Intranasal delivery of rotigotine to the brain with lactoferrin-modified PEG-PLGA nanoparticles for Parkinson's disease treatment

A Review on Lactoferrin and Central Nervous System Diseases

Central nervous system (CNS) diseases are currently one of the major health issues around the world. Most CNS disorders are characterized by high oxidative stress levels and intense inflammatory responses in affected tissues. Lactoferrin (Lf), a multifunctional iron-binding glycoprotein, plays a significant role in anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antiviral, reactive oxygen species (ROS) modulator, antitumor immunity, and anti-apoptotic processes. Previous studies have shown that Lf is abnormally expressed in a variety of neurological diseases, especially neurodegenerative diseases. Recently, the promotion of neurodevelopment and neuroprotection by Lf has attracted widespread attention, and Lf could be exploited both as an active therapeutic agent and drug nanocarrier. However, our understanding of the roles of Lf proteins in the initiation or progression of CNS diseases is limited, especially the roles of Lf in regulating neurogenesis. This review highlights recent advances in the understanding of the major pharmacological effects of Lf in CNS diseases, including neurodegenerative diseases, cerebrovascular disease, developmental delays in children, and brain tumors.

PLGA Nanoparticle-Based Formulations to Cross the Blood-Brain Barrier for Drug Delivery: From R&D to cGMP

The blood–brain barrier (BBB) is a natural obstacle for drug delivery into the human brain, hindering treatment of central nervous system (CNS) disorders such as acute ischemic stroke, brain tumors, and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-1-associated neurocognitive disorders. Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) is a biocompatible polymer that is used in Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved pharmaceutical products and medical devices. PLGA nanoparticles (NPs) have been reported to improve drug penetration across the BBB both in vitro and in vivo. Poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG), poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA), and poloxamer (Pluronic) are widely used as excipients to further improve the stability and effectiveness of PLGA formulations. Peptides and other linkers can be attached on the surface of PLGA to provide targeting delivery. With the newly published guidance from the FDA and the progress of current Good Manufacturing Practice (cGMP) technologies, manufacturing PLGA NP-based drug products can be achieved with higher efficiency, larger quantity, and better quality. The translation from bench to bed is feasible with proper research, concurrent development, quality control, and regulatory assurance.

Targeting receptor-ligand chemistry for drug delivery across blood-brain barrier in brain diseases

The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is composed of a layer of endothelial cells that is interspersed with a series of tight junctions and characterized by the absence of fenestrations. The permeability of this barrier is controlled by junctions such as tight junctions and adherent junctions as well as several cells such as astrocytes, pericytes, vascular endothelial cells, neurons, microglia, and efflux transporters with relatively enhanced expression. It plays a major role in maintaining homeostasis in the brain and exerts a protective regulatory control on the influx and efflux of molecules. However, it proves to be a challenge for drug delivery strategies that target brain diseases like Dementia, Parkinson's Disease, Alzheimer's Disease, Brain Cancer or Stroke, Huntington's Disease, Lou Gehrig's Disease, etc. Conventional modes of drug delivery are invasive and have been known to contribute to a "leaky BBB", recent studies have highlighted the efficiency and relative safety of receptor-mediated drug delivery. Several receptors are exhibited on the BBB, and actively participate in nutrient uptake, and recognize specific ligands that modulate the process of endocytosis. The strategy employed in receptor-mediated drug delivery exploits this process of "tricking" the receptors into internalizing ligands that are conjugated to carrier systems like liposomes, nanoparticles, monoclonal antibodies, enzymes etc. These in turn are modified with drug molecules, therefore leading to delivery to desired target cells in brain tissue. This review comprehensively explores each of those receptors that can be modified to serve such purposes as well as the currently employed strategies that have led to increased cellular uptake and transport efficiency.

Biomaterials in the treatment of Parkinson's disease

Parkinson's disease is a neurodegenerative disease, the treatment of which is mainly centred around supplementation of dopamine. Additional targets have been identified and newer chemotherapeutic agents have been introduced but their clinical efficacy is limited due to solubility, bioavailability issues and inability to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB). A wide range of biomaterials ranging from biomolecules, polymers, inorganic metal and metal oxide nanoparticles have been employed to assist the delivery of these therapeutic agents into the brain. Additionally, strategies to deliver cells to restore the dopaminergic neurons also have shown promise due to the integration of biocompatible materials that aid neurogenesis through a combination of topographical, chemical and mechanical cues. Neuroprosthetics is an area that may become significant in treatment of motor deficits associated with Parkinson's disease, and involves development of highly conductive and robust electrode materials with excellent cytocompatibility. This review summarizes the major role played by biomaterials in design of novel strategies and in the improvement of existing therapeutic methods as well as the emerging trends in this domain.

Antiseizure potential of peptides from the venom of social wasp Chartergellus communis against chemically-induced seizures

Epilepsy is one of the most common neurological diseases in the world. The objective of this research was to investigate a new peptide from the venom of the social wasp Chartergellus communis useful to the study or pharmacotherapy of epilepsy. The wasps were collected, and their venom was extracted. Afterward, the steps of fractionation, sequencing, and identification were carried out to obtain four peptides. These molecules were synthesized for behavioral evaluation tests and electroencephalographic assays to determine their antiseizure potential (induction of acute seizures using the chemical compounds, pentylenetetrazole - PTZ, and pilocarpine - PILO) and analysis of neuropharmacological profile (general spontaneous activity and alteration in motor coordination). Chartergellus-CP1 (i.c.v. - 3.0 μg/animal) caused beneficial alterations in some of the parameters evaluated in both models: PTZ (latency and duration of maximum seizures) and PILO (latency and duration of, and protection against, maximum seizures, and reduction of the median of the seizure scores. When evaluated in 3 doses in the seizure model induced by PILO, the dose of 3.0 μg/animal protected the animals against seizures, with an estimated ED₅₀ of 1.49 μg/animal. Electroencephalographic evaluation of Chartergellus-CP1 showed an improvement in latency, quantity, and percentage of protection against generalized electroencephalographic seizures in the PILO model. Further, Chartergellus-CP1 did not cause adverse effects on general spontaneous activity and motor coordination of animals. This study demonstrated how compounds isolated from wasps' venom may be important resources in the search for new drugs. Such compounds can be considered valuable therapeutic and biotechnological tools for the study and future treatment of epileptic disorders. In this context, a peptide that is potentially useful for epilepsy pharmacotherapy was identified in the venom of C. communis.

