Regulation of cell migration and morphogenesis by Abl-family kinases: emerging mechanisms and physiological contexts

Investigating Cell Signaling with Gene Expression Datasets

Modern molecular biology is a data- and computationally-intensive field with few instructional resources for introducing undergraduate students to the requisite skills and techniques for analyzing large data sets. This Lesson helps students: (i) build an understanding of the role of signal transduction in the control of gene expression; (ii) improve written scientific communication skills through engagement in literature searches, data analysis, and writing reports; and (iii) develop an awareness of the procedures and protocols for analyzing and making inferences from high-content quantitative molecular biology data. The Lesson is most suited to upper level biology courses because it requires foundational knowledge on cellular organization, protein structure and function, and the tenets of information flow from DNA to proteins. The first step lays the foundation for understanding cell signaling, which can be accomplished through assigned readings and presentations. In subsequent active learning sessions, data analysis is integrated with exercises that provide insight into the structure of scientific papers. The Lesson emphasizes the role of quantitative methods in research and helps students gain experience with functional genomics databases and data analysis, which are important skills for molecular biologists. Assessment is conducted through mini-reports designed to gauge students' perceptions of the purpose of each step, their awareness of the possible limitations of the methods utilized, and the ability to identify opportunities for further investigation. Summative assessment is conducted through a final report. The modules are suitable for complementing wet-laboratory experiments and can be adapted for different courses that use molecular biology data.

Potential protein markers for breast cancer recurrence: a retrospective cohort study

BACKGROUND

We evaluated five key proteins involved in various cancer-related pathways and assessed their relation to breast cancer recurrence.

METHODS

We used the Kentucky Cancer Registry to retrospectively identify primary invasive breast cancer cases (n = 475) that were diagnosed and treated at University of Kentucky Medical Center between 2000 and 2007. Breast cancer recurrence was observed in 62 cases during the 5-year follow-up after diagnosis. Protein expression or activity level was analyzed from surgery tissue using immuno-histochemical assays.

RESULTS

Compared to ER+/PR+/HER2- patients without recurrence, those with recurrence had higher TWIST expression (p = 0.049) but lower ABL1/ABL2 activity (p = 0.003) in primary tumors. We also found that triple-negative breast cancer patients with recurrence had higher SNAI1 expression compared to those without recurrence (p = 0.03). After adjusting for potential confounders, the higher ABL1/ABL2 activity in primary tumors was associated with a decreased risk of recurrence (OR 0.72, 95% CI 0.85-0.90) among ER+/PR+/HER2- patients. In addition, among patients with recurrence we observed that the activity level of ABL1/ABL2 was significantly increased in recurrent tumors compared to the matched primary tumors regardless of the subtype (p = 0.013).

CONCLUSIONS

These findings provide evidence that the expression/activity level of various proteins may be differentially associated with risk of recurrence of breast tumor subtypes.

Signaling mechanisms and physiological functions of G-protein Gα13 in blood vessel formation, bone homeostasis, and cancer

Heterotrimeric G-proteins are cellular signal transducers. They mainly relay signals from G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). GPCRs function as guanine nucleotide-exchange factors to active these G-proteins. Based on the sequence and functional similarities, these G-proteins are grouped into four subfamilies: G_s , G_i , G_q , and G_12/13 . The G_12/13 subfamily consists of two members: G₁₂ and G₁₃ . G_12/13 -mediated signaling pathways play pivotal roles in a variety of physiological processes, while aberrant regulation of this pathway has been identified in various human diseases. Here we summarize the signaling mechanisms and physiological functions of Gα₁₃ in blood vessel formation and bone homeostasis. We further discuss the expanding roles of Gα₁₃ in cancers, serving as oncogenes as well as tumor suppressors.

Emerging therapeutic targets for treatment of leishmaniasis

INTRODUCTION

Parasitic diseases that pose a threat to human life include leishmaniasis - caused by protozoan parasite Leishmania species. Existing drugs have limitations due to deleterious side effects like teratogenicity, high cost and drug resistance. This calls for the need to have an insight into therapeutic aspects of disease. Areas covered: We have identified different drug targets via. molecular, imuunological, metabolic as well as by system biology approaches. We bring these promising drug targets into light so that they can be explored to their maximum. In an effort to bridge the gaps between existing knowledge and prospects of drug discovery, we have compiled interesting studies on drug targets, thereby paving the way for establishment of better therapeutic aspects. Expert opinion: Advancements in technology shed light on many unexplored pathways. Further probing of well established pathways led to the discovery of new drug targets. This review is a comprehensive report on current and emerging drug targets, with emphasis on several metabolic targets, organellar biochemistry, salvage pathways, epigenetics, kinome and more. Identification of new targets can contribute significantly towards strengthening the pipeline for disease elimination.

Targeting invadopodia-mediated breast cancer metastasis by using ABL kinase inhibitors

Metastatic dissemination of cancer cells from the primary tumor and their spread to distant sites in the body is the leading cause of mortality in breast cancer patients. While researchers have identified treatments that shrink or slow metastatic tumors, no treatment that permanently eradicates metastasis exists at present. Here, we show that the ABL kinase inhibitors imatinib, nilotinib, and GNF-5 impede invadopodium precursor formation and cortactin-phosphorylation dependent invadopodium maturation, leading to decreased actin polymerization in invadopodia, reduced extracellular matrix degradation, and impaired matrix proteolysis-dependent invasion. Using a mouse xenograft model we demonstrate that, while primary tumor size is not affected by ABL kinase inhibitors, the in vivo matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) activity, tumor cell invasion, and consequent spontaneous metastasis to lungs are significantly impaired in inhibitor-treated mice. Further proteogenomic analysis of breast cancer patient databases revealed co-expression of the Abl-related gene (Arg) and cortactin across all hormone- and human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2)-receptor status tumors, which correlates synergistically with distant metastasis and poor patient prognosis. Our findings establish a prognostic value for Arg and cortactin as predictors of metastatic dissemination and suggest that therapeutic inhibition of ABL kinases may be used for blocking breast cancer metastasis.

Coronavirus S protein-induced fusion is blocked prior to hemifusion by Abl kinase inhibitors

Enveloped viruses gain entry into host cells by fusing with cellular membranes, a step that is required for virus replication. Coronaviruses, including the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV), Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) and infectious bronchitis virus (IBV), fuse at the plasma membrane or use receptor-mediated endocytosis and fuse with endosomes, depending on the cell or tissue type. The virus spike (S) protein mediates fusion with the host cell membrane. We have shown previously that an Abelson (Abl) kinase inhibitor, imatinib, significantly reduces SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV viral titres and prevents endosomal entry by HIV SARS S and MERS S pseudotyped virions. SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV are classified as BSL-3 viruses, which makes experimentation into the cellular mechanisms involved in infection more challenging. Here, we use IBV, a BSL-2 virus, as a model for studying the role of Abl kinase activity during coronavirus infection. We found that imatinib and two specific Abl kinase inhibitors, GNF2 and GNF5, reduce IBV titres by blocking the first round of virus infection. Additionally, all three drugs prevented IBV S-induced syncytia formation prior to the hemifusion step. Our results indicate that membrane fusion (both virus-cell and cell-cell) is blocked in the presence of Abl kinase inhibitors. Studying the effects of Abl kinase inhibitors on IBV will be useful in identifying the host cell pathways required for coronavirus infection. This will provide an insight into possible therapeutic targets to treat infections by current as well as newly emerging coronaviruses.

A Role for the Non-Receptor Tyrosine Kinase Abl2/Arg in Experimental Neuroinflammation

Multiple sclerosis is a neuroinflammatory degenerative disease, caused by activated immune cells infiltrating the CNS. The disease etiology involves both genetic and environmental factors. The mouse genetic locus, Eae27, linked to disease development in the experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) model for multiple sclerosis, was studied in order to identify contributing disease susceptibility factors and potential drug targets for multiple sclerosis. Studies of an Eae27 congenic mouse strain, revealed that genetic variation within Eae27 influences EAE development. The Abl2 gene, encoding the non-receptor tyrosine kinase Arg, is located in the 4,1 megabase pair long Eae27 region. The Arg protein plays an important role in cellular regulation and is, in addition, involved in signaling through the B- and T-cell receptors, important for the autoimmune response. The presence of a single nucleotide polymorphism causing an amino acid change in a near actin-interacting domain of Arg, in addition to altered lymphocyte activation in the congenic mice upon immunization with myelin antigen, makes Abl2/Arg a candidate gene for EAE. Here we demonstrate that the non-synonymous SNP does not change Arg's binding affinity for F-actin but suggest a role for Abl kinases in CNS inflammation pathogenesis by showing that pharmacological inhibition of Abl kinases ameliorates EAE, but not experimental arthritis.

