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Li L, Zhang T, Ren X, Li B, Wang S. Male reproductive toxicity of zearalenone-meta-analysis with mechanism review. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2021; 221:112457. [PMID: 34175827 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2021.112457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2021] [Revised: 06/20/2021] [Accepted: 06/21/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Zearalenone (ZEA) is an oestrogen-like mycotoxin produced by Fusarium fungi, which has a considerable impact on human and animal health and results in substantial economic losses worldwide. This study aimed to demonstrate the reproductive injury induced by ZEA in rodents. We conducted a rigorous meta-analysis of the related literature via PubMed, Embase, and Web of Science. The scope of the study includes the following: development of reproductive organs, serum testosterone, oestradiol, and luteinizing hormone (LH) levels; parameters of Leydig cells; and parameters of semen. In total, 19 articles were reviewed. Compared with the control group, the increased relative epididymis weight, increased serum oestradiol level, and decreased LH levels in the prenatally exposed group were observed. In pubertal and adult rodents, the relative testicular weight, serum oestradiol level, Leydig cell number, and percentage of ST (+) Leydig cells decreased under ZEA exposure. In rodents at all ages, decreased serum testosterone level, sperm concentration, sperm motility rate, and increased serum deformity rate were observed in exposed groups compared with control groups. Although subgroup analysis failed to identify a clear dose-response relationship between ZEA exposure and reproductive system damage in male rodents, we still managed to confirm that zearalenone could decrease the serum testosterone level at the dosage of 50 mg/kg*day, 1.4 mg/kg*day, and 84 mg/kg*day, of prenatal, pubertal, and mature rodents respectively; pubertal zearalenone exposure impairs the quality and quantity of sperms of rodents at the dosage of 1.4 mg/kg*day and mature zearalenone exposure has the same effect at the dosage of 84 mg/kg*day. In conclusion, we found that ZEA exposure can cause considerable damage to the reproductive system of rodents of all ages. While the exact underlying mechanism of ZEA-induced toxicity in the reproductive system remains largely unknown, the theories of oestrogen-like effects and oxidative stress damage are promising.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lin Li
- Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 211166, China
| | - Tongtong Zhang
- Department of Urology, First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, No. 300, Guangzhou Street, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province 210029, China
| | - Xiaohan Ren
- Department of Urology, First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, No. 300, Guangzhou Street, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province 210029, China
| | - Bingxin Li
- Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 211166, China
| | - Shangqian Wang
- Department of Urology, First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, No. 300, Guangzhou Street, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province 210029, China; State Key Laboratory of Reproductive Medicine, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 211166, China
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Nones J, Solhaug A, Riella H, Eriksen G, Nones J. Brazilian bentonite and a new modified bentonite material, BAC302, reduce zearalenone-induced cell death. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2021. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2019.2547] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Bentonite clays exhibit high adsorptive capacity for contaminants and is frequently used as a feed additive to reduce the bioavailability and thus the toxicity of several mycotoxins. Zearalenone (ZEN) is a secondary Fusarium toxic metabolite that can contaminate a wide range of food- and feedstuff. Since organophilic treatments is known to increase the adsorption capacity of bentonites, the aim of study was to evaluate and compare the ability of natural bentonite and bentonite treated with BAC302 to protect against ZEN-induced cytotoxicity in the epithelial colorectal adenocarcinoma (Caco-2) and human leukemia monocytic (THP-1) cell lines. The two materials were not toxic to the cell lines at lower concentrations. Furthermore, the results indicate that the two materials protect the Caco-2 and THP-1 cells against ZEN-induced cytotoxicity, probably by extracellular adsorption of ZEN. The tested natural bentonite shows potential for in vivo testing to evaluate if it is suitable for intoxication in ZEN contaminated animal feeds.
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Affiliation(s)
- J. Nones
- Department of Food and Chemical Engineering, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, SC, Brazil
- Vale do Itajaí University, Balneário Camboriú, Santa Catarina State, Brazil
| | - A. Solhaug
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, Ullevaalsveien 68, Oslo 0454, Norway
| | - H.G. Riella
- Department of Food and Chemical Engineering, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, SC, Brazil
| | - G.S. Eriksen
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, Ullevaalsveien 68, Oslo 0454, Norway
| | - J. Nones
- Department of Cell Biology, Embryology and Genetics, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, SC, Brazil
- Integrated Company for Agricultural Development of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, SC, Brazil
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Jakimiuk E, Radwińska J, Woźny M, Pomianowski A, Brzuzan P, Wojtacha P, Obremski K, Zielonka Ł. The Influence of Zearalenone on Selected Hemostatic Parameters in Sexually Immature Gilts. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:625. [PMID: 34564628 PMCID: PMC8473075 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13090625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2021] [Revised: 08/31/2021] [Accepted: 09/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Vascular toxicity induced by xenobiotics is associated with dysfunctions or damage to endothelial cells, changes in vascular permeability or dysregulation of the vascular redox state. The aim of this study was to determine whether per os administration of zearalenone (ZEN) influences selected hemostatic parameters in prepubertal gilts. This study was performed on female gilts divided into a control group which received placebo and an experimental group which received ZEN at a dose of 5.0 µg·kg-1 b.w. × day-1. On days 14, 28 and 42, blood samples were collected from the animals for analyses of hematological, coagulation and fibrinolysis parameters, nitric oxide, von Willebrand factor antigen content and catalase activity. The results demonstrated that the treatment of gilts with ZEN at a dose below no observable adverse effect level did not affect the primary hemostasis and the blood coagulation cascade. However, ZEN could have temporarily affected the selected indicators of endothelial cell function (increase of von Willebrand factor, decrease of nitric oxide levels) and the oxidative status plasma (decrease of catalase activity) of the exposed gilts. In summary, these results suggest that the adaptive response to ZEN-exposure can induce a transient imbalance in the vascular system by acting on vascular endothelial cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ewa Jakimiuk
- Department of Veterinary Prevention and Feed Hygiene, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Oczapowskiego 13/29, 10-718 Olsztyn, Poland; (K.O.); (Ł.Z.)