Glioblastoma Break-in; Try Something New

Context: Glioblastoma is the most invasive brain tumor with a poor prognosis and rapid progression. The standard therapy (surgical resection, adjuvant chemotherapy, and radiotherapy) ensures survival only up to 18 months. In this article, we focus on innovative types of radiotherapy, various combinations of temozolomide with novel substances, and methods of their administration and vector delivery to tumor cells. Evidence Acquisition: For a detailed study of the various options for chemotherapy and radiotherapy, Elsevier, NCBI MedLine, Scopus, Google Scholar, Embase, Web of Science, The Cochrane Library, EMBASE, Global Health, CyberLeninka, and RSCI databases were analyzed. Results: The most available method is oral or intravenous administration of temozolomide. More efficient is the combined chemotherapy of temozolomide with innovative drugs and substances such as lomustine, histone deacetylase inhibitors, and chloroquine, as well as olaparib. These combinations improve patient survival and are effective in the treatment of resistant tumors. Compared to standard fractionated radiotherapy (60 Gy, 30 fractions, 6 weeks), hypofractionated is more effective for elderly patients due to lack of toxicity; brachytherapy reduces the risk of glioblastoma recurrence, while radiosurgery with bevacizumab is more effective against recurrent or inoperable tumors. Currently, the most effective treatment is considered to be the intranasal administration of anti-Ephrin A3 (anti-EPHA3)-modified containing temozolomide butyl ester-loaded (TBE-loaded) poly lactide-co-glycolide nanoparticles (P-NPs) coated with N-trimethylated chitosan (TMC) to overcome nasociliary clearance. Conclusions: New radiotherapeutic methods significantly increase the survival rates of glioblastoma patients. With some improvement, it may lead to the elimination of all tumor cells leaving the healthy alive. New chemotherapeutic drugs show impressive results with adjuvant temozolomide. Anti-EPHA3-modified TBE-loaded P-NPs coated with TMC have high absorption specificity and kill glioblastoma cells effectively. A new “step forward” may become a medicine of the future, which reduces the specific accumulation of nanoparticles in the lungs, but simultaneously does not affect specific absorption by tumor cells.

Use of leptin-conjugated phosphatidic acid liposomes with resveratrol and epigallocatechin gallate to protect dopaminergic neurons against apoptosis for Parkinson's disease therapy

Complex liposomes were assembled with 1,2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine, dihexadecyl phosphate (DHDP), cholesterol and 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphate (PA) to act as drug carriers for resveratrol (RES) and epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG). The liposomes were modified with leptin (Lep) on the surface to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and to rescue degenerated dopaminergic neurons. The activity of RES and EGCG against neurotoxicity was investigated using an in vitro neurodegenerative model established by SH-SY5Y cells with an insult of 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP⁺). The results indicated that increasing the mole percentage of DHDP and PA increased the particle size and absolute zeta potential value, and improved the entrapment efficiency of RES and EGCG; however, this increase reduced the release rate of RES and EGCG and the grafting efficiency of Lep. The ability of Lep/RES-EGCG-PA-liposomes to cross the BBB was found to be higher than that of non-modified liposomes. Further, the addition of PA and Lep into liposomes enhanced cell viability and target efficiency. The immunofluorescence results demonstrated that the conjugation of Lep with liposomes enabled the docking of HBMECs and SH-SY5Y cells via Lep receptor, and enhanced their ability to permeate the BBB and cellular uptake. Immunofluorescence and western blot analysis also revealed that RES and EGCG encapsulated into liposomes could be a neural defensive strategy by reducing the apoptosis promotor protein Bcl-2 associated X protein and α-synuclein, and enhancement in the apoptosis inhibitor protein B cell lymphoma 2, tyrosine hydroxylase, and the dopamine transporter. Hence, Lep-PA-liposomes can be an excellent choice of potential delivery system for PD treatment.

Lactoferrin coated or conjugated nanomaterials as an active targeting approach in nanomedicine

A successful drug delivery to a specific site relies on two essential factors including; efficient entrapment of the drug within the carrier and successful delivery of drug- loaded nanocarrier to the target site without opsonisation or drug release in the circulation before reaching the organ of interest. Lactoferrin (LF) is a glycoprotein belonging to the transferrin (TF) family which can bind to TF receptors (TFRs) and LF membrane internalization receptors (LFRs) highly expressed on the cell surface of both highly proliferating cancer cells and blood brain barrier (BBB), which in turn can facilitate its accessibility to the cell nucleus. This merit could be exploited to develop actively targeted drug delivery systems that can easily cross the BBB or internalize into tumor cells. In this review, the most recent advances of utilizing LF as an active targeting ligand for different types of nanocarriers including: inorganic nanoparticles, dendrimers, synthetic biodegradable polymers, lipid nanocarriers, natural polymers, and nanoemulstions will be highlighted. Collectively, LF seems to be a promising targeting ligand in the field of nanomedicine.

Mild traumatic brain injury exacerbates Parkinson's disease induced hemeoxygenase-2 expression and brain pathology: Neuroprotective effects of co-administration of TiO2 nanowired mesenchymal stem cells and cerebrolysin

Mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) is one of the leading predisposing factors in the development of Parkinson's disease (PD). Mild or moderate TBI induces rapid production of tau protein and alpha synuclein (ASNC) in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and in several brain areas. Enhanced tau-phosphorylation and ASNC alters the molecular machinery of the brain leading to PD pathology. Recent evidences show upregulation of constitutive isoform of hemeoxygenase (HO-2) in PD patients that correlates well with the brain pathology. mTBI alone induces profound upregulation of HO-2 immunoreactivity. Thus, it would be interesting to explore whether mTBI exacerbates PD pathology in relation to tau, ASNC and HO-2 expression. In addition, whether neurotrophic factors and stem cells known to reduce brain pathology in TBI could induce neuroprotection in PD following mTBI. In this review role of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) and cerebrolysin (CBL), a well-balanced composition of several neurotrophic factors and active peptide fragments using nanowired delivery in PD following mTBI is discussed based on our own investigation. Our results show that mTBI induces concussion exacerbates PD pathology and nanowired delivery of MSCs and CBL induces superior neuroprotection. This could be due to reduction in tau, ASNC and HO-2 expression in PD following mTBI, not reported earlier. The functional significance of our findings in relation to clinical strategies is discussed.

Nanoparticles for drug delivery in Parkinson's disease

Although effective symptomatic treatments for Parkinson's disease (PD) have been available for some time, efficient and well-controlled drug delivery to the brain has proven to be challenging. The emergence of nanotechnology has created new opportunities not only for improving the pharmacokinetics of conventional therapies but also for developing novel treatment approaches and disease modifying therapies. Several exciting strategies including drug carrier nanoparticles targeting specific intracellular pathways and structural reconformation of tangled proteins as well as introducing reprogramming genes have already shown promise and are likely to deliver more tailored approaches to the treatment of PD in the future. This paper reviews the role of nanoparticles in PD including a discussion of both their composition and functional capacity as well as their potential to deliver better therapeutic agents.

Management of epileptic disorders using nanotechnology-based strategies for nose-to-brain drug delivery

INTRODUCTION

Epilepsy, a major neurological disorder affects about 1% of the Indian population. The discovery of noninvasive strategies for epilepsy presents a challenge for the scientists. Different types of nose-to-brain dosage-forms have been studied for epilepsy management. It aims to give new perspectives for developing new and existing anti-epileptic drugs. Combining nanotechnology with nose-to-brain approach can help in promoting the treatment efficacy by site-specific delivery. Also, it will minimize the side-effects and patient noncompliance observed in conventional administration routes. Peptide delivery can be an interesting approach for the management of epilepsy. Drug-loaded intranasal nanoformulations exhibit diverse prospective potentials in the management of epilepsy. Considering that, nanotherapy using nose-to-brain delivery as a prospective technique for the efficient management of epilepsy is reviewed.