Coordination of signalling networks and tumorigenic properties by ABL in glioblastoma cells

The cytoplasmic tyrosine kinase ABL exerts positive or negative effects in solid tumours according to the cellular context, thus functioning as a “switch modulator”. The therapeutic effects of drugs targeting a set of signals encompassing ABL have been explored in several solid tumours. However, the net contribution of ABL inhibition by these agents remains elusive as these drugs also act on other signalling components. Here, using glioblastoma (GBM) as a cellular paradigm, we report that ABL inhibition exacerbates mesenchymal features as highlighted by down-regulation of epithelial markers and up-regulation of mesenchymal markers. Cells with permanent ABL inhibition exhibit enhanced motility and invasive capabilities, while proliferation and tumorigenic properties are reduced. Intriguingly, permanent ABL inhibition also interferes with GBM neurosphere formation and with expression of stemness markers in sphere-cultured GBM cells. Furthermore, we show that the molecular and biological characteristics of GBM cells with impaired ABL are reversible by restoring ABL levels, thus uncovering a remarkable plasticity of GBM cells to ABL threshold. A phospho-signalling screen revealed that loss of tumorigenic and self-renewal properties in GBM cells under permanent ABL inhibition coincide with drastic changes in the expression and/or phosphorylation levels of multiple signalling components. Our findings identify ABL as a crucial player for migration, invasion, proliferation, tumorigenic, and stem-cell like properties of GBM cells. Taken together, this work supports the notion that the oncogenic role of ABL in GBM cells is associated with its capability to coordinate a signalling setting that determines tumorigenic and stem-cell like properties.

Reduction of Blood Amyloid-β Oligomers in Alzheimer's Disease Transgenic Mice by c-Abl Kinase Inhibition

One of the pathological hallmarks of Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the presence of amyloid plaques, which are deposits of misfolded and aggregated amyloid-beta peptide (Aβ). The role of the c-Abl tyrosine kinase in Aβ-mediated neurodegeneration has been previously reported. Here, we investigated the therapeutic potential of inhibiting c-Abl using imatinib. We developed a novel method, based on a technique used to detect prions (PMCA), to measure minute amounts of misfolded-Aβ in the blood of AD transgenic mice. We found that imatinib reduces Aβ-oligomers in plasma, which correlates with a reduction of AD brain features such as plaques and oligomers accumulation, neuroinflammation, and cognitive deficits. Cells exposed to imatinib and c-Abl KO mice display decreased levels of β-CTF fragments, suggesting that an altered processing of the amyloid-beta protein precursor is the most probable mechanism behind imatinib effects. Our findings support the role of c-Abl in Aβ accumulation and AD, and propose AD-PMCA as a new tool to evaluate AD progression and screening for drug candidates.

The Significant Role of c-Abl Kinase in Barrier Altering Agonists-mediated Cytoskeletal Biomechanics

Exploration of human pulmonary artery endothelial cell (EC) as a prototypical biomechanical system has important pathophysiologic relevance because this cell type plays a key role in the development of a wide variety of clinical conditions. The complex hierarchical organization ranging from the molecular scale up to the cellular level has an intimate and intricate relationship to the barrier function between lung tissue and blood. To understand the innate molecule-cell-tissue relationship across varied length-scales, the functional role of c-Abl kinase in the cytoskeletal nano-biomechanics of ECs in response to barrier-altering agonists was investigated using atomic force microscopy. Concurrently, the spatially specific arrangement of cytoskeleton structure and dynamic distribution of critical proteins were examined using scanning electron microscopy and immunofluorescence. Reduction in c-Abl expression by siRNA attenuates both thrombin- and sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P)-mediated structural changes in ECs, specifically spatially-defined changes in elastic modulus and distribution of critical proteins. These results indicate that c-Abl kinase is an important determinant of cortical actin-based cytoskeletal rearrangement. Our findings directly bridge the gap between kinase activity, structural complexity, and functional connectivity across varied length-scales, and suggest that manipulation of c-Abl kinase activity may be a potential target for the treatment of pulmonary barrier disorders.

Atomic view of the energy landscape in the allosteric regulation of Abl kinase

The activity of protein kinases is often regulated in an intramolecular fashion by signaling domains, which feature several phosphorylation or protein-docking sites. How kinases integrate such distinct binding and signaling events to regulate their activities is unclear, especially in quantitative terms. We used NMR spectroscopy to show how structural elements within the Abl regulatory module (RM) synergistically generate a multilayered allosteric mechanism that enables Abl kinase to function as a finely tuned switch. We dissected the structure and energetics of the regulatory mechanism to precisely measure the effects of various activating or inhibiting stimuli on Abl kinase activity. The data provide a mechanistic basis explaining genetic observations and reveal a previously unknown activator region within Abl. Our findings show that drug-resistance mutations in the Abl RM exert their allosteric effect by promoting the activated state of Abl and not by decreasing the drug affinity for the kinase.

Disruption of Coordinated Presynaptic and Postsynaptic Maturation Underlies the Defects in Hippocampal Synapse Stability and Plasticity in Abl2/Arg-Deficient Mice

Immature glutamatergic synapses in cultured neurons contain high-release probability (Pr) presynaptic sites coupled to postsynaptic sites bearing GluN2B-containing NMDA receptors (NMDARs), which mature into low-Pr, GluN2B-deficient synapses. Whether this coordinated maturation of high-Pr, GluN2B(+) synapses to low-Pr, GluN2B-deficient synapses actually occurs in vivo, and if so, what factors regulate it and what role it might play in long-term synapse function and plasticity are unknown. We report that loss of the integrin-regulated Abl2/Arg kinase in vivo yields a subpopulation of "immature" high-Pr, GluN2B(+) hippocampal synapses that are maintained throughout late postnatal development and early adulthood. These high-Pr, GluN2B(+) synapses are evident in arg(-/-) animals as early as postnatal day 21 (P21), a time that precedes any observable defects in synapse or dendritic spine number or structure in arg(-/-) mice. Using focal glutamate uncaging at individual synapses, we find only a subpopulation of arg(-/-) spines exhibits increased GluN2B-mediated responses at P21. As arg(-/-) mice age, these synapses increase in proportion, and their associated spines enlarge. These changes coincide with an overall loss of spines and synapses in the Arg-deficient mice. We also demonstrate that, although LTP and LTD are normal in P21 arg(-/-) slices, both forms of plasticity are significantly altered by P42. These data demonstrate that the integrin-regulated Arg kinase coordinates the maturation of presynaptic and postsynaptic compartments in a subset of hippocampal synapses in vivo, and this coordination is critical for NMDAR-dependent long-term synaptic stability and plasticity.

SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT

Synapses mature in vitro from high-release probability (Pr) GluN2B(+) to low-Pr, GluN2B(-), but it is unknown why this happens or whether it occurs in vivo High-Pr, GluN2B(+) synapses persist into early adulthood in Arg-deficient mice in vivo and have elevated NMDA receptor currents and increased structural plasticity. The persistence of these high-Pr, GluN2B(+) synapses is associated with a net synapse loss and significant disruption of normal synaptic plasticity by early adulthood. Together, these observations suggest that the maturation of high-Pr, GluN2B(+) synapses to predominantly low-Pr, GluN2B(-) synapses may be essential to preserving a larger dynamic range for plasticity while ensuring that connectivity is distributed among a greater number of synapses for optimal circuit function.

c-Abl regulates gastrointestinal muscularis propria homeostasis via ERKs

The gastrointestinal tract is responsible for food digestion and absorption. The muscularis propria propels the foodstuff through the GI tract and defects in intestine motility may cause obstruction disorders. Our present genetic studies identified non-receptor tyrosine kinase c-Abl as an important regulator of the muscularis propria homeostasis and a risk factor for rectal prolapse. Mouse deficient for c-Abl showed defects in the muscularis propria of gastrointestinal tract and older c-Abl ^-/- mice developed megaesophagus and rectal prolapse. Inhibition of c-Abl with imatinib mesylate, an anti-CML drug, or ablation of c-Abl using Prx1-Cre, which marks smooth muscle cells, recapitulated most of the muscularis propria phenotypes. The pathogenesis of rectal prolapse was attributable to overproliferation of smooth muscle cells, which was caused by enhanced ERK1/2 activation. Administration of ERK inhibitor U0126 impeded the development of rectal prolapse in c-Abl deficient mice. These results reveal a role for c-Abl-regulated smooth muscle proliferation in the pathogenesis of rectal prolapse, and imply that long-term use of imatinib mesylate may cause gastrointestinal problems in patients while ERK inhibitor may be effective in treating rectal prolapse.