| | - Justyna Radwińska
- Department of Internal Diseases with Clinic, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Oczapowskiego 14, 10-718 Olsztyn, Poland; (J.R.); (A.P.)
| | - Maciej Woźny
- Department of Environmental Biotechnology, Faculty of Geoengineering, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Słoneczna 45G, 10-709 Olsztyn, Poland;
| | - Andrzej Pomianowski
- Department of Internal Diseases with Clinic, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Oczapowskiego 14, 10-718 Olsztyn, Poland; (J.R.); (A.P.)
| | - Paweł Brzuzan
- Department of Environmental Biotechnology, Faculty of Geoengineering, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Słoneczna 45G, 10-709 Olsztyn, Poland;
| | - Paweł Wojtacha
- Department of Industrial and Food Microbiology, Faculty of Food Science, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Plac Cieszynski 1, 10-726 Olsztyn, Poland;
| | - Kazimierz Obremski
- Department of Veterinary Prevention and Feed Hygiene, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Oczapowskiego 13/29, 10-718 Olsztyn, Poland; (K.O.); (Ł.Z.)
| | - Łukasz Zielonka
- Department of Veterinary Prevention and Feed Hygiene, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Oczapowskiego 13/29, 10-718 Olsztyn, Poland; (K.O.); (Ł.Z.)
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Tkaczyk A, Jedziniak P. Mycotoxin Biomarkers in Pigs-Current State of Knowledge and Analytics. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:586. [PMID: 34437457 PMCID: PMC8402396 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13080586] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2021] [Revised: 08/11/2021] [Accepted: 08/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Farm animals are frequently exposed to mycotoxins, which have many adverse effects on their health and become a significant food safety issue. Pigs are highly exposed and particularly susceptible to mycotoxins, which can cause many adverse effects. For the above reasons, an appropriate diagnostic tool is needed to monitor pig' exposure to mycotoxins. The most popular tool is feed analysis, which has some disadvantages, e.g., it does not include individual exposure. In recent years, the determination of biomarkers as a method to assess the exposure to mycotoxins by using concentrations of the parent compounds and/or metabolites in biological matrices is becoming more and more popular. This review provides a comprehensive overview of reported in vivo mycotoxin absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion (ADME) and toxicokinetic studies on pigs. Biomarkers of exposure for aflatoxins, deoxynivalenol, ochratoxin A, fumonisins, T-2 toxin and zearalenone are described to select the most promising compound for analysis of porcine plasma, urine and faeces. Biomarkers occur in biological matrices at trace levels, so a very sensitive technique-tandem mass spectrometry-is commonly used for multiple biomarkers quantification. However, the sample preparation for multi-mycotoxin methods remains a challenge. Therefore, a summary of different biological samples preparation strategies is included in that paper.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnieszka Tkaczyk
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, National Veterinary Research Institute, Partyzantow 57, 24-100 Pulawy, Poland;
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Song JL, Zhang GL. Deoxynivalenol and Zearalenone: Different Mycotoxins with Different Toxic Effects in the Sertoli Cells of Equus asinus. Cells 2021; 10:cells10081898. [PMID: 34440667 PMCID: PMC8394322 DOI: 10.3390/cells10081898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2021] [Revised: 07/20/2021] [Accepted: 07/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
(1) Background: Deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZEA) are type B trichothecene mycotoxins that exert serious toxic effects on the reproduction of domestic animals. However, there is little information about the toxicity of mycotoxins on testis development in Equus asinus. This study investigated the biological effects of DON and ZEA exposure on Sertoli cells (SCs) of Equus asinus; (2) Methods: We administered 10 μM and 30 μM DON and ZEA to cells cultured in vitro; (3) Results: The results showed that 10 μM DON exposure remarkably changed pyroptosis-associated genes and that 30 μM ZEA exposure changed inflammation-associated genes in SCs. The mRNA expression of cancer-promoting genes was remarkably upregulated in the cells exposed to DON or 30 μM ZEA; in particular, DON and ZEA remarkably disturbed the expression of androgen and oestrogen secretion-related genes. Furthermore, quantitative RT-PCR, Western blot, and immunofluorescence analyses verified the different expression patterns of related genes in DON- and ZEA-exposed SCs; (4) Conclusions: Collectively, these results illustrated the impact of exposure to different toxins and concrete toxicity on the mRNA expression of SCs from Equus asinus in vitro.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun-Lin Song
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao 266109, China;
- Central Laboratory, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao 266109, China
| | - Guo-Liang Zhang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao 266109, China;
- Correspondence:
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Penagos-Tabares F, Khiaosa-ard R, Nagl V, Faas J, Jenkins T, Sulyok M, Zebeli Q. Mycotoxins, Phytoestrogens and Other Secondary Metabolites in Austrian Pastures: Occurrences, Contamination Levels and Implications of Geo-Climatic Factors. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:460. [PMID: 34209232 PMCID: PMC8310091 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13070460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2021] [Revised: 06/28/2021] [Accepted: 06/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Pastures are key feed sources for dairy production and can be contaminated with several secondary metabolites from fungi and plants with toxic or endocrine-disrupting activities, which possess a risk for the health, reproduction and performance of cattle. This exploratory study aimed to determine the co-occurrences and concentrations of a wide range of mycotoxins, phytoestrogens and other secondary metabolites in grazing pastures. Representative samples of pastures were collected from 18 Austrian dairy farms (one sample per farm) between April to October 2019. After sample preparation (drying and milling) the pastures were subjected to multi-metabolite analysis using LC-MS/MS. In total, 68 metabolites were detected, including regulated zearalenone and deoxynivalenol (range: 2.16-138 and 107-505 μg/kg on a dry matter (DM) basis, respectively), modified (3-deoxynivalenol-glucoside, HT-2-glucoside) and emerging Fusarium mycotoxins (e.g., enniatins), ergot alkaloids and Alternaria metabolites along with phytoestrogens and other metabolites. Aflatoxins, fumonisins, T-2 toxin, HT-2 toxin and ochratoxins were not detected. Of the geo-climatic factors and botanical diversity investigated, the environment temperature (average of 2 pre-sampling months and the sampling month) was the most influential factor. The number of fungal metabolites linearly increased with increasing temperatures and temperatures exceeding 15 °C triggered an exponential increment in the concentrations of Fusarium and Alternaria metabolites and ergot alkaloids. In conclusion, even though the levels of regulated mycotoxins detected were below the EU guidance levels, the long-term exposure along with co-occurrence with modified and emerging mycotoxins might be an underestimated risk for grazing and forage-fed livestock. The one-year preliminary data points out a dominant effect of environmental temperature in the diversity and contamination level of fungal metabolites in pastures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felipe Penagos-Tabares
- Institute of Animal Nutrition and Functional Plant Compounds, University of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinaerplatz 1, 1210 Vienna, Austria; (F.P.-T.); (Q.Z.)
