulty. We explore a general model of self-control for both the addict and the non-addict, stressing that self-control may be employed at three different stages, and examining the ways in which it might be strengthened. This helps elucidate a general model of intentional action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brendan Dill
- Department of Linguistics and Philosophy, Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Cambridge, MA , USA
| | - Richard Holton
- Department of Philosophy, University of Cambridge , Cambridge , UK
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88
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Beyond simple utility in predicting self-control fatigue: A proximate alternative to the opportunity cost model. Behav Brain Sci 2013; 36:695-6; discussion 707-26. [DOI: 10.1017/s0140525x13001076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
AbstractThe opportunity cost model offers an ultimate explanation of ego depletion that helps to move the field beyond biologically improbable resource accounts. The model's more proximate explanation, however, falls short of accounting for much data and is based on an outdated view of human rationality. We suggest that our own process model offers a better proximate account of self-control fatigue.
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89
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Abstract
AbstractThe commentaries on our target article are surprisingly sympathetic to our overall approach to explaining subjective effort, though disagreement with particulars inevitably emerged. Here, in our response, we first review the few disagreements concerning the basic structure of our proposal, highlighting areas in which little or no resistance was voiced. Opposition to the assumptions that underlie our opportunity cost model is noticeably limited. Areas of genuine disagreement, however, include: (1) the inputs to and outputs of the relevant decision-making systems; (2) how to interpret data regarding individual differences in performance; (3) how to explain persistence on tasks that give rise to the sensation of subjective effort; and (4) the details of the relevant neuropsychological systems. Throughout we point to empirical issues raised by the commentaries and suggest research that will be useful in arbitrating points of disagreement.
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90
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Kurzban R, Duckworth A, Kable JW, Myers J. An opportunity cost model of subjective effort and task performance. Behav Brain Sci 2013; 36:661-79. [PMID: 24304775 PMCID: PMC3856320 DOI: 10.1017/s0140525x12003196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 571] [Impact Index Per Article: 51.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Why does performing certain tasks cause the aversive experience of mental effort and concomitant deterioration in task performance? One explanation posits a physical resource that is depleted over time. We propose an alternative explanation that centers on mental representations of the costs and benefits associated with task performance. Specifically, certain computational mechanisms, especially those associated with executive function, can be deployed for only a limited number of simultaneous tasks at any given moment. Consequently, the deployment of these computational mechanisms carries an opportunity cost--that is, the next-best use to which these systems might be put. We argue that the phenomenology of effort can be understood as the felt output of these cost/benefit computations. In turn, the subjective experience of effort motivates reduced deployment of these computational mechanisms in the service of the present task. These opportunity cost representations, then, together with other cost/benefit calculations, determine effort expended and, everything else equal, result in performance reductions. In making our case for this position, we review alternative explanations for both the phenomenology of effort associated with these tasks and for performance reductions over time. Likewise, we review the broad range of relevant empirical results from across sub-disciplines, especially psychology and neuroscience. We hope that our proposal will help to build links among the diverse fields that have been addressing similar questions from different perspectives, and we emphasize ways in which alternative models might be empirically distinguished.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Kurzban
- Department of Psychology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104
| | - Angela Duckworth
- Department of Psychology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104
| | - Joseph W. Kable
- Department of Psychology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104
| | - Justus Myers
- Department of Psychology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104
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91
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Carter EC, McCullough ME. After a pair of self-control-intensive tasks, sucrose swishing improves subsequent working memory performance. BMC Psychol 2013; 1:22. [PMID: 25566371 PMCID: PMC4269986 DOI: 10.1186/2050-7283-1-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2013] [Accepted: 10/09/2013] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The limited strength model of self-control predicts that acts of self-control impair subsequent performance on tasks that require self-control (i.e., "ego depletion"), and the majority of the published research on this topic is supportive of this prediction. Additional research suggests that this effect can be alleviated by manipulating participants' motivation to perform-for instance, by having participants swish a drink containing carbohydrates, which is thought to function as a reward-or by requiring participants to complete two initial acts of self-control rather than only one. METHODS Here, we explore both the effect of having participants perform two initial tasks thought to require self-control (versus two less self-control-intensive tasks) and the effect of swishing a drink containing sucrose (compared to control drinks) on subsequent self-control. Outcomes were analyzed using standard null hypothesis significance testing techniques (e.g., analysis of variance, t-tests). In some cases, test statistics were transformed into Bayes factors to aid in interpretation (i.e., to allow for acceptance of the null hypothesis). RESULTS We found that performing two self-control-intensive tasks actually improved subsequent self-control when participants swished a drink containing sucrose between tasks. For participants who swished control drinks, we found no evidence of ego depletion. CONCLUSIONS We conclude that claims that self-control failure is caused by the depletion of a resource (or that it functions as if it relies on a limited resource) merit greater circumspection. Our results-all of which were either null or contrary to predictions from the limited strength model-are important for researchers interested in patterns of self-control failure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evan C Carter