AREAS COVERED

The authors have compiled all recently available data pertaining to the nose-to-brain delivery of therapeutics using nanotechnological strategies. The fundamental mechanism of nose-to-brain delivery, claims for intranasal delivery and medical devices for epilepsy are discussed.

EXPERT OPINION

Drug-loaded intranasal nanoformulations exhibit different prospective potentials in the management of epilepsy. Considering the foregoing research done in the field of nanotechnology, globally, authors propose nose-to-brain delivery of nanoformulations as a potential technique for the efficient management of epilepsy.

Graphene-Based Nanoparticles as Potential Treatment Options for Parkinson's Disease: A Molecular Dynamics Study

INTRODUCTION

The study of abnormal aggregation of proteins in different tissues of the body has recently earned great attention from researchers in various fields of science. Concerning neurological diseases, for instance, the accumulation of amyloid fibrils can contribute to Parkinson's disease, a progressively severe neurodegenerative disorder. The most prominent features of this disease are the degeneration of neurons in the substantia nigra and accumulation of α-synuclein aggregates, especially in the brainstem, spinal cord, and cortical areas. Dopamine replacement therapies and other medications have reduced motor impairment and had positive consequences on patients' quality of life. However, if these medications are stopped, symptoms of the disease will recur even more severely. Therefore, the improvement of therapies targeting more basic mechanisms like prevention of amyloid formation seems to be critical. It has been shown that the interactions between monolayers like graphene and amyloids could prevent their fibrillation.

METHODS

For the first time, the impact of four types of last-generation graphene-based nanostructures on the prevention of α-synuclein amyloid fibrillation was investigated in this study by using molecular dynamics simulation tools.

RESULTS

Although all monolayers were shown to prevent amyloid fibrillation, nitrogen-doped graphene (N-Graphene) caused the most instability in the secondary structure of α-synuclein amyloids. Moreover, among the four monolayers, N-Graphene was shown to present the highest absolute value of interaction energy, the lowest contact level of amyloid particles, the highest number of hydrogen bonds between water and amyloid molecules, the highest instability caused in α-synuclein particles, and the most significant decrease in the compactness of α-synuclein protein.

DISCUSSION

Ultimately, it was concluded that N-Graphene could be the most effective monolayer to disrupt amyloid fibrillation, and consequently, prevent the progression of Parkinson's disease.

Lactoferrin, a multi-functional glycoprotein: Active therapeutic, drug nanocarrier & targeting ligand

Recent progress in protein-based nanomedicine, inspired by the success of Abraxane® albumin-paclitaxel nanoparticles, have resulted in novel therapeutics used for treatment of challenging diseases like cancer and viral infections. However, absence of specific drug targeting, poor pharmacokinetics, premature drug release, and off-target toxicity are still formidable challenges in the clinic. Therefore, alternative protein-based nanomedicines were developed to overcome those challenges. In this regard, lactoferrin (Lf), a glycoprotein of transferrin family, offers a promising biodegradable well tolerated material that could be exploited both as an active therapeutic and drug nanocarrier. This review highlights the major pharmacological actions of Lf including anti-cancer, antiviral, and immunomodulatory actions. Delivery technologies of Lf to improve its pries and enhance its efficacy were also reviewed. Moreover, different nano-engineering strategies used for fabrication of drug-loaded Lf nanocarriers were discussed. In addition, the use of Lf for functionalization of drug nanocarriers with emphasis on tumor-targeted drug delivery was illustrated. Besides its wide application in oncology nano-therapeutics, we discussed the recent advances of Lf-based nanocarriers as efficient platforms for delivery of anti-parkinsonian, anti-Alzheimer, anti-viral drugs, immunomodulatory and bone engineering applications.

Safety considerations for nanoparticle gene delivery in pediatric brain tumors

Current standard of care for many CNS tumors involves surgical resection followed by chemotherapy and/or radiation. Some pediatric brain tumor types are infiltrative and diffuse in nature, which reduces the role for surgery. Furthermore, children are extremely vulnerable to neurological sequelae from surgery and radiation therapy, thus alternative approaches are in critical need. As molecular targets underlying various cancers become more clearly defined, there is an increasing push for targeted gene therapies. Viral vectors and nonviral nanoparticles have been thoroughly investigated for gene delivery and show promise as vectors for gene therapy for pediatric brain cancer. Here, we review inorganic and organic materials in development for nanoparticle gene delivery to the brain with a particular focus on safety.

Nanotechnology-based Drug Delivery, Metabolism and Toxicity

BACKGROUND

Nanoparticles (NPs) are being used extensively owing to their increased surface area, targeted delivery and enhanced retention. NPs have the potential to be used in many disease conditions. Despite widespread use, their toxicity and clinical safety still remain a major concern.

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to explore the metabolism and toxicological effects of nanotherapeutics.

METHODS

Comprehensive, time-bound literature search was done covering the period from 2010 till date. The primary focus was on the metabolism of NP including their adsorption, degradation, clearance, and bio-persistence. This review also focuses on updated investigations on NPs with respect to their toxic effects on various in vitro and in vivo experimental models.

RESULTS

Nanotechnology is a thriving field of biomedical research and an efficient drug delivery system. Further their applications are under investigation for diagnosis of disease and as medical devices.

CONCLUSION

The toxicity of NPs is a major concern in the application of NPs as therapeutics. Studies addressing metabolism, side-effects and safety of NPs are desirable to gain maximum benefits of nanotherapeutics.

Current status of in vivo bioanalysis of nano drug delivery systems

The development of nano drug delivery systems (NDDSs) provides new approaches to fighting against diseases. The NDDSs are specially designed to serve as carriers for the delivery of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) to their target sites, which would certainly extend the benefit of their unique physicochemical characteristics, such as prolonged circulation time, improved targeting and avoiding of drug-resistance. Despite the remarkable progress achieved over the last three decades, the understanding of the relationships between the in vivo pharmacokinetics of NDDSs and their safety profiles is insufficient. Analysis of NDDSs is far more complicated than the monitoring of small molecular drugs in terms of structure, composition and aggregation state, whereby almost all of the conventional techniques are inadequate for accurate profiling their pharmacokinetic behavior in vivo. Herein, the advanced bioanalysis for tracing the in vivo fate of NDDSs is summarized, including liquid chromatography tandem-mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET), aggregation-caused quenching (ACQ) fluorophore, aggregation-induced emission (AIE) fluorophores, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), radiolabeling, fluorescence spectroscopy, laser ablation inductively coupled plasma MS (LA-ICP-MS), and size-exclusion chromatography (SEC). Based on these technologies, a comprehensive survey of monitoring the dynamic changes of NDDSs in structure, composition and existing form in system (i.e. carrier polymers, released and encapsulated drug) with recent progress is provided. We hope that this review will be helpful in appropriate application methodology for investigating the pharmacokinetics and evaluating the efficacy and safety profiles of NDDSs.