| | - Ratchaneewan Khiaosa-ard
- Institute of Animal Nutrition and Functional Plant Compounds, University of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinaerplatz 1, 1210 Vienna, Austria; (F.P.-T.); (Q.Z.)
| | - Veronika Nagl
- BIOMIN Research Center, Technopark 1, 3430 Tulln, Austria; (V.N.); (J.F.); (T.J.)
| | - Johannes Faas
- BIOMIN Research Center, Technopark 1, 3430 Tulln, Austria; (V.N.); (J.F.); (T.J.)
| | - Timothy Jenkins
- BIOMIN Research Center, Technopark 1, 3430 Tulln, Austria; (V.N.); (J.F.); (T.J.)
| | - Michael Sulyok
- Department IFA-Tulln, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU), Konrad Lorenzstrasse 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria;
| | - Qendrim Zebeli
- Institute of Animal Nutrition and Functional Plant Compounds, University of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinaerplatz 1, 1210 Vienna, Austria; (F.P.-T.); (Q.Z.)
- Christian-Doppler-Laboratory for Innovative Gut Health Concepts in Livestock (CDL-LiveGUT), Department for Farm Animals and Veterinary Public Health, University of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinaerplatz 1, 1210 Vienna, Austria
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57
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Pustjens A, Castenmiller J, te Biesebeek J, de Rijk T, van Dam R, Boon P. Dietary exposure to mycotoxins of 1- and 2-year-old children from a Dutch Total Diet Study. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2021. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2020.2676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
In 2017, a Total Diet Study was conducted in the Netherlands in which mycotoxins were analysed in foods and beverages consumed by 1- and 2-year-old children. These mycotoxins were aflatoxins, Alternaria toxins, citrinin, ergot alkaloids, fumonisins, ochratoxin A, patulin, sterigmatocystin, trichothecenes, and zearalenone. Long-term exposure was calculated by combining concentrations in foods and beverages with consumed amounts of these products. Analysed foods and beverages with a concentration below the detection limit that could contain the mycotoxin, were assigned a concentration equal to half this limit value. To assess if the exposure could result in a possible health risk, the high long-term exposure (95th percentile) was compared with a health-based guidance value (HBGV) or a margin of exposure (MOE) was calculated. Exposure to aflatoxins, Alternaria toxins, ochratoxin A and T-2/HT-2 sum may pose a health concern. Foods that contributed most to the exposure of these mycotoxins were bread, biscuits, breakfast cereals, chocolates, dried fruit, follow-on formula and fruit juices.
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Affiliation(s)
- A.M. Pustjens
- Wageningen Food Safety Research (WFSR), Wageningen University and Research, P.O. Box 230, 6700 AE Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - J.J.M. Castenmiller
- Netherlands Food and Consumer Product Safety Authority (NVWA), P.O. Box 43006, 3540 AA Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - J.D. te Biesebeek
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), P.O. Box 1, 3729 Bilthoven, the Netherlands
| | - T.C. de Rijk
- Wageningen Food Safety Research (WFSR), Wageningen University and Research, P.O. Box 230, 6700 AE Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - R.C.J. van Dam
- Wageningen Food Safety Research (WFSR), Wageningen University and Research, P.O. Box 230, 6700 AE Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - P.E. Boon
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), P.O. Box 1, 3729 Bilthoven, the Netherlands
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Balázs A, Faisal Z, Csepregi R, Kőszegi T, Kriszt B, Szabó I, Poór M. In Vitro Evaluation of the Individual and Combined Cytotoxic and Estrogenic Effects of Zearalenone, Its Reduced Metabolites, Alternariol, and Genistein. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:6281. [PMID: 34208060 PMCID: PMC8230625 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22126281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2021] [Revised: 06/07/2021] [Accepted: 06/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins are toxic metabolites of filamentous fungi. Previous studies demonstrated the co-occurrence of Fusarium and Alternaria toxins, including zearalenone (ZEN), ZEN metabolites, and alternariol (AOH). These xenoestrogenic mycotoxins appear in soy-based meals and dietary supplements, resulting in the co-exposure to ZEN and AOH with the phytoestrogen genistein (GEN). In this study, the cytotoxic and estrogenic effects of ZEN, reduced ZEN metabolites, AOH, and GEN are examined to evaluate their individual and combined impacts. Our results demonstrate that reduced ZEN metabolites, AOH, and GEN can aggravate ZEN-induced toxicity; in addition, the compounds tested exerted mostly synergism or additive combined effects regarding cytotoxicity and/or estrogenicity. Therefore, these observations underline the importance and the considerable risk of mycotoxin co-exposure and the combined effects of mycoestrogens with phytoestrogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrienn Balázs
- Department of Environmental Toxicology, Institute of Aquaculture and Environmental Safety, Hungarian University of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Páter Károly u. 1, H-2100 Gödöllő, Hungary; (A.B.); (I.S.)