Head and neck cancer cell radiosensitization upon dual targeting of c-Abl and beta1-integrin

Integrin-mediated cell adhesion to extracellular matrix (ECM) critically contributes to cancer cell therapy resistance and DNA double strand break (DSB) repair. c-Abl tyrosine kinase has been linked to both of these processes. Based on our previous findings indicating c-Abl hyperphosphorylation on tyrosine (Y) 412 and threonine (T) 735 upon beta1-integrin inhibition, we hypothesized c-Abl tyrosine kinase as an important mediator of beta1-integrin signaling for radioresistance. In a panel of 8 cell lines from different solid cancer types grown in 3D laminin-rich ECM cultures, we targeted beta1 integrin with AIIB2 (mAb) and c-Abl with Imatinib with and without X-ray irradiation and subsequently examined clonogenic survival, residual DSBs, protein expression and phosphorylation. Single or combined treatment with AIIB2 and Imatinib resulted in cell line-dependent cytotoxicity. Intriguingly, we identified a subgroup of this cell line panel that responded with a higher degree of radiosensitization to AIIB2/Imatinib relative to both single treatments. In this subgroup, we observed a non-statistically significant trend between the radioresponse and phospho-c-Abl Y412. Mechanistically, impairment of DNA repair seems to be associated with radiosensitization upon AIIB2/Imatinib and AIIB2/Imatinib-related radiosensitization could be reduced by exogenous overexpression of either wildtype or constitutively active c-Abl forms relative to controls. Our data generated in more physiological 3D cancer cell culture models suggest c-Abl as further determinant of radioresistance and DNA repair downstream of beta1-integrin. For solid cancers, c-Abl phosphorylation status might be an indicator for reasonable Imatinib application as adjuvant for conventional radio(chemo)therapy.

New perspectives on the roles of Abl tyrosine kinase in axon patterning

The Abelson tyrosine kinase (Abl) lies at the heart of one of the small set of ubiquitous, conserved signal transduction pathways that do much of the work of development and physiology. Abl signaling is essential to epithelial integrity, motility of autonomous cells such as blood cells, and axon growth and guidance in the nervous system. However, though Abl was one of the first of these conserved signaling machines to be identified, it has been among the last to have its essential architecture elucidated. Here we will first discuss some of the challenges that long delayed the dissection of this pathway, and what they tell us about the special problems of investigating dynamic processes like motility. We will then describe our recent experiments that revealed the functional organization of the Abl pathway in Drosophila neurons. Finally, in the second part of the review we will introduce a different kind of complexity in the role of Abl in motility: the discovery of a previously unappreciated function in protein secretion and trafficking. We will provide evidence that the secretory function of Abl also contributes to its role in axon growth and guidance, and finally end with a discussion of the challenges that Abl pleiotropy provide for the investigator, but the opportunities that it provides for coordinating biological regulation.

The Lung is a Host Defense Niche for Immediate Neutrophil-Mediated Vascular Protection

Bloodstream infection is a hallmark of sepsis, a medically emergent condition requiring rapid treatment. However, upregulation of host defense proteins through toll-like receptors and NFκB requires hours after endotoxin detection. Using confocal pulmonary intravital microscopy, we identified that the lung provides a TLR4-Myd88-and abl tyrosine kinase-dependent niche for immediate CD11b-dependent neutrophil responses to endotoxin and Gram-negative bloodstream pathogens. In an in vivo model of bacteremia, neutrophils crawled to and rapidly phagocytosed Escherichia coli sequestered to the lung endothelium. Therefore, the lung capillaries provide a vascular defensive niche whereby endothelium and neutrophils cooperate for immediate detection and capture of disseminating pathogens.

The Abl pathway bifurcates to balance Enabled and Rac signaling in axon patterning in Drosophila

The Abl tyrosine kinase signaling network controls cell migration, epithelial organization, axon patterning and other aspects of development. Although individual components are known, the relationships among them remain unresolved. We now use FRET measurements of pathway activity, analysis of protein localization and genetic epistasis to dissect the structure of this network in Drosophila We find that the adaptor protein Disabled stimulates Abl kinase activity. Abl suppresses the actin-regulatory factor Enabled, and we find that Abl also acts through the GEF Trio to stimulate the signaling activity of Rac GTPase: Abl gates the activity of the spectrin repeats of Trio, allowing them to relieve intramolecular repression of Trio GEF activity by the Trio N-terminal domain. Finally, we show that a key target of Abl signaling in axons is the WAVE complex that promotes the formation of branched actin networks. Thus, we show that Abl constitutes a bifurcating network, suppressing Ena activity in parallel with stimulation of WAVE. We suggest that the balancing of linear and branched actin networks by Abl is likely to be central to its regulation of axon patterning.

Multifunctional Abl kinases in health and disease

The Abelson tyrosine kinases were initially identified as drivers of leukemia in mice and humans. The Abl family kinases Abl1 and Abl2 regulate diverse cellular processes during development and normal homeostasis, and their functions are subverted during inflammation, cancer and other pathologies. Abl kinases can be activated by multiple stimuli leading to cytoskeletal reorganization required for cell morphogenesis, motility, adhesion and polarity. Depending on the cellular context, Abl kinases regulate cell survival and proliferation. Emerging data support important roles for Abl kinases in pathologies linked to inflammation. Among these are neurodegenerative diseases and inflammatory pathologies. Unexpectedly, Abl kinases have also been identified as important players in mammalian host cells during microbial pathogenesis. Thus, the use of Abl kinase inhibitors might prove to be effective in the treatment of pathologies beyond leukemia and solid tumors. In this Cell Science at a Glance article and in the accompanying poster, we highlight the emerging roles of Abl kinases in the regulation of cellular processes in normal cells and diverse pathologies ranging from cancer to microbial pathogenesis.

Reciprocal regulation of Abl kinase by Crk Y251 and Abi1 controls invasive phenotypes in glioblastoma

Crk is the prototypical member of a class of Src homology 2 (SH2) and Src homology 3 (SH3) domain-containing adaptor proteins that positively regulate cell motility via the activation of Rac1 and, in certain tumor types such as GBM, can promote cell invasion and metastasis by mechanisms that are not well understood. Here we demonstrate that Crk, via its phosphorylation at Tyr251, promotes invasive behavior of tumor cells, is a prominent feature in GBM, and correlating with aggressive glioma grade IV staging and overall poor survival outcomes. At the molecular level, Tyr251 phosphorylation of Crk is negatively regulated by Abi1, which competes for Crk binding to Abl and attenuates Abl transactivation. Together, these results show that Crk and Abi1 have reciprocal biological effects and act as a molecular rheostat to control Abl activation and cell invasion. Finally, these data suggest that Crk Tyr251 phosphorylation regulate invasive cell phenotypes and may serve as a biomarker for aggressive GBM.

Abelson Kinase Inhibitors Are Potent Inhibitors of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus and Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus Fusion

The highly pathogenic severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) and Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) cause significant morbidity and morality. There is currently no approved therapeutic for highly pathogenic coronaviruses, even as MERS-CoV is spreading throughout the Middle East. We previously screened a library of FDA-approved drugs for inhibitors of coronavirus replication in which we identified Abelson (Abl) kinase inhibitors, including the anticancer drug imatinib, as inhibitors of both SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV in vitro Here we show that the anti-CoV activity of imatinib occurs at the early stages of infection, after internalization and endosomal trafficking, by inhibiting fusion of the virions at the endosomal membrane. We specifically identified the imatinib target, Abelson tyrosine-protein kinase 2 (Abl2), as required for efficient SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV replication in vitro These data demonstrate that specific approved drugs can be characterized in vitro for their anticoronavirus activity and used to identify host proteins required for coronavirus replication. This type of study is an important step in the repurposing of approved drugs for treatment of emerging coronaviruses.

IMPORTANCE

Both SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV are zoonotic infections, with bats as the primary source. The 2003 SARS-CoV outbreak began in Guangdong Province in China and spread to humans via civet cats and raccoon dogs in the wet markets before spreading to 37 countries. The virus caused 8,096 confirmed cases of SARS and 774 deaths (a case fatality rate of ∼10%). The MERS-CoV outbreak began in Saudi Arabia and has spread to 27 countries. MERS-CoV is believed to have emerged from bats and passed into humans via camels. The ongoing outbreak of MERS-CoV has resulted in 1,791 cases of MERS and 640 deaths (a case fatality rate of 36%). The emergence of SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV provides evidence that coronaviruses are currently spreading from zoonotic sources and can be highly pathogenic, causing serious morbidity and mortality in humans. Treatment of SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV infection is limited to providing supportive therapy consistent with any serious lung disease, as no specific drugs have been approved as therapeutics. Highly pathogenic coronaviruses are rare and appear to emerge and disappear within just a few years. Currently, MERS-CoV is still spreading, as new infections continue to be reported. The outbreaks of SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV and the continuing diagnosis of new MERS cases highlight the need for finding therapeutics for these diseases and potential future coronavirus outbreaks. Screening FDA-approved drugs streamlines the pipeline for this process, as these drugs have already been tested for safety in humans.