SP94 Peptide-Functionalized PEG-PLGA Nanoparticle Loading with Cryptotanshinone for Targeting Therapy of Hepatocellular Carcinoma

To achieve improved drug delivery efficiency to hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), biodegradable poly (ethylene glycol)-poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PEG-PLGA) nanoparticles (NP), surface-modified with SP94 peptide, were designed for the efficient delivery of cryptotanshinone to the tumor for the treatment of HCC. Cryptotanshinone NP and SP94-NP were prepared by using nanoprecipitation. The physicochemical and pharmaceutical properties of the NP and SP94-NP were characterized, and the release kinetics suggested that both NP and SP94-NP provided continuous, slow release of cryptotanshinone for 48 h. The in vitro cellular experiment demonstrated that SP94-NP significantly enhanced the cellular uptake of cryptotanshinone and induced high cytotoxicity and cellular apoptosis of hepatocellular carcinoma (HepG2) cells. The in vivo detecting results of targeting effect using the Cy5.5 probe evidenced that SP94-NP showed an accumulation in tumor more efficiently than that of unconjugated ones. Meanwhile, SP94-NP exhibited the smallest tumor size than other groups and showed no toxicity to body. The results of this study provide a promising nanoplatform for the targeting of HCC.

Current Status and Challenges in Rotigotine Delivery

Rotigotine is a non-ergoline, high lipophilic dopamine agonist. It is indicated as the first-line therapy for Parkinson's disease (PD) and Restless Leg Syndrome (RLS). However, the precise mechanism of rotigotine is yet to be known. Rotigotine has similar safety and tolerability to the other oral non-ergolinic dopamine antagonists in clinical trials, which include nausea, dizziness and somnolence. Neupro® was the first marketed transdermal patch formulation having rotigotine. The transdermal delivery system is advantageous as it enables continuous administration of the drug, thus providing steady-state plasma drug concentration for 24-hours. Intranasal administration of rotigotine allows the drug to bypass the blood-brain barrier enabling it to reach the central nervous system within minutes. Rotigotine can also be formulated as an extended-release microsphere for injection. Some challenges remain in other routes of rotigotine administration such as oral, parenteral and pulmonary, whereby resolving these challenges will be beneficial to patients as they are less invasive and comfortable in terms of administration. This review compiles recent work on rotigotine delivery, challenges and its future perspective.

Nose-to-Brain Delivery of Cancer-Targeting Paclitaxel-Loaded Nanoparticles Potentiates Antitumor Effects in Malignant Glioblastoma

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is an aggressive tumor with no curative treatment. The tumor recurrence after resection often requires chemotherapy or radiation to delay the infiltration of tumor remnants. Intracerebral chemotherapies are preferentially being used to prevent tumor regrowth, but treatments remain unsuccessful because of the poor drug distribution in the brain. In this study, we investigated the therapeutic efficacy of cancer-targeting arginyl-glycyl-aspartic tripeptide (RGD) conjugated paclitaxel (PTX)-loaded nanoparticles (NPs) against GBM by nose-to-brain delivery. Our results demonstrated that RGD-modified PTX-loaded NPs showed cancer-specific delivery and enhanced anticancer effects in vivo. The intranasal (IN) inoculation of RGD-PTX-loaded NPs effectively controls the tumor burden (75 ± 12% reduction) by inducing apoptosis and/or inhibiting cancer cell proliferation without affecting the G₀ stage of normal brain cells. Our data provide therapeutic evidence supporting the use of intranasally delivered cancer-targeted PTX-loaded NPs for GBM therapy.

Muscone/RI7217 co-modified upward messenger DTX liposomes enhanced permeability of blood-brain barrier and targeting glioma

Rationale: The dual-targeted drug delivery system was designed for enhancing permeation of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and providing an anti-glioma effect. As transferrin receptor (TfR) is over-expressed by the brain capillary endothelial (hCMEC/D3) and glioma cells, a mouse monoclonal antibody, RI7217, with high affinity and selectivity for TfR, was used to study the brain targeted drug delivery system. Muscone, an ingredient of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) musk, was used as the "guide" drug to probe the permeability of the BBB for drug delivery into the cerebrospinal fluid. This study investigated the combined effects of TCM aromatic resuscitation and modern receptor-targeted technology by the use of muscone/RI7217 co-modified docetaxel (DTX) liposomes for enhanced drug delivery to the brain for anti-glioma effect. Methods: Cellular drug uptake from the formulations was determined using fluorescence microscopy and flow cytometry. The drug penetrating ability into tumor spheroids were visualized using confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM). In vivo glioma-targeting ability of formulations was evaluated using whole-body fluorescent imaging system. The survival curve study was performed to evaluate the anti-glioma effect of the formulations. Results: The results showed that muscone and RI7217 co-modified DTX liposomes enhanced uptake into both hCMEC/D3 and U87-MG cells, increased penetration to the deep region of U87-MG tumor spheroids, improved brain targeting in vivo and prolonged survival time of nude mice bearing tumor. Conclusion: Muscone and RI7217 co-modified DTX liposomes were found to show improved brain targeting and enhanced the efficacy of anti-glioma drug treatment in vivo.

Nose to brain delivery of rotigotine loaded chitosan nanoparticles in human SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells and animal model of Parkinson's disease

Rotigotine, a non-ergoline dopamine agonist, has been shown to be highly effective for the treatment of Parkinson's disease (PD). However, despite its therapeutic potential, its' clinical applications were hindered due to low aqueous solubility, first-pass metabolism and low bioavailability. Therefore, we developed rotigotine-loaded chitosan nanoparticles (RNPs) for nose-to-brain delivery and evaluated its neuronal uptake, antioxidant and neuroprotective effects using cell-based studies. The pharmacological effects of nose-to-brain delivery of the RNPs were also evaluated in an animal model of PD. The average particle size, particle size distribution and entrapment efficiency of the RNPs were found to be satisfactory. Exposure of RNPs for 24 h did not show any cytotoxicity towards SH-SY5Y human neuroblastoma cells. Furthermore, the RNPs caused a decrease in alpha-synuclein (SNCA) and an increase in tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) expression in these cells, suggestion that the exposure alleviated some of the direct neurotoxic effects of 6-OHDA. Behavioral and biochemical testing of RNPs in haloperidol-induced PD rats showed a reversal of catalepsy, akinesia and restoration of swimming ability. A decrease in lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and an increase in catalase activities were also observed in the brain tissues. The results from the animal model of PD show that intranasally-administered RNPs enhanced brain targeting efficiency and drug bioavailability. Thus, RNPs for nose-to-brain delivery has significant potential to be developed as a treatment approach for PD.