| | - Zelma Faisal
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Pécs, Rókus u. 2, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary;
- Food Biotechnology Research Group, János Szentágothai Research Centre, University of Pécs, Ifjúság útja 20, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary;
| | - Rita Csepregi
- Lab-on-a-Chip Research Group, János Szentágothai Research Centre, University of Pécs, Ifjúság útja 20, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary;
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Medical School, University of Pécs, Ifjúság útja 13, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary
| | - Tamás Kőszegi
- Food Biotechnology Research Group, János Szentágothai Research Centre, University of Pécs, Ifjúság útja 20, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary;
- Lab-on-a-Chip Research Group, János Szentágothai Research Centre, University of Pécs, Ifjúság útja 20, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary;
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Medical School, University of Pécs, Ifjúság útja 13, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary
| | - Balázs Kriszt
- Department of Environmental Safety, Institute of Aquaculture and Environmental Safety, Hungarian University of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Páter Károly u. 1, H-2100 Gödöllő, Hungary;
| | - István Szabó
- Department of Environmental Toxicology, Institute of Aquaculture and Environmental Safety, Hungarian University of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Páter Károly u. 1, H-2100 Gödöllő, Hungary; (A.B.); (I.S.)
| | - Miklós Poór
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Pécs, Rókus u. 2, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary;
- Food Biotechnology Research Group, János Szentágothai Research Centre, University of Pécs, Ifjúság útja 20, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary;
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Gajęcka M, Majewski MS, Zielonka Ł, Grzegorzewski W, Onyszek E, Lisieska-Żołnierczyk S, Juśkiewicz J, Babuchowski A, Gajęcki MT. Concentration of Zearalenone, Alpha-Zearalenol and Beta-Zearalenol in the Myocardium and the Results of Isometric Analyses of the Coronary Artery in Prepubertal Gilts. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13060396. [PMID: 34199438 PMCID: PMC8228058 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13060396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2021] [Revised: 05/24/2021] [Accepted: 05/31/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The carry-over of zearalenone (ZEN) to the myocardium and its effects on coronary vascular reactivity in vivo have not been addressed in the literature to date. Therefore, the objective of this study was to verify the hypothesis that low ZEN doses (MABEL, NOAEL and LOAEL) administered per os to prepubertal gilts for 21 days affect the accumulation of ZEN, α-ZEL and β-ZEL in the myocardium and the reactivity of the porcine coronary arteries to vasoconstrictors: acetylcholine, potassium chloride and vasodilator sodium nitroprusside. The contractile response to acetylcholine in the presence of a cyclooxygenase (COX) inhibitor, indomethacin and / or an endothelial nitric oxide synthase (e-NOS) inhibitor, L-NAME was also studied. The results of this study indicate that the carry-over of ZEN and its metabolites to the myocardium is a highly individualized process that occurs even at very low mycotoxin concentrations. The concentrations of the accumulated ZEN metabolites are inversely proportional to each other due to biotransformation processes. The levels of vasoconstrictors, acetylcholine and potassium chloride, were examined in the left anterior descending branch of the porcine coronary artery after oral administration of ZEN. The LOAEL dose clearly decreased vasoconstriction in response to both potassium chloride and acetylcholine (P < 0.05 for all values) and increased vasodilation in the presence of sodium nitroprusside (P = 0.021). The NOAEL dose significantly increased vasoconstriction caused by acetylcholine (P < 0.04), whereas the MABEL dose did not cause significant changes in the vascular response. Unlike higher doses of ZEN, 5 μg/kg had no negative influence on the vascular system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magdalena Gajęcka
- Department of Veterinary Prevention and Feed Hygiene, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Oczapowskiego 13/29, 10-718 Olsztyn, Poland; (Ł.Z.); (M.T.G.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Michał S. Majewski
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Warszawska 30, 10-082 Olsztyn, Poland;
| | - Łukasz Zielonka
- Department of Veterinary Prevention and Feed Hygiene, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Oczapowskiego 13/29, 10-718 Olsztyn, Poland; (Ł.Z.); (M.T.G.)
| | - Waldemar Grzegorzewski
- Institute of Biology and Biotechnology, College of Natural Sciences, University of Rzeszów, Pigonia 1, 35-310 Rzeszow, Poland;
- Interdisciplinary Center for Preclinical and Clinical Research, Department of Biotechnology, Institute of Biol-ogy and Biotechnology, College of Natural Sciences, University of Rzeszów, Pigonia 1, 35-310 Rzeszow, Po-land
| | - Ewa Onyszek
- Dairy Industry Innovation Institute Ltd., Kormoranów 1, 11-700 Mrągowo, Poland; (E.O.); (A.B.)
| | - Sylwia Lisieska-Żołnierczyk
- Independent Public Health Care Centre of the Ministry of the Interior and Administration, and the Warmia and Mazury Oncology Centre in Olsztyn, Wojska Polskiego 37, 10-228 Olsztyn, Poland;
| | - Jerzy Juśkiewicz
- Department of Biological Function of Foods, Institute of Animal Reproduction and Food Research, Division of Food Science, Tuwima 10, 10-748 Olsztyn, Poland;
| | - Andrzej Babuchowski
- Dairy Industry Innovation Institute Ltd., Kormoranów 1, 11-700 Mrągowo, Poland; (E.O.); (A.B.)
| | - Maciej T. Gajęcki
- Department of Veterinary Prevention and Feed Hygiene, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Oczapowskiego 13/29, 10-718 Olsztyn, Poland; (Ł.Z.); (M.T.G.)