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108 USA
| | - Michael E McCullough
- Department of Psychology, University of Miami, P.O. Box 248185, Coral Gables, FL 33124 USA
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92
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Abstract
Social-welfare policies are a modern instantiation of a phenomenon that has pervaded human evolutionary history: resource sharing. Ancestrally, food was a key shared resource in situations of temporary hunger. If evolved human psychology continues to shape how individuals think about current, evolutionarily novel conditions, this invites the prediction that attitudes regarding welfare politics are influenced by short-term fluctuations in hunger. Using blood glucose levels as a physiological indicator of hunger, we tested this prediction in a study in which participants were randomly assigned to conditions in which they consumed soft drinks containing either carbohydrates or an artificial sweetener. Analyses showed that participants with experimentally induced low blood glucose levels expressed stronger support for social welfare. Using an incentivized measure of actual sharing behavior (the dictator game), we further demonstrated that this increased support for social welfare does not translate into genuinely increased sharing motivations. Rather, we suggest that it is “cheap talk” aimed at increasing the sharing efforts of other individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lene Aarøe
- Department of Political Science and Government, Aarhus University
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93
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Wagner DD, Altman M, Boswell RG, Kelley WM, Heatherton TF. Self-regulatory depletion enhances neural responses to rewards and impairs top-down control. Psychol Sci 2013; 24:2262-71. [PMID: 24026225 DOI: 10.1177/0956797613492985] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
To be successful at self-regulation, individuals must be able to resist impulses and desires. The strength model of self-regulation suggests that when self-regulatory capacity is depleted, self-control deficits result from a failure to engage top-down control mechanisms. Using functional neuroimaging, we examined changes in brain activity in response to viewing desirable foods among 31 chronic dieters, half of whom completed a task known to result in self-regulatory depletion. Compared with nondepleted dieters, depleted dieters exhibited greater food-cue-related activity in the orbitofrontal cortex, a brain area associated with coding the reward value and liking aspects of desirable foods; they also showed decreased functional connectivity between this area and the inferior frontal gyrus, a region commonly implicated in self-control. These findings suggest that self-regulatory depletion provokes self-control failure by reducing connectivity between brain regions that are involved in cognitive control and those that represent rewards, thereby decreasing the capacity to resist temptations.
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94
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Kool W, McGuire JT, Wang GJ, Botvinick MM. Neural and behavioral evidence for an intrinsic cost of self-control. PLoS One 2013; 8:e72626. [PMID: 24013455 PMCID: PMC3754929 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0072626] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2013] [Accepted: 07/10/2013] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The capacity for self-control is critical to adaptive functioning, yet our knowledge of the underlying processes and mechanisms is presently only inchoate. Theoretical work in economics has suggested a model of self-control centering on two key assumptions: (1) a division within the decision-maker between two 'selves' with differing preferences; (2) the idea that self-control is intrinsically costly. Neuroscience has recently generated findings supporting the 'dual-self' assumption. The idea of self-control costs, in contrast, has remained speculative. We report the first independent evidence for self-control costs. Through a neuroimaging meta-analysis, we establish an anatomical link between self-control and the registration of cognitive effort costs. This link predicts that individuals who strongly avoid cognitive demand should also display poor self-control. To test this, we conducted a behavioral experiment leveraging a measure of demand avoidance along with two measures of self-control. The results obtained provide clear support for the idea of self-control costs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wouter Kool
- Department of Psychology, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey, United States of America
- Princeton Neuroscience Institute, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey, United States of America
| | - Joseph T. McGuire
- Department of Psychology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Gary J. Wang
- Department of Psychology, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey, United States of America
| | - Matthew M. Botvinick
- Department of Psychology, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey, United States of America
- Princeton Neuroscience Institute, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey, United States of America
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95
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Robles TF, Kane HS. The Attachment System and Physiology in Adulthood: Normative Processes, Individual Differences, and Implications for Health. J Pers 2013; 82:515-27. [DOI: 10.1111/jopy.12052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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96
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Beliefs about willpower determine the impact of glucose on self-control. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2013; 110:14837-42. [PMID: 23959900 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1313475110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Past research found that the ingestion of glucose can enhance self-control. It has been widely assumed that basic physiological processes underlie this effect. We hypothesized that the effect of glucose also depends on people's theories about willpower. Three experiments, both measuring (experiment 1) and manipulating (experiments 2 and 3) theories about willpower, showed that, following a demanding task, only people who view willpower as limited and easily depleted (a limited resource theory) exhibited improved self-control after sugar consumption. In contrast, people who view willpower as plentiful (a nonlimited resource theory) showed no benefits from glucose--they exhibited high levels of self-control performance with or without sugar boosts. Additionally, creating beliefs about glucose ingestion (experiment 3) did not have the same effect as ingesting glucose for those with a limited resource theory. We suggest that the belief that willpower is limited sensitizes people to cues about their available resources including physiological cues, making them dependent on glucose boosts for high self-control performance.