Molecular systems evaluation of oligomerogenic APP(E693Q) and fibrillogenic APP(KM670/671NL)/PSEN1(Δexon9) mouse models identifies shared features with human Alzheimer's brain molecular pathology

Identification and characterization of molecular mechanisms that connect genetic risk factors to initiation and evolution of disease pathophysiology represent major goals and opportunities for improving therapeutic and diagnostic outcomes in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Integrative genomic analysis of the human AD brain transcriptome holds potential for revealing novel mechanisms of dysfunction that underlie the onset and/or progression of the disease. We performed an integrative genomic analysis of brain tissue-derived transcriptomes measured from two lines of mice expressing distinct mutant AD-related proteins. The first line expresses oligomerogenic mutant APP(E693Q) inside neurons, leading to the accumulation of amyloid beta (Aβ) oligomers and behavioral impairment, but never develops parenchymal fibrillar amyloid deposits. The second line expresses APP(KM670/671NL)/PSEN1(Δexon9) in neurons and accumulates fibrillar Aβ amyloid and amyloid plaques accompanied by neuritic dystrophy and behavioral impairment. We performed RNA sequencing analyses of the dentate gyrus and entorhinal cortex from each line and from wild-type mice. We then performed an integrative genomic analysis to identify dysregulated molecules and pathways, comparing transgenic mice with wild-type controls as well as to each other. We also compared these results with datasets derived from human AD brain. Differential gene and exon expression analysis revealed pervasive alterations in APP/Aβ metabolism, epigenetic control of neurogenesis, cytoskeletal organization and extracellular matrix (ECM) regulation. Comparative molecular analysis converged on FMR1 (Fragile X Mental Retardation 1), an important negative regulator of APP translation and oligomerogenesis in the post-synaptic space. Integration of these transcriptomic results with human postmortem AD gene networks, differential expression and differential splicing signatures identified significant similarities in pathway dysregulation, including ECM regulation and neurogenesis, as well as strong overlap with AD-associated co-expression network structures. The strong overlap in molecular systems features supports the relevance of these findings from the AD mouse models to human AD.

Reverse Signaling by Semaphorin-6A Regulates Cellular Aggregation and Neuronal Morphology

The transmembrane semaphorin, Sema6A, has important roles in axon guidance, cell migration and neuronal connectivity in multiple regions of the nervous system, mediated by context-dependent interactions with plexin receptors, PlxnA2 and PlxnA4. Here, we demonstrate that Sema6A can also signal cell-autonomously, in two modes, constitutively, or in response to higher-order clustering mediated by either PlxnA2-binding or chemically induced multimerisation. Sema6A activation stimulates recruitment of Abl to the cytoplasmic domain of Sema6A and phos¡phorylation of this cytoplasmic tyrosine kinase, as well as phosphorylation of additional cytoskeletal regulators. Sema6A reverse signaling affects the surface area and cellular complexity of non-neuronal cells and aggregation and neurite formation of primary neurons in vitro. Sema6A also interacts with PlxnA2 in cis, which reduces binding by PlxnA2 of Sema6A in trans but not vice versa. These experiments reveal the complex nature of Sema6A biochemical functions and the molecular logic of the context-dependent interactions between Sema6A and PlxnA2.

Abelson kinase acts as a robust, multifunctional scaffold in regulating embryonic morphogenesis

The importance of Abl kinase activity, the F-actin–binding site, and scaffolding ability in Abl’s many cell biological roles during Drosophila morphogenesis is examined. Abl is a robust multidomain scaffold with different protein motifs and activities contributing differentially to diverse cellular behaviors.

Abelson family kinases (Abls) are key regulators of cell behavior and the cytoskeleton during development and in leukemia. Abl’s SH3, SH2, and tyrosine kinase domains are joined via a linker to an F-actin–binding domain (FABD). Research on Abl’s roles in cell culture led to several hypotheses for its mechanism of action: 1) Abl phosphorylates other proteins, modulating their activity, 2) Abl directly regulates the cytoskeleton via its cytoskeletal interaction domains, and/or 3) Abl is a scaffold for a signaling complex. The importance of these roles during normal development remains untested. We tested these mechanistic hypotheses during Drosophila morphogenesis using a series of mutants to examine Abl’s many cell biological roles. Strikingly, Abl lacking the FABD fully rescued morphogenesis, cell shape change, actin regulation, and viability, whereas kinase-dead Abl, although reduced in function, retained substantial rescuing ability in some but not all Abl functions. We also tested the function of four conserved motifs in the linker region, revealing a key role for a conserved PXXP motif known to bind Crk and Abi. We propose that Abl acts as a robust multidomain scaffold with different protein motifs and activities contributing differentially to diverse cellular behaviors.

The Src kinases Hck, Fgr and Lyn activate Arg to facilitate IgG-mediated phagocytosis and Leishmania infection

Leishmaniasis is a devastating disease that disfigures or kills nearly two million people each year. Establishment and persistence of infection by the obligate intracellular parasite Leishmania requires repeated uptake by macrophages and other phagocytes. Therefore, preventing uptake could be a novel therapeutic strategy for leishmaniasis. Amastigotes, the life cycle stage found in the human host, bind Fc receptors and enter macrophages primarily through immunoglobulin-mediated phagocytosis. However, the host machinery that mediates amastigote uptake is poorly understood. We have previously shown that the Arg (also known as Abl2) non-receptor tyrosine kinase facilitates L. amazonensis amastigote uptake by macrophages. Using small-molecule inhibitors and primary macrophages lacking specific Src family kinases, we now demonstrate that the Hck, Fgr and Lyn kinases are also necessary for amastigote uptake by macrophages. Src-mediated Arg activation is required for efficient uptake. Interestingly, the dual Arg and Src kinase inhibitor bosutinib, which is approved to treat cancer, not only decreases amastigote uptake, but also significantly reduces disease severity and parasite burden in Leishmania-infected mice. Our results suggest that leishmaniasis could potentially be treated with host-cell-active agents such as kinase inhibitors.

The Endocytic Fate of the Transferrin Receptor Is Regulated by c-Abl Kinase

Clathrin-mediated endocytosis of transferrin (Tf) and its cognate receptor (TfR1) is a central pathway supporting the uptake of trophic iron. It has generally been assumed that this is a constitutive process. However, we have reported that the non-receptor tyrosine kinase, Src, is activated by Tf to facilitate the internalization of the Tf-TfR1 ligand-receptor complex. As an extension of these findings, we have tested whether subsequent trafficking steps might be regulated by additional kinase-dependent cascades, and we observed a significant endocytic block by inhibiting c-Abl kinase by a variety of methods. Importantly, Tf internalization was reduced significantly in all of these cell models and could be restored by re-expression of WT c-Abl. Surprisingly, this attenuated Tf-TfR1 endocytosis was due to a substantial drop in both the surface and total cellular receptor levels. Additional studies with the LDL receptor showed a similar effect. Surprisingly, immunofluorescence microscopy of imatinib-treated cells revealed a marked colocalization of internalized TfR1 with late endosomes/lysosomes, whereas attenuating the lysosome function with several inhibitors reduced this receptor loss. Importantly, inhibition of c-Abl resulted in a striking redistribution of the chaperone Hsc70 from a diffuse cytosolic localization to an association with the TfR1 at the late endosome-lysosome. Pharmacological inhibition of Hsc70 ATPase activity in cultured cells by the drug VER155008 prevents this chaperone-receptor interaction, resulting in an accumulation of the TfR1 in the early endosome. Thus, inhibition of c-Abl minimizes receptor recycling pathways and results in chaperone-dependent trafficking of the TfR1 to the lysosome for degradation. These findings implicate a novel role for c-Abl and Hsc70 as an unexpected regulator of Hsc70-mediated transport of trophic receptor cargo between the early and late endosomal compartments.

Computer vision profiling of neurite outgrowth dynamics reveals spatiotemporal modularity of Rho GTPase signaling

NeuriteTracker is a computer vision approach used to analyze neuronal morphodynamics and to examine spatiotemporal Rho GTPase signaling networks regulating neurite outgrowth.