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Gajęcka M, Mróz M, Brzuzan P, Onyszek E, Zielonka Ł, Lipczyńska-Ilczuk K, Przybyłowicz KE, Babuchowski A, Gajęcki MT. Correlations between Low Doses of Zearalenone, Its Carryover Factor and Estrogen Receptor Expression in Different Segments of the Intestines in Pre-Pubertal Gilts-A Study Protocol. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13060379. [PMID: 34073248 PMCID: PMC8227742 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13060379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2021] [Revised: 05/14/2021] [Accepted: 05/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Plant materials can be contaminated with Fusarium mycotoxins and their derivatives, whose toxic effects on humans and animals may remain subclinical. Zearalenone (ZEN), a low-molecular-weight compound, is produced by molds in crop plants as a secondary metabolite. The objective of this study will be to analyze the in vivo correlations between very low monotonic doses of ZEN (5, 10, and 15 μg ZEN/kg body weight—BW for 42 days) and the carryover of this mycotoxin and its selected metabolites from the intestinal contents to the intestinal walls, the mRNA expression of estrogen receptor alfa (ERα) and estrogen receptor beta (ERβ) genes, and the mRNA expression of genes modulating selected colon enzymes (CYP1A1 and GSTP1) in the intestinal mucosa of pre-pubertal gilts. An in vivo experiment will be performed on 60 clinically healthy animals with initial BW of 14.5 ± 2 kg. The gilts will be randomly divided into a control group (group C, n = 15) and three experimental groups (group ZEN5, group ZEN10, and group ZEN15; n = 15). Group ZEN5 will be administered per os 5 μg ZEN/kg BW (MABEL), group ZEN10—10 μg ZEN/kg BW (NOAEL), and group ZEN15—15 µg ZEN/kg BW (low LOAEL). In each group, five animals will be euthanized on analytical dates 1 (exposure day 7), 2 (exposure day 21), and 3 (exposure day 42). Samples for in vitro analyses will be collected from an intestinal segment resected from the following regions: the third (horizontal) part of the duodenum, jejunum, ileum, cecum, ascending colon, transverse colon, and descending colon. The experimental material will be collected under special conditions, and it will be transported to specialist laboratories where samples will be obtained for further analyses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magdalena Gajęcka
- Department of Veterinary Prevention and Feed Hygiene, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Oczapowskiego 13, 10-718 Olsztyn, Poland; (M.M.); (Ł.Z.); (M.T.G.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Magdalena Mróz
- Department of Veterinary Prevention and Feed Hygiene, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Oczapowskiego 13, 10-718 Olsztyn, Poland; (M.M.); (Ł.Z.); (M.T.G.)
| | - Paweł Brzuzan
- Department of Environmental Biotechnology, Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Fisheries, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Słoneczna 45G, 10-719 Olsztyn, Poland;
| | - Ewa Onyszek
- Dairy Industry Innovation Institute Ltd., Kormoranów 1, 11-700 Mrągowo, Poland; (E.O.); (A.B.)
| | - Łukasz Zielonka
- Department of Veterinary Prevention and Feed Hygiene, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Oczapowskiego 13, 10-718 Olsztyn, Poland; (M.M.); (Ł.Z.); (M.T.G.)
| | - Karolina Lipczyńska-Ilczuk
- Department of Epizootiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Oczapowskiego 13/01, 10-718 Olsztyn, Poland;
| | - Katarzyna E. Przybyłowicz
- Department of Human Nutrition, Faculty of Food Sciences, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Słoneczna 45F, 10-719 Olsztyn, Poland;
| | - Andrzej Babuchowski
- Dairy Industry Innovation Institute Ltd., Kormoranów 1, 11-700 Mrągowo, Poland; (E.O.); (A.B.)
| | - Maciej T. Gajęcki
- Department of Veterinary Prevention and Feed Hygiene, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Oczapowskiego 13, 10-718 Olsztyn, Poland; (M.M.); (Ł.Z.); (M.T.G.)
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Curulli A. Electrochemical Biosensors in Food Safety: Challenges and Perspectives. Molecules 2021; 26:2940. [PMID: 34063344 PMCID: PMC8156954 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26102940] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2021] [Revised: 04/29/2021] [Accepted: 05/12/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Safety and quality are key issues for the food industry. Consequently, there is growing demand to preserve the food chain and products against substances toxic, harmful to human health, such as contaminants, allergens, toxins, or pathogens. For this reason, it is mandatory to develop highly sensitive, reliable, rapid, and cost-effective sensing systems/devices, such as electrochemical sensors/biosensors. Generally, conventional techniques are limited by long analyses, expensive and complex procedures, and skilled personnel. Therefore, developing performant electrochemical biosensors can significantly support the screening of food chains and products. Here, we report some of the recent developments in this area and analyze the contributions produced by electrochemical biosensors in food screening and their challenges.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonella Curulli
- Istituto per lo Studio dei Materiali Nanostrutturati (ISMN) CNR, Via del Castro Laurenziano 7, 00161 Roma, Italy
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62
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Tkaczyk A, Jedziniak P. Development of a multi-mycotoxin LC-MS/MS method for the determination of biomarkers in pig urine. Mycotoxin Res 2021; 37:169-181. [PMID: 33772455 PMCID: PMC8163674 DOI: 10.1007/s12550-021-00428-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2020] [Revised: 03/11/2021] [Accepted: 03/16/2021] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
An LC-MS/MS method has been developed for the sensitive and selective determination of 35 mycotoxins (biomarkers of exposure) in pig urine samples. Sample preparation includes creatinine adjustment (with the developed LC-UV method) with enzymatic hydrolysis of pig urine samples followed by liquid-liquid (LLE) extraction. The LLE protocol, as well as enzymatic hydrolysis for indirect mycotoxin glucuronides determination, was optimized in this study. Additionally, two other sample preparation protocols were compared with the developed LLE method: immunoaffinity columns and solid-phase extraction cartridges (Oasis HLB). The detection and quantification of the biomarkers were performed using triple quadrupole mass spectrometry.The method was validated with regard to the guidelines specified by the EMEA (European Medicines Agency). The extraction recoveries were higher than 60% for 77% of the analytes studied, with the intra- and inter-day relative standard deviation being lower than 20% for most of the compounds at four different concentration levels. The limits of quantification ranged from 0.1 ng/mL for zearalenone and sterigmatocystin to 8 ng/mL for nivalenol. To the best knowledge of the authors, the matrix effect was evaluated for the first time in this study for six different urine samples, and the coefficient of variation was found to be lower than 15% for most analytes studied. Finally, the developed method was applied to analyse 56 pig urine samples. Deoxynivalenol (1-20 ng/mL), zearalenone (0.1-1.5 ng/mL) and ochratoxin A (1.5-15 ng/mL) were the main analytes detected in these samples. Moreover, the co-occurrence of alternariol monomethyl ether and alternariol in pig urine is reported herein for the first time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnieszka Tkaczyk
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, National Veterinary Research Institute, Partyzantow 57, 24-100, Pulawy, Poland.