Targeting Small Molecule Delivery to the Brain and Spinal Cord via Intranasal Administration of Rabies Virus Glycoprotein (RVG29)-Modified PLGA Nanoparticles

Alternative routes of administration are one approach that could be used to bypass the blood–brain barrier (BBB) for effective drug delivery to the central nervous system (CNS). Here, we focused on intranasal delivery of polymer nanoparticles. We hypothesized that surface modification of poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) nanoparticles with rabies virus glycoprotein (RVG29) would increase residence time and exposure of encapsulated payload to the CNS compared to non-targeted nanoparticles. Delivery kinetics and biodistribution were analyzed by administering nanoparticles loaded with the carbocyanine dye 1,1′-Dioctadecyl-3,3,3′,3′-Tetramethylindotricarbocyanine Iodide (DiR) to healthy mice. Intranasal administration yielded minimal exposure of nanoparticle payload to most peripheral organs and rapid, effective delivery to whole brain. Regional analysis of payload delivery within the CNS revealed higher delivery to tissues closest to the trigeminal nerve, including the olfactory bulb, striatum, midbrain, brainstem, and cervical spinal cord. RVG29 surface modifications presented modest targeting benefits to the striatum, midbrain, and brainstem 2 h after administration, although targeting was not observed 30 min or 6 h after administration. Payload delivery to the trigeminal nerve was 3.5× higher for targeted nanoparticles compared to control nanoparticles 2 h after nanoparticle administration. These data support a nose-to-brain mechanism of drug delivery that closely implicates the trigeminal nerve for payload delivery from nanoparticles via transport of intact nanoparticles and eventual diffusion of payload. Olfactory and CSF routes are also observed to play a role. These data advance the utility of targeted nanoparticles for nose-to-brain drug delivery of lipophilic payloads and provide mechanistic insight to engineer effective delivery vectors to treat disease in the CNS.

PLGA-PEG-ANG-2 Nanoparticles for Blood-Brain Barrier Crossing: Proof-of-Concept Study

The treatment of diseases that affect the central nervous system (CNS) represents a great research challenge due to the restriction imposed by the blood-brain barrier (BBB) to allow the passage of drugs into the brain. However, the use of modified nanomedicines engineered with different ligands that can be recognized by receptors expressed in the BBB offers a favorable alternative for this purpose. In this work, a BBB-penetrating peptide, angiopep-2 (Ang-2), was conjugated to poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA)-based nanoparticles through pre- and post-formulation strategies. Then, their ability to cross the BBB was qualitatively assessed on an animal model. Proof-of-concept studies with fluorescent and confocal microscopy studies highlighted that the brain-targeted PLGA nanoparticles were able to cross the BBB and accumulated in neuronal cells, thus showing a promising brain drug delivery system.

Nose to brain delivery of antiretroviral drugs in the treatment of neuroAIDS

NeuroAIDS (Neuro Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome) or HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) associated neuronal abnormality is continuing to be a significant health issue among AIDS patients even under the treatment of combined antiretroviral therapy (cART). Injury and damage to neurons of the brain are the prime causes of neuroAIDS, which happens due to the ingress of HIV by direct permeation across the blood-brain barrier (BBB) or else via peripherally infected macrophage into the central nervous system (CNS). The BBB performs as a stringent barricade for the delivery of therapeutics drugs. The intranasal route of drug administration exhibits as a non-invasive technique to bypass the BBB for the delivery of antiretroviral drugs and other active pharmaceutical ingredients inside the brain and CNS. This method is fruitful for the drugs that are unable to invade the BBB to show its action in the CNS and thus erase the demand of systemic delivery and thereby shrink systemic side effects. Drug delivery from the nose to the brain/CNS takes very less time through both olfactory and trigeminal nerves. Intranasal delivery does not require the involvement of any receptor as it occurs by an extracellular route. Nose to brain delivery also involves nasal associated lymphatic tissues (NALT) and deep cervical lymph nodes. However, very little research has been done to explore the utility of nose to brain delivery of antiretroviral drugs in the treatment of neuroAIDS. This review focuses on the potential of nasal route for the effective delivery of antiretroviral nanoformulations directly from nose to the brain.

Intranasal Nanoparticulate Systems as Alternative Route of Drug Delivery

There is always a need for alternative and efficient methods of drug delivery. The nasal cavity can be considered as a non-invasive and efficient route of administration. It has been used for local, systemic, brain targeting, and vaccination delivery. Although many intranasal products are currently available on the market, the majority is used for local delivery with fewer products available for the other targets. As nanotechnology utilization in drug delivery has rapidly spread out, the nasal delivery has become attractive as a promising approach. Nanoparticulate systems facilitate drug transportation across the mucosal barrier, protect the drug from nasal enzyme degradation, enhance the delivery of vaccines to the lymphoid tissue of the nasal cavity with an adjuvant activity, and offer a way for peptide delivery into the brain and the systemic circulation, in addition to their potential for brain tumor treatment. This review article aims at discussing the potential benefit of the intranasal nanoparticulate systems, including nanosuspensions, lipid and surfactant, and polymer-based nanoparticles as regards productive intranasal delivery. The aim of this review is to focus on the topicalities of nanotechnology applications for intranasal delivery of local, systemic, brain, and vaccination purposes during the last decade, referring to the factors affecting delivery, regulatory aspects, and patient expectations. This review further identifies the benefits of applying the Quality by Design approaches (QbD) in product development. According to the reported studies on nanotechnology-based intranasal delivery, potential attention has been focused on brain targeting and vaccine delivery with promising outcomes. Despite the significant research effort in this field, nanoparticle-based products for intranasal delivery are not available. Thus, further efforts are required to promote the introduction of intranasal nanoparticulate products that can meet the requirements of regulatory affairs with high patient acceptance.

Quantification and Evaluation of Glycyrrhizic Acid-loaded Surface Decorated Nanoparticles by UHPLC-MS/MS and used in the Treatment of Cerebral Ischemia

Background:

Glycyrrhizic Acid (GRA), a potent antioxidant triterpene saponin glycoside and neuroprotective properties exhibits an important role in the treatment of neurological disorders i.e. cerebral ischemia. GRA is water soluble, therefore it’s have low bioavailability in the brain.

Objective:

To enhance brain bioavailability for intranasally administered Glycyrrhizic Acidencapsulated- chitosan-coated-PCL-Nanoparticles (CS-GRA-PCL-NPs).

Methods:

Chitosan-coated-PCL-Nanoparticles (CS-PCL-NPs) were developed through double emulsification- solvent evaporation technique and further characterized for particle size, zeta potential, size distribution, encapsulation efficiency as well as in vitro drug release. UPLC triple quadrupole Qtrap MS/MS method was developed to evaluate brain-drug uptake for optimized CS-GRA-PCL-NPs and to determine its pharmacokinetic in rat’s brain as well as plasma.

Results:

Mean particles size (231.47±7.82), polydispersity index (PDI) i.e. (0.216±0.030) and entrapment efficiency (65.69±5.68) was determined for developed NPs. UPLC triple quadrupole Qtrap MS/MS method study showed a significantly high mucoadhesive potential of CS-GRA-PCL-NPs and least for conventional and homogenized nanoformulation; elution time for GRA and internal standard (IS) Hydrocortisone as 0.37 and 1.94 min at m/z 821.49/113.41 and 363.45/121.40 were observed, respectively. Furthermore, intra and inter-assay (%CV) of 0.49-5.48, %accuracy (90.00-99.09%) as well as a linear dynamic range (10.00 ng/mL -2000.0 ng/mL), was observed. Pharmacokinetic studies in Wistar rat brain exhibited a high AUC0-24 alongwith an amplified Cmax (p** < 0.01) as compared to i.v. treated group.