Rho guanosine triphosphatases (GTPases) control the cytoskeletal dynamics that power neurite outgrowth. This process consists of dynamic neurite initiation, elongation, retraction, and branching cycles that are likely to be regulated by specific spatiotemporal signaling networks, which cannot be resolved with static, steady-state assays. We present NeuriteTracker, a computer-vision approach to automatically segment and track neuronal morphodynamics in time-lapse datasets. Feature extraction then quantifies dynamic neurite outgrowth phenotypes. We identify a set of stereotypic neurite outgrowth morphodynamic behaviors in a cultured neuronal cell system. Systematic RNA interference perturbation of a Rho GTPase interactome consisting of 219 proteins reveals a limited set of morphodynamic phenotypes. As proof of concept, we show that loss of function of two distinct RhoA-specific GTPase-activating proteins (GAPs) leads to opposite neurite outgrowth phenotypes. Imaging of RhoA activation dynamics indicates that both GAPs regulate different spatiotemporal Rho GTPase pools, with distinct functions. Our results provide a starting point to dissect spatiotemporal Rho GTPase signaling networks that regulate neurite outgrowth.

Leishmania Infection Engages Non-Receptor Protein Kinases Differentially to Persist in Infected Hosts

Protein kinases play important roles in the regulation of cellular activities. In cells infected by pathogens, there is an increasing appreciation that dysregulated expression of protein kinases promotes the success of intracellular infections. In Leishmania-infected cells, expression and activation of protein kinases, such as the mitogen-activated protein kinases, kinases in the PI3-kinase signaling pathway, and kinases in the NF-κB-signaling pathway, are modulated in some manner. Several recent reviews have discussed our current understanding of the roles of these kinases in Leishmania infections. Apart from the kinases in the pathways enumerated above, there are other host cell protein kinases that are activated during the Leishmania infection of mammalian cells whose roles also appear to be significant. This review discusses recent observations on the Abl family of protein kinases and the protein kinase regulated by RNA in Leishmania infections.

Lamellipodin promotes invasive 3D cancer cell migration via regulated interactions with Ena/VASP and SCAR/WAVE

Cancer invasion is a hallmark of metastasis. The mesenchymal mode of cancer cell invasion is mediated by elongated membrane protrusions driven by the assembly of branched F-actin networks. How deregulation of actin regulators promotes cancer cell invasion is still enigmatic. We report that increased expression and membrane localization of the actin regulator Lamellipodin correlate with reduced metastasis-free survival and poor prognosis in breast cancer patients. In agreement, we find that Lamellipodin depletion reduced lung metastasis in an orthotopic mouse breast cancer model. Invasive 3D cancer cell migration as well as invadopodia formation and matrix degradation was impaired upon Lamellipodin depletion. Mechanistically, we show that Lamellipodin promotes invasive 3D cancer cell migration via both actin-elongating Ena/VASP proteins and the Scar/WAVE complex, which stimulates actin branching. In contrast, Lamellipodin interaction with Scar/WAVE but not with Ena/VASP is required for random 2D cell migration. We identified a phosphorylation-dependent mechanism that regulates selective recruitment of these effectors to Lamellipodin: Abl-mediated Lamellipodin phosphorylation promotes its association with both Scar/WAVE and Ena/VASP, whereas Src-dependent phosphorylation enhances binding to Scar/WAVE but not to Ena/VASP. Through these selective, regulated interactions Lamellipodin mediates directional sensing of epidermal growth factor (EGF) gradients and invasive 3D migration of breast cancer cells. Our findings imply that increased Lamellipodin levels enhance Ena/VASP and Scar/WAVE activities at the plasma membrane to promote 3D invasion and metastasis.

The proto-oncogene c-Src and its downstream signaling pathways are inhibited by the metastasis suppressor, NDRG1

N-myc downstream regulated gene-1 (NDRG1) is a potent metastasis suppressor that plays a key role in regulating signaling pathways involved in mediating cancer cell invasion and migration, including those derived from prostate, colon, etc. However, the mechanisms and molecular targets through which NDRG1 reduces cancer cell invasion and migration, leading to inhibition of cancer metastasis, are not fully elucidated. In this investigation, using NDRG1 over-expression models in three tumor cell-types (namely, DU145, PC3MM and HT29) and also NDRG1 silencing in DU145 and HT29 cells, we reveal that NDRG1 decreases phosphorylation of a key proto-oncogene, cellular Src (c-Src), at a well-characterized activating site (Tyr416). NDRG1-mediated down-regulation of EGFR expression and activation were responsible for the decreased phosphorylation of c-Src (Tyr416). Indeed, NDRG1 prevented recruitment of c-Src to EGFR and c-Src activation. Moreover, NDRG1 suppressed Rac1 activity by modulating phosphorylation of a c-Src downstream effector, p130Cas, and its association with CrkII, which acts as a "molecular switch" to activate Rac1. NDRG1 also affected another signaling molecule involved in modulating Rac1 signaling, c-Abl, which then inhibited CrkII phosphorylation. Silencing NDRG1 increased cell migration relative to the control and inhibition of c-Src signaling using siRNA, or a pharmacological inhibitor (SU6656), prevented this increase. Hence, the role of NDRG1 in decreasing cell migration is, in part, due to its inhibition of c-Src activation. In addition, novel pharmacological agents, which induce NDRG1 expression and are currently under development as anti-metastatic agents, markedly increase NDRG1 and decrease c-Src activation. This study leads to important insights into the mechanism involved in inhibiting metastasis by NDRG1 and how to target these pathways with novel therapeutics.

ABL kinases promote breast cancer osteolytic metastasis by modulating tumor-bone interactions through TAZ and STAT5 signaling

Bone metastases occur in up to 70% of advanced breast cancer. For most patients with breast cancer, bone metastases are predominantly osteolytic. Interactions between tumor cells and stromal cells in the bone microenvironment drive osteolytic bone metastasis, a process that requires the activation of osteoclasts, cells that break down bone. We report that ABL kinases promoted metastasis of breast cancer cells to bone by regulating the crosstalk between tumor cells and the bone microenvironment. ABL kinases protected tumor cells from apoptosis induced by TRAIL (TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand), activated the transcription factor STAT5, and promoted osteolysis through the STAT5-dependent expression of genes encoding the osteoclast-activating factors interleukin-6 (IL-6) and matrix metalloproteinase 1 (MMP1). Furthermore, in breast cancer cells, ABL kinases increased the abundance of the Hippo pathway mediator TAZ and the expression of TAZ-dependent target genes that promote bone metastasis. Knockdown of ABL kinases or treatment with ABL-specific allosteric inhibitor impaired osteolytic metastasis of breast cancer cells in mice. These findings revealed a role for ABL kinases in regulating tumor-bone interactions and provide a rationale for using ABL-specific inhibitors to limit breast cancer metastasis to bone.

Tead and AP1 Coordinate Transcription and Motility

The Tead family transcription factors are the major intracellular mediators of the Hippo-Yap pathway. Despite the importance of Hippo signaling in tumorigenesis, Tead-dependent downstream oncogenic programs and target genes in cancer cells remain poorly understood. Here, we characterize Tead4-mediated transcriptional networks in a diverse range of cancer cells, including neuroblastoma, colorectal, lung, and endometrial carcinomas. By intersecting genome-wide chromatin occupancy analyses of Tead4, JunD, and Fra1/2, we find that Tead4 cooperates with AP1 transcription factors to coordinate target gene transcription. We find that Tead-AP1 interaction is JNK independent but engages the SRC1-3 co-activators to promote downstream transcription. Furthermore, we show that Tead-AP1 cooperation regulates the activity of the Dock-Rac/CDC42 module and drives the expression of a unique core set of target genes, thereby directing cell migration and invasion. Together, our data unveil a critical regulatory mechanism underlying Tead- and AP1-controlled transcriptional and functional outputs in cancer cells.

Arg Deficiency Does not Influence the Course of Myelin Oligodendrocyte Glycoprotein (MOG35-55)-induced Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis

Background

Inhibition of Abl kinases has an ameliorating effect on the rodent model for multiple sclerosis, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, and arrests lymphocyte activation. The family of Abl kinases consists of the Abl1/Abl and Abl2/Arg tyrosine kinases. While the Abl kinase has been extensively studied in immune activation, roles for Arg are incompletely characterized. To investigate the role for Arg in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, we studied disease development in Arg^-/- mice.

Methods

Arg^-/- and Arg^+/+ mice were generated from breeding of Arg^+/- mice on the C57BL/6 background. Mice were immunized with the myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG)35-55 peptide and disease development recorded. Lymphocyte phenotypes of wild type Arg^+/+ and Arg^-/- mice were studied by in vitro stimulation assays and flow cytometry.

Results

The breeding of Arg^+/+ and Arg^-/- mice showed skewing in the frequency of born Arg^-/- mice. Loss of Arg function did not affect development of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, but reduced the number of splenic B-cells in Arg^-/- mice following immunization with MOG peptide.