| | - Piotr Jedziniak
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, National Veterinary Research Institute, Partyzantow 57, 24-100, Pulawy, Poland
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Wu K, Ren C, Gong Y, Gao X, Rajput SA, Qi D, Wang S. The insensitive mechanism of poultry to zearalenone: A review. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2021; 7:587-594. [PMID: 34377845 PMCID: PMC8327487 DOI: 10.1016/j.aninu.2021.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2020] [Revised: 12/15/2020] [Accepted: 01/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Zearalenone (ZEN) is one of the most common contaminating mycotoxins and is mainly produced by Fusarium graminearum. ZEN and its metabolites can interfere with estrogen function and affect animals' reproductive ability. Pigs are most susceptible to ZEN, and ZEN is less harmful to poultry than to pigs. The exact mechanism for the difference in susceptibility remains unclear. In this review, we summarized some possible reasons for the relative insensitivity of poultry to ZEN, such as the lower total amount of α-zearalenol (α-ZOL) and the α-ZOL-to-β-ZOL ratio which reduce the toxicity of ZEN to poultry. The faster hepatic and enteric circulation, and excretion capacity in poultry can excrete more ZEN and its metabolites. There are other possible factors such as the transformation of intestinal microorganisms, differences in hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases' activity, high estrogen levels, and low estrogen receptors affinity which can also cause poultry to be relatively insensitive to ZEN. In this review, we summarized the hazards, pollution status, metabolic pathways, and some measures to mitigate ZEN's harmfulness. Specifically, we discussed the possible mechanisms of low reproductive toxicity by ZEN in poultry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kuntan Wu
- Department of Animal Nutrition and Feed Science, College of Animal Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
| | - Chenxi Ren
- Department of Animal Nutrition and Feed Science, College of Animal Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
| | - Yangfan Gong
- Department of Animal Nutrition and Feed Science, College of Animal Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
| | - Xin Gao
- Cargill Animal Nutrition Technology Application Center, Bazhou, 065000, China
| | - Shahid Ali Rajput
- Department of Animal Nutrition and Feed Science, College of Animal Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
| | - Desheng Qi
- Department of Animal Nutrition and Feed Science, College of Animal Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
| | - Shuai Wang
- Department of Animal Nutrition and Feed Science, College of Animal Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
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Raj J, Vasiljević M, Tassis P, Farkaš H, Bošnjak-Neumüller J, Männer K. Effects of a modified clinoptilolite zeolite on growth performance, health status and detoxification of aflatoxin B 1 and ochratoxin A in male broiler chickens. Br Poult Sci 2021; 62:601-610. [PMID: 33595390 DOI: 10.1080/00071668.2021.1891522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
1. The aim of the present study was to test the ability of an in-feed modified clinoptilolite zeolite-based mycotoxin binding substance (Minazel® Plus, Patent Co, Misicevo, Serbia; MP) to prevent gastrointestinal absorption of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and ochratoxin A (OTA) and its effects on health status and performance parameters of broilers.2. A total of 375, 1 d old male broiler chickens (Cobb 500) were used for a total trial period of 42 d (from hatch to 42 d of age). Animals were randomly allocated to five treatment groups (T1-T5), in 25 pens (15 male broilers per pen, five pens per treatment). T1 was the control maize-based diet without the addition of mycotoxins, or the test product. T2 and T3 groups received contaminated maize in the diet containing 0.02 mg AFB1/kg feed and 0.1 mg OTA/kg feed, whereas T4 and T5 groups received 0.05 mg AFB1/kg feed and 0.5 mg OTA/kg feed. The MP was added to T3 (1 g/kg feed), and T5 (2 g/kg feed) groups.3. Results showed that exposure to AFB1 and OTA at low or moderate levels, as used in this study, did not markedly affect growth performance, blood profile or organ weights. Improvements in feed conversion ratio (FCR) were observed in birds receiving MP, whereby FCR of T3 group was improved in comparison with T2 group, although there was no significant difference between T5 and T4 groups. However, average body weight gain (ABWG) was improved in the T5 group compared to T4, but not in the T3 versus T2 group comparison.4. For serum biochemical parameters, glutamate-dehydrogenase (GLDH) was significantly improved in T5 birds in comparison with T4. The addition of MP significantly decreased residue levels of AFB1 in liver and OTA in the spleen of the treated groups.5. The improvements in productive performance and reduction of mycotoxin residue levels in tissues demonstrated a beneficial effect of MP in cases of concurrent AFB1 and OTA ingestion by broilers.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Raj