Conclusion:

Intranasal administration of developed CS-coated-GRA-loaded-PCL-NPs enhanced the drug bioavailability in rat brain along with successfully UPLC-MS/MS method and thus preparation of GRA-NPs may help treat cerebral ischemia effectively. The toxicity studies performed at the end revealed safe nature of optimized nanoformulation.

Brain-targeted intranasal delivery of dopamine with borneol and lactoferrin co-modified nanoparticles for treating Parkinson's disease

Efficient delivery of brain-targeted drugs is highly important for successful therapy in Parkinson's disease (PD). This study was designed to formulate borneol and lactoferrin co-modified nanoparticles (Lf-BNPs) encapsulated dopamine as a novel drug delivery system to achieve maximum therapeutic efficacy and reduce side effects for PD. Dopamine Lf-BNPs were prepared using the double emulsion solvent evaporation method and evaluated for physicochemical and pharmaceutical properties. In vitro cytotoxicity studies indicated that treatment with dopamine Lf-BNPs has relatively low cytotoxicity in SH-SY5Y and 16HBE cells. Qualitative and quantitative cellular uptake experiments indicated that Lf modification of NPs increased cellular uptake of SH-SY5Y cells and 16HBE cells, and borneol modification can promote the cellular uptake of 16HBE. In vivo pharmacokinetic studies indicated that AUC0-12 h in the rat brain for dopamine Lf-BNPs was significantly higher (p < .05) than that of dopamine nanoparticles. Intranasal administration of dopamine Lf-BNPs effectively alleviated the 6-hydroxydopamine-induced striatum lesion in rats as indicated by the contralateral rotation behavior test and results for striatal monoamine neurotransmitter content detection. Taken together, intranasal administration of dopamine Lf-BNPs may be an effective drug delivery system for Parkinson's disease.

Neuroprotective and Antioxidant Effect of Naringenin-Loaded Nanoparticles for Nose-to-Brain Delivery

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disorder resulting in a decreased nigrostriatal availability of dopamine. Oxidative stress is one factor contributing to PD. Naringenin (NAR), a flavonoid, is a potent antioxidant shown to be beneficial in experimental PD. The clinical development of NAR has been hampered due to its low bioavailability resulting from gastrointestinal degradation, inefficient permeability, and low aqueous solubility. The objective of the present research was to formulate and characterize naringenin-loaded chitosan nanoparticles (NAR NPs) for nose-to-brain delivery. The cellular uptake, cytotoxicity, and neuroprotective effects of NAR NPs were determined using the SH-SY5Y cell line in vitro. NAR NPs were prepared using the ionic gelation method and characterized by zetasizer, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and field emission microscopy (FESEM). The average particle size, polydispersity index (PDI), zeta potential, entrapment efficiency, and 24 h in vitro release profile were 87.6 ± 8.47 nm, 0.31 ± 0.04, 15.36 ± 2.05 mV, 91.12 ± 2.99%, and 54.80 ± 4.22%, respectively. The percentage NAR permeation through nasal mucosa from NPs was found to be 67.90 ± 0.72%. Cellular uptake of prepared NPs was confirmed by fluorescence microscopy. Neuroprotective activity of NAR NPs was evaluated through viability assays and by estimating reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels. NAR NPs showed enhanced neuroprotective ability and antioxidant effect against 6-OHDA-induced neurotoxicity in SH-SY5Y cells. However, animal studies are necessary to establish the potential of NAR NPs to be an effective carrier for the treatment of PD for nose-to-brain delivery.

Transport of Human Lactoferrin into Mouse Brain: Administration Routes and Distribution

We studied different ways of transport of human lactoferrin to the brain of C57Bl/6 mice after its administration via different routes, analyzed its distribution in the brain, and determined the phenotype of lactoferrin-containing cells. Colocalization of lactoferrin and markers of various cell types was estimated by fluorescent immunohistochemical analysis. Lactoferrin was detected in mouse brain sections after its intranasal, sublingual, and intraperitoneal administration, but not after conjunctival administration. After intranasal administration, lactoferrin rapidly penetrated into the brain and accumulated in the cytoplasm of vascular endothelial cells in the neocortex, striatum, hippocampus, and thalamus. After application of protein solution onto fixed floating sections, highly specific binding of lactoferrin was found in the nuclei of neurons, astrocytes, and microglia cells, but not in the nuclei of endothelial cells of mouse brain.

Nose-to-brain delivery of temozolomide-loaded PLGA nanoparticles functionalized with anti-EPHA3 for glioblastoma targeting

Glioblastoma is the most common malignant brain tumor. Efficient delivery of drugs targeting glioblastomas remains a challenge. Ephrin type-A receptor 3 (EPHA3) tyrosine kinase antibody-modified polylactide-co-glycolide (PLGA) nanoparticles (NPs) were developed to target glioblastoma via nose-to-brain delivery. Anti-EPHA3-modified, TBE-loaded NPs were prepared using an emulsion-solvent evaporation method, showed a sustained in vitro release profile up to 48 h and a mean particle size of 145.9 ± 8.7 nm. The cellular uptake of anti-EPHA3-modified NPs by C6 cells was significantly enhanced compared to that of nontargeting NPs (p < .01). In vivo imaging and distribution studies on the glioma-bearing rats showed that anti-EPHA3-modified NPs exhibited high fluorescence intensity in the brain and effectively accumulated to glioma tissues, indicating the targeting effect of anti-EPHA3. Glioma-bearing rats treated with anti-EPHA3-modified NPs resulted in significantly higher tumor cell apoptosis (p < .01) than that observed with other formulations and prolonged the median survival time of glioma-bearing rats to 26 days, which was 1.37-fold longer than that of PLGA NPs. The above results indicated that anti-EPHA3-modified NPs may potentially serve as a nose-to-brain drug carrier for the treatment of glioblastoma.

A window into the brain: Tools to assess pre-clinical efficacy of biomaterials-based therapies on central nervous system disorders

Therapeutic conveyance into the brain is a cardinal requirement for treatment of diverse central nervous system (CNS) disorders and associated pathophysiology. Effectual shielding of the brain by the blood-brain barrier (BBB) sieves out major proportion of therapeutics with the exception of small lipophilic molecules. Various nano-delivery systems (NDS) provide an effective solution around this obstacle owing to their small size and targeting properties. To date, these systems have been used for several pre-clinical disease models including glioma, neurodegenerative diseases and psychotic disorders. An efficacy screen for these systems involves a test battery designed to probe into the multiple facets of therapeutic delivery. Despite their wide application in redressing various disease targets, the efficacy evaluation strategies for all can be broadly grouped into four modalities, namely: histological, bio-imaging, molecular and behavioural. This review presents a comprehensive insight into all of these modalities along with their strengths and weaknesses as well as perspectives on an ideal design for a panel of tests to screen brain nano-delivery systems.