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97
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Friese M, Binder J, Luechinger R, Boesiger P, Rasch B. Suppressing emotions impairs subsequent stroop performance and reduces prefrontal brain activation. PLoS One 2013; 8:e60385. [PMID: 23565239 PMCID: PMC3614508 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0060385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2012] [Accepted: 02/27/2013] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Abundant behavioral evidence suggests that the ability to self-control is limited, and that any exertion of self-control will increase the likelihood of subsequent self-control failures. Here we investigated the neural correlates underlying the aftereffects of self-control on future control processes using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). An initial act of self-control (suppressing emotions) impaired subsequent performance in a second task requiring control (Stroop task). On the neural level, increased activity during emotion suppression was followed by a relative decrease in activity during the Stroop task in a cluster in the right lateral prefrontal cortex (PFC) including the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), an area engaged in the effortful implementation of control. There was no reliable evidence for reduced activity in the medial frontal cortex (MFC) including the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), which is involved in conflict detection processes and has previously also been implicated in self-control. Follow-up analyses showed that the detected cluster in the right lateral PFC and an area in the MFC were involved in both the emotion suppression task and the Stroop task, but only the cluster in the right lateral PFC showed reduced activation after emotion suppression during the Stroop task. Reduced activity in lateral prefrontal areas relevant for the implementation of control may be a critical consequence of prior self-control exertion if the respective areas are involved in both self-control tasks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malte Friese
- Department of Psychology, Saarland University, Saarbruecken, Germany
- * E-mail: (BR); (MF)
| | - Julia Binder
- Department of Psychology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Roger Luechinger
- Institute for Biomedical Engineering, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich and University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Peter Boesiger
- Institute for Biomedical Engineering, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich and University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Björn Rasch
- Department of Psychology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- * E-mail: (BR); (MF)
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98
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Silvestrini N, Rainville P. After-effects of cognitive control on pain. Eur J Pain 2013; 17:1225-33. [DOI: 10.1002/j.1532-2149.2013.00299.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/29/2013] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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99
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Berkman ET, Graham AM, Fisher PA. Training Self-Control: A Domain-General Translational Neuroscience Approach. CHILD DEVELOPMENT PERSPECTIVES 2012; 6:374-384. [PMID: 23894251 PMCID: PMC3722070 DOI: 10.1111/j.1750-8606.2012.00248.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Self-control plays an important role in healthy development and has been shown to be amenable to intervention. This article presents a theoretical framework for the emerging area of "brain-training" interventions that includes both laboratory-based direct training methods and ecologically valid school-, family-, and community-based interventions. Although these approaches have proliferated in recent years, evidence supporting them is just beginning to emerge, and conceptual models underlying many of the techniques they employ tend to be underspecified and imprecise. Identifying the neural systems responsible for improvements in self-control may be of tremendous benefit not only for overall intervention efficacy but also for basic science issues related to underlying shared biological mechanisms of psychopathology. This article reviews the neurodevelopment of self-control and explores its implications for theory, intervention, and prevention. It then presents a neurally informed framework for understanding self-control development and change and discusses how this framework may inform future intervention strategies for individuals suffering with psychopathology or drug abuse/dependence, or for young children with delays in cognitive or emotional functioning.
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100
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Persson J, Larsson A, Reuter-Lorenz PA. Imaging fatigue of interference control reveals the neural basis of executive resource depletion. J Cogn Neurosci 2012; 25:338-51. [PMID: 23163416 DOI: 10.1162/jocn_a_00321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Executive control coordinates, prioritizes, and selects task-relevant representations under conditions of conflict. Behavioral evidence has documented that executive resources are separable, finite, and can be temporarily depleted; however, the neural basis for such resource limits are largely unknown. Here, we investigate the neural correlates underlying the fatigue or depletion of interference control, an executive process hypothesized to mediate competition among candidate memory representations. Using a pre/post continuous acquisition fMRI design, we demonstrate that, compared with a nondepletion control group, the depletion group showed a fatigue-induced performance deficit that was specific to interference control and accompanied by a left-to-right shift in the network of active regions. Specifically, we observed decreased BOLD signal in the left inferior frontal gyrus (IFG), striatum, and the cerebellum, along with a corresponding increase in right hemisphere regions including the IFG, insular, and temporal cortex. Depletion-related changes in activation magnitude correlated with behavioral changes, suggesting that decreased recruitment of task-relevant regions, including left IFG, contributes to impaired interference control. These results provide new evidence about the brain dynamics of "process-specific" fatigue and suggest that depletion may pose a significant limitation on the cognitive and neural resources available for executive control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonas Persson
- Aging Research Center, Karolinska Institute and Stockholm University, Gävlegatan 16, 113 30 Stockholm, Sweden.
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