- Patent Co, DOO., Vlade Ćetkovića 1A, Mišićevo, Serbia
| | - M Vasiljević
- Patent Co, DOO., Vlade Ćetkovića 1A, Mišićevo, Serbia
| | - P Tassis
- Farm Animals Clinic, School of Veterinary Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - H Farkaš
- Patent Co, DOO., Vlade Ćetkovića 1A, Mišićevo, Serbia
| | | | - K Männer
- Institute of Animal Nutrition, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
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65
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Gémes B, Takács E, Gádoros P, Barócsi A, Kocsányi L, Lenk S, Csákányi A, Kautny S, Domján L, Szarvas G, Adányi N, Nabok A, Mörtl M, Székács A. Development of an Immunofluorescence Assay Module for Determination of the Mycotoxin Zearalenone in Water. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:182. [PMID: 33801263 PMCID: PMC8000975 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13030182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2021] [Revised: 02/23/2021] [Accepted: 02/24/2021] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Project Aquafluosense is designed to develop prototypes for a fluorescence-based instrumentation setup for in situ measurements of several characteristic parameters of water quality. In the scope of the project an enzyme-linked fluorescent immunoassay (ELFIA) method has been developed for the detection of several environmental xenobiotics, including mycotoxin zearalenone (ZON). ZON, produced by several plant pathogenic Fusarium species, has recently been identified as an emerging pollutant in surface water, presenting a hazard to aquatic ecosystems. Due to its physico-chemical properties, detection of ZON at low concentrations in surface water is a challenging task. The 96-well microplate-based fluorescence instrument is capable of detecting ZON in the concentration range of 0.09-400 ng/mL. The sensitivity and accuracy of the analytical method has been demonstrated by a comparative assessment with detection by high-performance liquid chromatography and by total internal reflection ellipsometry. The limit of detection of the method, 0.09 ng/mL, falls in the low range compared to the other reported immunoassays, but the main advantage of this ELFIA method is its efficacy in combined in situ applications for determination of various important water quality parameters detectable by induced fluorimerty-e.g., total organic carbon content, algal density or the level of other organic micropollutants detectable by immunofluorimetry. In addition, the immunofluorescence module can readily be expanded to other target analytes if proper antibodies are available for detection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Borbála Gémes
- Agro-Environmental Research Centre, Institute of Environmental Sciences, Hungarian University of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Herman O. út 15, H-1022 Budapest, Hungary; (B.G.); (E.T.); (M.M.)
| | - Eszter Takács
- Agro-Environmental Research Centre, Institute of Environmental Sciences, Hungarian University of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Herman O. út 15, H-1022 Budapest, Hungary; (B.G.); (E.T.); (M.M.)
| | - Patrik Gádoros
- Department of Atomic Physics, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Műegyetem rkp. 3, H-1111 Budapest, Hungary; (P.G.); (A.B.); (L.K.); (S.L.)
| | - Attila Barócsi
- Department of Atomic Physics, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Műegyetem rkp. 3, H-1111 Budapest, Hungary; (P.G.); (A.B.); (L.K.); (S.L.)
| | - László Kocsányi
- Department of Atomic Physics, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Műegyetem rkp. 3, H-1111 Budapest, Hungary; (P.G.); (A.B.); (L.K.); (S.L.)
| | - Sándor Lenk
- Department of Atomic Physics, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Műegyetem rkp. 3, H-1111 Budapest, Hungary; (P.G.); (A.B.); (L.K.); (S.L.)
| | - Attila Csákányi
- Optimal Optik Ltd., Dayka Gábor u. 6/B, H-1118 Budapest, Hungary; (A.C.); (S.K.); (L.D.); (G.S.)
| | - Szabolcs Kautny
- Optimal Optik Ltd., Dayka Gábor u. 6/B, H-1118 Budapest, Hungary; (A.C.); (S.K.); (L.D.); (G.S.)
| | - László Domján
- Optimal Optik Ltd., Dayka Gábor u. 6/B, H-1118 Budapest, Hungary; (A.C.); (S.K.); (L.D.); (G.S.)
| | - Gábor Szarvas
- Optimal Optik Ltd., Dayka Gábor u. 6/B, H-1118 Budapest, Hungary; (A.C.); (S.K.); (L.D.); (G.S.)
| | - Nóra Adányi
- Food Science Research Centre, Institute of Food Sciences, Hungarian University of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Herman O. út 15, H-1022 Budapest, Hungary;
| | - Alexei Nabok
- Materials and Engineering Research Institute, Sheffield Hallam University, Howard Street, Sheffield S1 1WB, UK;
| | - Mária Mörtl
- Agro-Environmental Research Centre, Institute of Environmental Sciences, Hungarian University of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Herman O. út 15, H-1022 Budapest, Hungary; (B.G.); (E.T.); (M.M.)
| | - András Székács
- Agro-Environmental Research Centre, Institute of Environmental Sciences, Hungarian University of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Herman O. út 15, H-1022 Budapest, Hungary; (B.G.); (E.T.); (M.M.)