Temporal development of behavioral impairments in rats following locus coeruleus lesion induced by 6-hydroxydopamine: Involvement of β3-adrenergic receptors

Noradrenergic degeneration in the locus coeruleus (LC) seems a convergent neuropathological marker of different neurodegenerative diseases. Herein, we investigated the temporal development of apoptotic signaling activation in the LC, noradrenergic dysfunction and behavioral impairments in rats following the noradrenergic lesion of the LC. For this purpose, the dopamine reuptake inhibitor nomifensine was administered 1 h before the stereotaxic bilateral injections of 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA; 5, 10 or 20 μg/hem) into the LC. The behavioral and neurochemical analyses were performed at 7, 21 and 42 days after 6-OHDA injections. All doses of 6-OHDA induced neuronal death in LC, but only the highest dose (20 μg/hem) disrupted the motor function. 6-OHDA (5 μg/hem) injection induced short-term memory deficits in all periods, olfactory discrimination and long-term memory impairments at 7 days, and depressive-like behaviors at 21 and 42 days after injection. Moreover, 6-OHDA infusion increased Bax/Bcl2 ratio and caspase 3 levels, and decreased the dopamine β-hydroxylase immunocontent in the LC. Noradrenergic neurotransmission dysfunction was observed in the LC, olfactory bulb, prefrontal cortex, hippocampus and striatum. The intranasal (i.n.) noradrenaline (NA) infusion restored the impairments in the olfactory discrimination, short-term memory and depressive-like behavior of 6-OHDA-lesioned rats. In addition, these effects were blocked by the prior i.n. infusion of the β₃-adrenergic receptor antagonist SR59230A. These findings indicate that the 6-OHDA injection into the LC induced the apoptosis signaling activation, noradrenergic neurotransmission dysfunction and behavioral impairments that were restored via β₃-adrenergic receptors activation mediated by the i.n. NA administration.

Fabrication, Optimization, and Evaluation of Rotigotine-Loaded Chitosan Nanoparticles for Nose-To-Brain Delivery

The objective of the present study was to develop, optimize, and evaluate rotigotine-loaded chitosan nanoparticles (RNPs) for nose-to-brain delivery. Rotigotine-loaded chitosan nanoparticles were prepared by the ionic gelation method and optimized for various parameters such as the effect of chitosan, sodium tripolyphosphate, rotigotine concentration on particle size, polydispersity index (PDI), zeta potential, and entrapment efficiency. The prepared nanoparticles were characterized using photon correlation spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy, fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, and X-ray diffraction. The developed RNPs showed a small hydrodynamic particle size (75.37 ± 3.37 nm), small PDI (0.368 ± 0.02), satisfactory zeta potential (25.53 ± 0.45 mV), and very high entrapment efficiency (96.08 ± 0.01). The 24-h in vitro release and ex vivo nasal permeation of rotigotine from the nanoparticles were 49.45 ± 2.09% and 92.15 ± 4.74% while rotigotine solution showed corresponding values of 95.96 ± 1.79%and 58.22 ± 1.75%, respectively. The overall improvement ratio for flux and permeability coefficient were found to be 4.88 and 2.67 when compared with rotigotine solution. A histopathological study showed that the nanoparticulate formulation produced no toxicity or structural damage to nasal mucosa. Our results indicated that rotigotine-loaded chitosan nanoparticles provide an efficient carrier for nose-to-brain delivery.

Lactoferrin ameliorates dopaminergic neurodegeneration and motor deficits in MPTP-treated mice

Brain iron accumulation is common in patients with Parkinson's disease (PD). Iron chelators have been investigated for their ability to prevent neurodegenerative diseases with features of iron overload. Given the non-trivial side effects of classical iron chelators, lactoferrin (Lf), a multifunctional iron-binding globular glycoprotein, was screened to identify novel neuroprotective pathways against dopaminergic neuronal impairment. We found that Lf substantially ameliorated PD-like motor dysfunction in the subacute 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP)-induced mouse model of PD. We further showed that Lf could alleviate MPTP-triggered apoptosis of DA neurons, neuroinflammation, and histological alterations. As expected, we also found that Lf suppressed MPTP-induced excessive iron accumulation and the upregulation of divalent metal transporter (DMT1) and transferrin receptor (TFR), which is the main intracellular iron regulation protein, and subsequently improved the activity of several antioxidant enzymes. We probed further and determined that the neuroprotection provided by Lf was involved in the upregulated levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), hypoxia-inducible factor 1α (HIF-1α) and its downstream protein, accompanied by the activation of extracellular regulated protein kinases (ERK) and cAMP response element binding protein (CREB), as well as decreased phosphorylation of c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) and mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK)/P38 kinase in vitro and in vivo. Our findings suggest that Lf may be an alternative safe drug in ameliorating MPTP-induced brain abnormalities and movement disorder.

Efficient Cholera Toxin B Subunit-Based Nanoparticles with MRI Capability for Drug Delivery to the Brain Following Intranasal Administration

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is an incurable neurodegenerative brain disorder that exhibits clear pathologic changes in the hippocampus. Traditional drug delivery systems are ineffective due to the existence of the blood-brain barrier (BBB). In this study, an efficient, stable, and easily constructed nanosystem (CB-Gd-Cy5.5) based on the cholera toxin B subunit (CB) is designed to improve the efficiency of drug delivery to the brain, especially the hippocampus. Through intranasal administration, CB-Gd-Cy5.5 is easily delivered to the brain without intervention by the BBB. The CB in CB-Gd-Cy5.5 is used for specifically combining with the monosialoganglioside GM1, which is widely found in the hippocampus. This nanosystem exhibits impressive performance in accumulating in the hippocampus. In addition, the good magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) capability of CB-Gd-Cy5.5 can satisfy the monitoring of AD in the different stages.

Intranasal delivery of α-asarone to the brain with lactoferrin-modified mPEG-PLA nanoparticles prepared by premix membrane emulsification

Alpha-asarone is a bioactive component of Acorus tatarincuii Schott with low bioavailability, which is often used for treatments of various brain diseases in clinical setting. This study was to formulate biodegradable methoxy polyethylene glycol-polylactic acid (mPEG-PLA) nanoparticles (NPs) surface-modified by lactoferrin (Lf), for delivering α-asarone into the brain following intranasal administration. Alpha-asarone NPs were prepared by premix membrane emulsification. The relative parameters were optimized by a Box-Behnken experimental design. The particle size, zeta potential, and dispersibility index of NPs and Lf-NPs were characterized. Their ex vivo permeation, pharmacokinetics, distribution in the brain and other tissue, brain targeting, and toxicity were investigated. Following intranasal administration, Lf-NPs had a better permeability and no significant poor bioavailability compared to NPs; the area under curve from 0 to 12 h of α-asarone in Lf-NPs of the olfactory bulb, hippocampus, olfactory bundles, and thalamus were 2.14-, 4.17-, 3.62-, and 1.96-fold of those in NP group, respectively. Lactoferrin could enhance the efficacy of brain targeting with NPs and reduce its liver accumulation. Toxicity of NPs on nasal mucosal cilia and epithelial cells was also decreased by Lf. To summarize, these results demonstrate that Lf-NPs of α-asarone have potential as a carrier for nose-to-brain delivery of α-asarone for brain diseases.