Conclusions

Development of MOG-induced experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis is not dependent on Arg, but Arg plays a role for the number of B cells in immunized mice. This might suggest a novel role for the Arg kinase in B-cell trafficking or regulation. Furthermore, the results suggest that Arg is important for normal embryonic development.

Neuritic complexity of hippocampal neurons depends on WIP-mediated mTORC1 and Abl family kinases activities

INTRODUCTION

Neuronal morphogenesis is governed mainly by two interconnected processes, cytoskeletal reorganization, and signal transduction. The actin-binding molecule WIP (Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome protein [WASP]-interacting protein) was identified as a negative regulator of neuritogenesis. Although WIP controls activity of the actin-nucleation-promoting factor neural WASP (N-WASP) during neuritic differentiation, its implication in signal transduction remains unknown.

METHODS

Using primary neurons from WIP-deficient and wild-type mice we did an immunofluorescence, morphometric, and biochemical analysis of the signaling modified by WIP deficiency.

RESULTS

Here, we describe the WIP contribution to the regulation of neuritic elaboration and ramification through modification in phosphorylation levels of several kinases that participate in the mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1)-p70S6K (phosphoprotein 70 ribosomal protein S6 kinase, S6K) intracellular signaling pathway. WIP deficiency induces an increase in the number of neuritic bifurcations and filopodial protrusions in primary embryonic neurons. This phenotype is not due to modifications in the activity of the phosphoinositide 3 kinase (PI3K)-Akt pathway, but to reduced phosphorylation of the S6K residues Ser(411) and Thr(389). The resulting decrease in kinase activity leads to reduced S6 phosphorylation in the absence of WIP. Incubation of control neurons with pharmacological inhibitors of mTORC1 or Abl, two S6K regulators, conferred a morphology resembling that of WIP-deficient neurons. Moreover, the preferential co-distribution of phospho-S6K with polymerized actin is altered in WIP-deficient neurons.

CONCLUSION

These experiments identify WIP as a member of a signaling cascade comprised of Abl family kinases, mTORC1 and S6K, which regulates neuron development and specifically, neuritic branching and complexity. Thus, we postulated a new role for WIP protein.

The Emerging Role of ABL Kinases in Solid Tumors

The Abelson (ABL) tyrosine kinases were identified as drivers of leukemia in mice and humans. Emerging data has shown a role for the ABL family kinases, ABL1 and ABL2, in the progression of several solid tumors. This review will focus on recent reports of the involvement of the ABL kinases in tumor progression using mouse models as well as recent data generated from genomic and proteomic studies linking enhanced expression and hyper-activation of the ABL kinases to some human cancers. Preclinical studies on small molecule inhibitors of the ABL kinases suggest that their use may have beneficial effects for the treatment of selected solid tumors.

Reactive oxygen species trigger motoneuron death in non-cell-autonomous models of ALS through activation of c-Abl signaling

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a fatal neurodegenerative disease in which pathogenesis and death of motor neurons are triggered by non-cell-autonomous mechanisms. We showed earlier that exposing primary rat spinal cord cultures to conditioned media derived from primary mouse astrocyte conditioned media (ACM) that express human SOD1^G93A (ACM-hSOD1^G93A) quickly enhances Na_v channel-mediated excitability and calcium influx, generates intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS), and leads to death of motoneurons within days. Here we examined the role of mitochondrial structure and physiology and of the activation of c-Abl, a tyrosine kinase that induces apoptosis. We show that ACM-hSOD1^G93A, but not ACM-hSOD1^WT, increases c-Abl activity in motoneurons, interneurons and glial cells, starting at 60 min; the c-Abl inhibitor STI571 (imatinib) prevents this ACM-hSOD1^G93A-mediated motoneuron death. Interestingly, similar results were obtained with ACM derived from astrocytes expressing SOD1^G86R or TDP43^A315T. We further find that co-application of ACM-SOD1^G93A with blockers of Na_v channels (spermidine, mexiletine, or riluzole) or anti-oxidants (Trolox, esculetin, or tiron) effectively prevent c-Abl activation and motoneuron death. In addition, ACM-SOD1^G93A induces alterations in the morphology of neuronal mitochondria that are related with their membrane depolarization. Finally, we find that blocking the opening of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore with cyclosporine A, or inhibiting mitochondrial calcium uptake with Ru360, reduces ROS production and c-Abl activation. Together, our data point to a sequence of events in which a toxic factor(s) released by ALS-expressing astrocytes rapidly induces hyper-excitability, which in turn increases calcium influx and affects mitochondrial structure and physiology. ROS production, mediated at least in part through mitochondrial alterations, trigger c-Abl signaling and lead to motoneuron death.

Synaptic Cytoskeletal Plasticity in the Prefrontal Cortex Following Psychostimulant Exposure

Addiction is characterized by maladaptive decision-making, a loss of control over drug consumption and habit-like drug seeking despite adverse consequences. These cognitive changes may reflect the effects of drugs of abuse on prefrontal cortical neurobiology. Here, we review evidence that amphetamine and cocaine fundamentally remodel the structure of excitatory neurons in the prefrontal cortex. We summarize evidence in particular that these psychostimulants have opposing effects in the medial and orbital prefrontal cortices ('mPFC' and 'oPFC', respectively). For example, amphetamine and cocaine increase dendrite length and spine density in the mPFC, while dendrites are impoverished and dendritic spines are eliminated in the oPFC. We will discuss evidence that certain cytoskeletal regulatory proteins expressed in the oPFC and implicated in postnatal (adolescent) neural development also regulate behavioral sensitivity to cocaine. These findings potentially open a window of opportunity for the identification of novel pharmacotherapeutic targets in the treatment of drug abuse disorders in adults, as well as in drug-vulnerable adolescent populations. Finally, we will discuss the behavioral implications of drug-related dendritic spine elimination in the oPFC, with regard to reversal learning tasks and tasks that assess the development of reward-seeking habits, both used to model aspects of addiction in rodents.

Dysregulated Dscam levels act through Abelson tyrosine kinase to enlarge presynaptic arbors

Increased expression of Down Syndrome Cell Adhesion Molecule (Dscam) is implicated in the pathogenesis of brain disorders such as Down syndrome (DS) and fragile X syndrome (FXS). Here, we show that the cellular defects caused by dysregulated Dscam levels can be ameliorated by genetic and pharmacological inhibition of Abelson kinase (Abl) both in Dscam-overexpressing neurons and in a Drosophila model of fragile X syndrome. This study offers Abl as a potential therapeutic target for treating brain disorders associated with dysregulated Dscam expression.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.05196.001

Information is transmitted through the brain by cells called neurons, which are connected into specific circuits and networks. As the brain develops, several different signaling molecules control how the connections between neurons develop. If these signals occur at the wrong time or wrong place, or in the wrong amount, the neurons may not connect in the right way; this is the cause of several brain disorders.

One of the signaling molecules that helps neural circuits to form in the developing brain is the Dscam protein. Having too much Dscam has been linked to neurons with enlarged presynaptic terminals. Presynaptic terminals are the parts of each neuron that send information on to the next cell, and when they are enlarged it results in the neuron not being able to communicate with other neurons in a targeted way. People with brain disorders including Down syndrome, epilepsy and possibly fragile X syndrome often have excessive amounts of Dscam.

It was not known precisely how Dscam signals within neurons. Sterne, Kim and Ye have now investigated this by exploring the effects of Dscam on a group of well-known neurons in the larvae of the fruit fly species Drosophila. The presynaptic terminals of single neurons in this group were labeled in the larvae using a genetic marker. This revealed that the neurons of larvae that had been engineered to produce too much Dscam had larger presynaptic terminals than normal.

Further investigation showed that for Dscam to influence how a presynaptic terminal grows, it must interact with another signaling protein called Abelson tyrosine kinase (or Abl for short). Therefore, the larger presynaptic terminals seen in larvae that produce too much Dscam are a result of the Dscam protein activating too much Abl.

There are several drugs that are approved for use in humans that suppress the activity of Abl. Sterne, Kim and Ye used two of these to treat fruit fly larvae, and found that they reversed the detrimental effects of extra Dscam on the larvae's neural circuit. Furthermore, the drugs fixed neural defects in a fruit fly model designed to reproduce the symptoms of fragile X syndrome.

Overall, the results presented by Sterne, Kim and Ye suggest that suppressing the abnormally high activity of the Abl protein could be a way of treating the brain disorders caused by having excessive amounts of the Dscam protein. The next step is to test whether Dscam and Abl interact in the same way in mammals and whether the proposed treatment is effective in treating mammalian models of disorders that involve dysregulated Dscam signaling.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.05196.002

Abl Kinases Regulate HGF/Met Signaling Required for Epithelial Cell Scattering, Tubulogenesis and Motility

Tight regulation of receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) is crucial for normal development and homeostasis. Dysregulation of RTKs signaling is associated with diverse pathological conditions including cancer. The Met RTK is the receptor for hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) and is dysregulated in numerous human tumors. Here we show that Abl family of non-receptor tyrosine kinases, comprised of Abl (ABL1) and Arg (ABL2), are activated downstream of the Met receptor, and that inhibition of Abl kinases dramatically suppresses HGF-induced cell scattering and tubulogenesis. We uncover a critical role for Abl kinases in the regulation of HGF/Met-dependent RhoA activation and RhoA-mediated actomyosin contractility and actin cytoskeleton remodeling in epithelial cells. Moreover, treatment of breast cancer cells with Abl inhibitors markedly decreases Met-driven cell migration and invasion. Notably, expression of a transforming mutant of the Met receptor in the mouse mammary epithelium results in hyper-activation of both Abl and Arg kinases. Together these data demonstrate that Abl kinases link Met activation to Rho signaling and Abl kinases are required for Met-dependent cell scattering, tubulogenesis, migration, and invasion. Thus, inhibition of Abl kinases might be exploited for the treatment of cancers driven by hyperactivation of HGF/Met signaling.

Structure of the ABL2/ARG kinase in complex with dasatinib

ABL2/ARG (ABL-related gene) belongs to the ABL (Abelson tyrosine-protein kinase) family of tyrosine kinases. ARG plays important roles in cell morphogenesis, motility, growth and survival, and many of these biological roles overlap with the cellular functions of the ABL kinase. Chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) is associated with constitutive ABL kinase activation resulting from fusion between parts of the breakpoint cluster region (BCR) and ABL1 genes. Similarly, fusion of the ETV6 (Tel) and ARG genes drives some forms of T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (T-ALL) and acute myeloid leukemia (AML). Dasatinib is a tyrosine kinase inhibitor used for the treatment of CML by inhibiting ABL, and while it also inhibits ARG, there is currently no structure of ARG in complex with dasatinib. Here, the co-crystal structure of the mouse ARG catalytic domain with dasatinib at 2.5 Å resolution is reported. Dasatinib-bound ARG is found in the DFG-in conformation although it is nonphosphorylated on the activation-loop tyrosine. In this structure the glycine-rich P-loop is found in a relatively open conformation compared with other known ABL family-inhibitor complex structures.

Low doses of imatinib induce myelopoiesis and enhance host anti-microbial immunity

Imatinib mesylate (Gleevec) inhibits Abl1, c-Kit, and related protein tyrosine kinases (PTKs) and serves as a therapeutic for chronic myelogenous leukemia and gastrointestinal stromal tumors. Imatinib also has efficacy against various pathogens, including pathogenic mycobacteria, where it decreases bacterial load in mice, albeit at doses below those used for treating cancer. We report that imatinib at such low doses unexpectedly induces differentiation of hematopoietic stem cells and progenitors in the bone marrow, augments myelopoiesis but not lymphopoiesis, and increases numbers of myeloid cells in blood and spleen. Whereas progenitor differentiation relies on partial inhibition of c-Kit by imatinib, lineage commitment depends upon inhibition of other PTKs. Thus, imatinib mimics “emergency hematopoiesis,” a physiological innate immune response to infection. Increasing neutrophil numbers by adoptive transfer sufficed to reduce mycobacterial load, and imatinib reduced bacterial load of Franciscella spp., which do not utilize imatinib-sensitive PTKs for pathogenesis. Thus, potentiation of the immune response by imatinib at low doses may facilitate clearance of diverse microbial pathogens.

Host-directed therapeutics (HDTs) for infectious diseases target cellular mechanisms used by pathogens to move into, through, or out of cells. The Abl tyrosine kinase (TK) inhibitor and cancer therapeutic imatinib mesylate (Gleevec), for example, has activity against bacterial and viral pathogens via effects on pathogen entry (polyomaviruses), intracellular transit (Mycobacteria) and exit (poxviruses and filoviruses). Other HDTs target the host immune system by suppressing or activating circulating innate and adaptive cells. Here we report that imatinib at doses that are effective in clearing Mycobacterial infections but which are 10-fold lower than those used for cancer, mimics a physiological innate response to infection in the bone marrow, called the “emergency response,” in which hematopoietic stem cells and multipotent progenitors expand and differentiate into mature myeloid cells that migrate to peripheral sites. Imatinib effects occur in part via partial inhibition of c-Kit, suggesting a mechanism by which c-Kit controls the earliest stages of hematopoiesis. Mimicking a physiological antimicrobial response may make imatinib broadly useful. Accordingly, imatinib also has efficacy against infections caused by Franciscella spp., which do not use imatinib-sensitive TKs for pathogenesis. These observations identify myelopoiesis as an important target for HDTs, and provide information on how to dose imatinib for clinical use.

Targeting Abl kinases to regulate vascular leak during sepsis and acute respiratory distress syndrome

The vascular endothelium separates circulating fluid and inflammatory cells from the surrounding tissues. Vascular leak occurs in response to wide-spread inflammatory processes, such as sepsis and acute respiratory distress syndrome, because of the formation of gaps between endothelial cells. Although these disorders are leading causes of mortality in the intensive care unit, no medical therapies exist to restore endothelial cell barrier function. Recent evidence highlights a key role for the Abl family of nonreceptor tyrosine kinases in regulating vascular barrier integrity. These kinases have well-described roles in cancer progression and neuronal morphogenesis, but their functions in the vasculature have remained enigmatic until recently. The Abl family kinases, c-Abl (Abl1) and Abl related gene (Arg, Abl2), phosphorylate several cytoskeletal effectors that mediate vascular permeability, including nonmuscle myosin light chain kinase, cortactin, vinculin, and β-catenin. They also regulate cell-cell and cell-matrix junction dynamics, and the formation of actin-based cellular protrusions in multiple cell types. In addition, both c-Abl and Arg are activated by hyperoxia and contribute to oxidant-induced endothelial cell injury. These numerous roles of Abl kinases in endothelial cells and the current clinical usage of imatinib and other Abl kinase inhibitors have spurred recent interest in repurposing these drugs for the treatment of vascular barrier dysfunction. This review will describe the structure and function of Abl kinases with an emphasis on their roles in mediating vascular barrier integrity. We will also provide a critical evaluation of the potential for exploiting Abl kinase inhibition as a novel therapy for inflammatory vascular leak syndromes.

Direct interactions with the integrin β1 cytoplasmic tail activate the Abl2/Arg kinase

Integrins are heterodimeric α/β extracellular matrix adhesion receptors that couple physically to the actin cytoskeleton and regulate kinase signaling pathways to control cytoskeletal remodeling and adhesion complex formation and disassembly. β1 integrins signal through the Abl2/Arg (Abl-related gene) nonreceptor tyrosine kinase to control fibroblast cell motility, neuronal dendrite morphogenesis and stability, and cancer cell invasiveness, but the molecular mechanisms by which integrin β1 activates Arg are unknown. We report here that the Arg kinase domain interacts directly with a lysine-rich membrane-proximal segment in the integrin β1 cytoplasmic tail, that Arg phosphorylates the membrane-proximal Tyr-783 in the β1 tail, and that the Arg Src homology domain then engages this phosphorylated region in the tail. We show that these interactions mediate direct binding between integrin β1 and Arg in vitro and in cells and activate Arg kinase activity. These findings provide a model for understanding how β1-containing integrins interact with and activate Abl family kinases.

miR-20a promotes prostate cancer invasion and migration through targeting ABL2

The aberrant expression of microRNAs (miRNAs) has been found in various types of cancer. The present study found miR-20a was significantly up-regulated in prostate cancer compared with normal prostate tissues. Patients with a higher miR-20a expression had a Gleason score of 7-10 and shorter survival time. The transwell and wound healing assays revealed that blocking expression of miR-20a by miR-20a ASO suppresses the invasion and migration of PC-3 and DU145 cells in vitro and also inhibits tumor growth in vivo. Furthermore, we identified miR-20a directly targets the ABL family non-receptor tyrosine kinases ABL2 and negatively regulates the phosphorylation of its downstream gene p190RhoGAP. Knockdown of ABL2 promoted cell invasion and migration and we identified miR-20a-induced cell invasion and migration can be rescued by ABL2. In conclusion, our findings show that miR-20a significantly contributes to the progression of prostate cancer by targeting ABL2.