Mixed cationic liposomes for brain delivery of drugs by the intranasal route: The acetylcholinesterase reactivator 2-PAM as encapsulated drug model

New mixed cationic liposomes based on L-α-phosphatidylcholine and dihexadecylmethylhydroxyethylammonium bromide (DHDHAB) were designed to overcome the BBB crossing by using the intranasal route. Synthesis and self-assembly of DHDHAB were performed. A low critical association concentration (0.01 mM), good solubilization properties toward hydrophobic dye Orange OT and antimicrobial activity against gram-positive bacteria Staphylococcus aureus (MIC=7.8 μg mL^-1) and Bacillus cereus (MIC=7.8 μg mL^-1), low hemolytic activities against human red blood cells (less than 10%) were achieved. Conditions for preparation of cationic vesicles and mixed liposomes with excellent colloidal stability at room temperature were determined. The intranasal administration of rhodamine B-loaded cationic liposomes was shown to increase bioavailability into the brain in comparison to the intravenous injection. The cholinesterase reactivator, 2-PAM, was used as model drug for the loading in cationic liposomes. 2-PAM-loaded cationic liposomes displayed high encapsulation efficiency (∼ 90%) and hydrodynamic diameter close to 100 nm. Intranasally administered 2-PAM-loaded cationic liposomes were effective against paraoxon-induced acetylcholinesterase inhibition in the brain. 2-PAM-loaded liposomes reactivated 12 ± 1% of brain acetylcholinesterase. This promising result opens the possibility to use marketed positively charged oximes in medical countermeasures against organophosphorus poisoning for reactivation of central acetylcholinesterase by implementing a non-invasive approach, via the "nose-brain" pathway.

Strategies for Enhancing the Permeation of CNS-Active Drugs through the Blood-Brain Barrier: A Review

Background: The blood brain barrier (BBB) is a dynamic and functional structure which poses a vast challenge in the development of drugs acting on the central nervous system (CNS). While most substances are denied BBB crossing, selective penetration of substances mainly occurs through diffusion, carrier mediated transport, or receptor mediated transcytosis. Methods: Strategies in enhancing BBB penetration have been reviewed and summarized in accordance with their type of formulation. Highlights in monoclonal antibodies, peptide-vectors, nanoparticles, and simple prodrugs were included. Conclusion: Nanoparticles and simple prodrugs, for example, can be used for efficient BBB penetration through inhibition of efflux mechanisms, however, monoclonal antibodies are the most promising strategy in BBB penetration. Close follow-up of future development in this area should confirm our expectation.

Nanoparticle delivery of grape seed-derived proanthocyanidins to airway epithelial cells dampens oxidative stress and inflammation

Background

Chronic respiratory diseases, whose one of the hallmarks is oxidative stress, are still incurable and need novel therapeutic tools and pharmaceutical agents. The phenolic compounds contained in grape are endowed with well-recognized anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, and anti-aging activities. Considering that natural anti-oxidants, such as proanthocyanidins, have poor water solubility and oral bioavailability, we have developed a drug delivery system based on solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN), apt to encapsulate grape seed extract (GSE), containing proanthocyanidins.

Methods

Plain, 6-coumarin (6-Coum), DiR- and GSE-loaded SLN were produced with the melt-emulsion method. Physicochemical characterization of all prepared SLN was determined by photon correlation spectroscopy and laser Doppler anemometry. MTT assay (spectrophotometry) and propidium iodide (PI) assay (cytofluorimetry) were used to assess cell viability. Flow cytometry coupled with cell imaging was performed for assessing apoptosis and necrosis by Annexin V/7-AAD staining (plain SLE), cell internalization (6-Coum-SLN) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production (SLN-GSE). NF-κB nuclear translocation was studied by immunofluorescence. In vivo bio-imaging was used to assess lung deposition and persistence of aerosolized DiR-loaded SLN.

Results

Plain SLN were not cytotoxic when incubated with H441 airway epithelial cells, as judged by both PI and MTT assays as well as by apoptosis/necrosis evaluation. 6-Coum-loaded SLN were taken up by H441 cells in a dose-dependent fashion and persisted into cells at detectable levels up to 16 days. SLN were detected in mice lungs up to 6 days. SLN-GSE possessed 243 nm as mean diameter, were negatively charged, and stable in size at 37 °C in Simulated Lung Fluid up to 48 h and at 4 °C in double distilled water up to 2 months. The content of SLN in proanthocyanidins remained unvaried up to 2 months. GSE-loaded SLN determined a significant reduction in ROS production when added 24–72 h before the stimulation with hydrogen peroxide. Interestingly, while at 24 h free GSE determined a higher decrease of ROS production than SLN-GSE, the contrary was seen at 48 and 72 h. Similar results were observed for NF-κB nuclear translocation.

Conclusions

SLN are a biocompatible drug delivery system for natural anti-oxidants obtained from grape seed in a model of oxidative stress in airway epithelial cells. They feature stability and long-term persistence inside cells where they release proanthocyanidins. These results could pave the way to novel anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory therapies for chronic respiratory diseases.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12967-018-1509-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Current Trends in Biomaterial Utilization for Cardiopulmonary System Regeneration

The cardiopulmonary system is made up of the heart and the lungs, with the core function of one complementing the other. The unimpeded and optimal cycling of blood between these two systems is pivotal to the overall function of the entire human body. Although the function of the cardiopulmonary system appears uncomplicated, the tissues that make up this system are undoubtedly complex. Hence, damage to this system is undesirable as its capacity to self-regenerate is quite limited. The surge in the incidence and prevalence of cardiopulmonary diseases has reached a critical state for a top-notch response as it currently tops the mortality table. Several therapies currently being utilized can only sustain chronically ailing patients for a short period while they are awaiting a possible transplant, which is also not devoid of complications. Regenerative therapeutic techniques now appear to be a potential approach to solve this conundrum posed by these poorly self-regenerating tissues. Stem cell therapy alone appears not to be sufficient to provide the desired tissue regeneration and hence the drive for biomaterials that can support its transplantation and translation, providing not only physical support to seeded cells but also chemical and physiological cues to the cells to facilitate tissue regeneration. The cardiac and pulmonary systems, although literarily seen as just being functionally and spatially cooperative, as shown by their diverse and dissimilar adult cellular and tissue composition has been proven to share some common embryological codevelopment. However, necessitating their consideration for separate review is the immense adult architectural difference in these systems. This review also looks at details on new biological and synthetic biomaterials, tissue engineering, nanotechnology, and organ decellularization for cardiopulmonary regenerative therapies.