Abl2/Abl-related gene stabilizes actin filaments, stimulates actin branching by actin-related protein 2/3 complex, and promotes actin filament severing by cofilin

Both Arp2/3 complex and the Abl2/Arg nonreceptor tyrosine kinase are essential to form and maintain diverse actin-based structures in cells, including cell edge protrusions in fibroblasts and cancer cells and dendritic spines in neurons. The ability of Arg to promote cell edge protrusions in fibroblasts does not absolutely require kinase activity, raising the question of how Arg might modulate actin assembly and turnover in the absence of kinase function. Arg has two distinct actin-binding domains and interacts physically and functionally with cortactin, an activator of the Arp2/3 complex. However, it was not known whether and how Arg influences actin filament stability, actin branch formation, or cofilin-mediated actin severing or how cortactin influences these reactions of Arg with actin. Arg or cortactin bound to actin filaments stabilizes them from depolymerization. Low concentrations of Arg and cortactin cooperate to stabilize filaments by slowing depolymerization. Arg stimulates formation of actin filament branches by Arp2/3 complex and cortactin. An Arg mutant lacking the C-terminal calponin homology actin-binding domain stimulates actin branch formation by the Arp2/3 complex, indicative of autoinhibition. ArgΔCH can stimulate the Arp2/3 complex even in the absence of cortactin. Arg greatly potentiates cofilin severing of actin filaments, and cortactin attenuates this enhanced severing. The ability of Arg to stabilize filaments, promote branching, and increase severing requires the internal (I/L)WEQ actin-binding domain. These activities likely underlie important roles that Arg plays in the formation, dynamics, and stability of actin-based cellular structures.

Differential and opposing effects of imatinib on LPS- and ventilator-induced lung injury

Endothelial dysfunction underlies the pathophysiology of vascular disorders such as acute lung injury (ALI) syndromes. Recent work has identified the Abl family kinases (c-Abl and Arg) as important regulators of endothelial cell (EC) barrier function and suggests that their inhibition by currently available pharmaceutical agents such as imatinib may be EC protective. Here we describe novel and differential effects of imatinib in regulating lung pathophysiology in two clinically relevant experimental models of ALI. Imatinib attenuates endotoxin (LPS)-induced vascular leak and lung inflammation in mice but exacerbates these features in a mouse model of ventilator-induced lung injury (VILI). We next explored these discrepant observations in vitro through investigation of the roles for Abl kinases in cultured lung EC. Imatinib attenuates LPS-induced lung EC permeability, restores VE-cadherin junctions, and reduces inflammation by suppressing VCAM-1 expression and inflammatory cytokine (IL-8 and IL-6) secretion. Conversely, in EC exposed to pathological 18% cyclic stretch (CS) (in vitro model of VILI), imatinib decreases VE-cadherin expression, disrupts cell-cell junctions, and increases IL-8 levels. Downregulation of c-Abl expression with siRNA attenuates LPS-induced VCAM-1 expression, whereas specific reduction of Arg reduces VE-cadherin expression in 18% CS-challenged ECs to mimic the imatinib effects. In summary, imatinib exhibits pulmonary barrier-protective and anti-inflammatory effects in LPS-injured mice and lung EC; however, imatinib exacerbates VILI as well as dysfunction in 18% CS-EC. These findings identify the Abl family kinases as important modulators of EC function and potential therapeutic targets in lung injury syndromes.

A library of mammalian effector modules for synthetic morphology

BACKGROUND

In mammalian development, the formation of most tissues is achieved by a relatively small repertoire of basic morphogenetic events (e.g. cell adhesion, locomotion, apoptosis, etc.), permutated in various sequences to form different tissues. Together with cell differentiation, these mechanisms allow populations of cells to organize themselves into defined geometries and structures, as simple embryos develop into complex organisms. The control of tissue morphogenesis by populations of engineered cells is a potentially very powerful but neglected aspect of synthetic biology.

RESULTS

We have assembled a modular library of synthetic morphogenetic driver genes to control (separately) mammalian cell adhesion, locomotion, fusion, proliferation and elective cell death. Here we describe this library and demonstrate its use in the T-REx-293 human cell line to induce each of these desired morphological behaviours on command.

CONCLUSIONS

Building on from the simple test systems described here, we want to extend engineered control of morphogenetic cell behaviour to more complex 3D structures that can inform embryologists and may, in the future, be used in surgery and regenerative medicine, making synthetic morphology a powerful tool for developmental biology and tissue engineering.

Defying c-Abl signaling circuits through small allosteric compounds

Many extracellular and intracellular signals promote the c-Abl tyrosine kinase activity. c-Abl in turn triggers a multitude of changes either in protein phosphorylation or in gene expression in the cell. Yet, c-Abl takes part in diverse signaling routes because of several domains linked to its catalytic core. Complex conformational changes turn on and off its kinase activity. These changes affect surface features of the c-Abl kinase and likely its capability to bind actin and/or DNA. Two specific inhibitors (ATP-competitive or allosteric compounds) regulate the c-Abl kinase through different mechanisms. NMR studies show that a c-Abl fragment (SH3-SH2-linker-SH1) adopts different conformational states upon binding to each inhibitor. This supports an unconventional use for allosteric compounds to unraveling physiological c-Abl signaling circuits.

The Abl/enabled signaling pathway regulates Golgi architecture in Drosophila photoreceptor neurons

The Golgi apparatus is optimized separately in different tissues for efficient protein trafficking, but we know little of how cell signaling shapes this organelle. We now find that the Abl tyrosine kinase signaling pathway controls the architecture of the Golgi complex in Drosophila photoreceptor (PR) neurons. The Abl effector, Enabled (Ena), selectively labels the cis-Golgi in developing PRs. Overexpression or loss of function of Ena increases the number of cis- and trans-Golgi cisternae per cell, and Ena overexpression also redistributes Golgi to the most basal portion of the cell soma. Loss of Abl or its upstream regulator, the adaptor protein Disabled, lead to the same alterations of Golgi as does overexpression of Ena. The increase in Golgi number in Abl mutants arises in part from increased frequency of Golgi fission events and a decrease in fusions, as revealed by live imaging. Finally, we demonstrate that the effects of Abl signaling on Golgi are mediated via regulation of the actin cytoskeleton. Together, these data reveal a direct link between cell signaling and Golgi architecture. Moreover, they raise the possibility that some of the effects of Abl signaling may arise, in part, from alterations of protein trafficking and secretion.

Real-time analysis of imatinib- and dasatinib-induced effects on chronic myelogenous leukemia cell interaction with fibronectin

Attachment of stem leukemic cells to the bone marrow extracellular matrix increases their resistance to chemotherapy and contributes to the disease persistence. In chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML), the activity of the fusion BCR-ABL kinase affects adhesion signaling. Using real-time monitoring of microimpedance, we studied in detail the kinetics of interaction of human CML cells (JURL-MK1, MOLM-7) and of control BCR-ABL-negative leukemia cells (HEL, JURKAT) with fibronectin-coated surface. The effect of two clinically used kinase inhibitors, imatinib (a relatively specific c-ABL inhibitor) and dasatinib (dual ABL/SRC family kinase inhibitor), on cell binding to fibronectin is described. Both imatinib and low-dose (several nM) dasatinib reinforced CML cell interaction with fibronectin while no significant change was induced in BCR-ABL-negative cells. On the other hand, clinically relevant doses of dasatinib (100 nM) had almost no effect in CML cells. The efficiency of the inhibitors in blocking the activity of BCR-ABL and SRC-family kinases was assessed from the extent of phosphorylation at autophosphorylation sites. In both CML cell lines, SRC kinases were found to be transactivated by BCR-ABL. In the intracellular context, EC50 for BCR-ABL inhibition was in subnanomolar range for dasatinib and in submicromolar one for imatinib. EC50 for direct inhibition of LYN kinase was found to be about 20 nM for dasatinib and more than 10 µM for imatinib. Cells pretreated with 100 nM dasatinib were still able to bind to fibronectin and SRC kinases are thus not necessary for the formation of cell-matrix contacts. However, a minimal activity of SRC kinases might be required to mediate the increase in cell adhesivity induced by BCR-ABL inhibition. Indeed, active (autophosphorylated) LYN was found to localize in cell adhesive structures which were visualized using interference reflection microscopy.

Digging a little deeper: the stages of invadopodium formation and maturation

Invadopodia are actin-rich protrusions that degrade the extracellular matrix and are required for penetration through the basement membrane, stromal invasion and intravasation. Invadopodia are enriched in actin regulators, such as cortactin, cofilin, N-WASp, Arp2/3 and fascin. Much of the work to date has centered around identifying the proteins involved in regulating actin polymerization and matrix degradation. Recently, there have been significant advances in characterization of the very early stages of invadopodium precursor assembly and the role of adhesion proteins, such as β1 integrin, talin, FAK and Hic-5, in promoting invadopodium maturation. This review summarizes these findings in the context of our current model of invadopodial function and highlights some of the important unanswered questions in the field.