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66
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Direct and Competitive Optical Grating Immunosensors for Determination of Fusarium Mycotoxin Zearalenone. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13010043. [PMID: 33430121 PMCID: PMC7827007 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13010043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2020] [Revised: 12/29/2020] [Accepted: 01/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Novel optical waveguide lightmode spectroscopy (OWLS)-based immunosensor formats were developed for label-free detection of Fusarium mycotoxin zearalenone (ZON). To achieve low limits of detection (LODs), both immobilised antibody-based (direct) and immobilised antigen-based (competitive) assay setups were applied. Immunoreagents were immobilised on epoxy-, amino-, and carboxyl-functionalised sensor surfaces, and by optimising the immobilisation methods, standard sigmoid curves were obtained in both sensor formats. An outstanding LOD of 0.002 pg/mL was obtained for ZON in the competitive immunosensor setup with a dynamic detection range between 0.01 and 1 pg/mL ZON concentrations, depending on the covalent immobilisation method applied. This corresponds to a five orders of magnitude improvement in detectability of ZON relative to the previously developed enzyme-linked immonosorbent assay (ELISA) method. The selectivity of the immunosensor for ZON was demonstrated with structural analogues (α-zearalenol, α-zearalanol, and β-zearalanol) and structurally unrelated mycotoxins. The method was found to be applicable in maize extract using acetonitrile as the organic solvent, upon a dilution rate of 1:10,000 in buffer. Thus, the OWLS immunosensor method developed appears to be suitable for the quantitative determination of ZON in aqueous medium. The new technique can widen the range of sensoric detection methods of ZON for surveys in food and environmental safety assessment.
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67
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Ropejko K, Twarużek M. Zearalenone and Its Metabolites-General Overview, Occurrence, and Toxicity. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:35. [PMID: 33418872 PMCID: PMC7825134 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13010035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 125] [Impact Index Per Article: 41.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2020] [Revised: 12/29/2020] [Accepted: 01/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites of filamentous fungi and represent one of the most common groups of food contaminants with low molecular weight. These toxins are considered common and can affect the food chain at various stages of production, harvesting, storage and processing. Zearalenone is one of over 400 detected mycotoxins and produced by fungi of the genus Fusarium; it mainly has estrogenic effects on various organisms. Contaminated products can lead to huge economic losses and pose risks to animals and humans. In this review, we systemize information on zearalenone and its major metabolites.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Magdalena Twarużek
- Department of Physiology and Toxicology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Kazimierz Wielki University, Chodkiewicza 30, 85-064 Bydgoszcz, Poland;
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68
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Guerre P. Mycotoxin and Gut Microbiota Interactions. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:E769. [PMID: 33291716 PMCID: PMC7761905 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12120769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2020] [Revised: 11/26/2020] [Accepted: 12/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The interactions between mycotoxins and gut microbiota were discovered early in animals and explained part of the differences in susceptibility to mycotoxins among species. Isolation of microbes present in the gut responsible for biotransformation of mycotoxins into less toxic metabolites and for binding mycotoxins led to the development of probiotics, enzymes, and cell extracts that are used to prevent mycotoxin toxicity in animals. More recently, bioactivation of mycotoxins into toxic compounds, notably through the hydrolysis of masked mycotoxins, revealed that the health benefits of the effect of the gut microbiota on mycotoxins can vary strongly depending on the mycotoxin and the microbe concerned. Interactions between mycotoxins and gut microbiota can also be observed through the effect of mycotoxins on the gut microbiota. Changes of gut microbiota secondary to mycotoxin exposure may be the consequence of the antimicrobial properties of mycotoxins or the toxic effect of mycotoxins on epithelial and immune cells in the gut, and liberation of antimicrobial peptides by these cells. Whatever the mechanism involved, exposure to mycotoxins leads to changes in the gut microbiota composition at the phylum, genus, and species level. These changes can lead to disruption of the gut barrier function and bacterial translocation. Changes in the gut microbiota composition can also modulate the toxicity of toxic compounds, such as bacterial toxins and of mycotoxins themselves. A last consequence for health of the change in the gut microbiota secondary to exposure to mycotoxins is suspected through variations observed in the amount and composition of the volatile fatty acids and sphingolipids that are normally present in the digesta, and that can contribute to the occurrence of chronic diseases in human. The purpose of this work is to review what is known about mycotoxin and gut microbiota interactions, the mechanisms involved in these interactions, and their practical application, and to identify knowledge gaps and future research needs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philippe Guerre
- Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire de Toulouse, Université de Toulouse, ENVT, F-31076 Toulouse, France
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69
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Gerber PF, Gould N, McGahan E. Potential contaminants and hazards in alternative chicken bedding materials and proposed guidance levels: a review. Poult Sci 2020; 99:6664-6684. [PMID: 33248583 PMCID: PMC7705057 DOI: 10.1016/j.psj.2020.09.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2020] [Revised: 09/07/2020] [Accepted: 09/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Bedding material or litter is an important requirement of meat chicken production which can influence bird welfare, health, and food safety. A substantial increase in demand and cost of chicken bedding has stimulated interest in alternative bedding sources worldwide. However, risks arising from the use of alternative bedding materials for raising meat chickens are currently unknown. Organic chemicals, elemental, and biological contaminants, as well as physical and management hazards need to be managed in litter to protect the health of chickens and consequently that of human consumers. This requires access to information on the transfer of contaminants from litter to food to inform risk profiles and assessments to guide litter risk management. In this review, contaminants and hazards of known and potential concern in alternative bedding are described and compared with existing standards for feed. The contaminants considered in this review include organic chemical contaminants (e.g., pesticides), elemental contaminants (e.g., arsenic, cadmium, and lead), biological contaminants (phytotoxins, mycotoxins, and microorganisms), physical hazards, and management hazards. Reference is made to scientific literature for acceptable levels of the above contaminants in chicken feed that can be used for guidance by those involved in selecting and using bedding materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Priscilla F Gerber
- Animal Science, School of Environmental and Rural Science, University of New England, Armidale, NSW 2351, Australia.
| | - Nic Gould
- Integrity Ag and Environment, New England Highway, Highfields, QLD 4352, Australia
| | - Eugene McGahan
- Integrity Ag and Environment, New England Highway, Highfields, QLD 4352, Australia
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70
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Faisal Z, Vörös V, Fliszár-Nyúl E, Lemli B, Kunsági-Máté S, Poór M. Interactions of zearalanone, α-zearalanol, β-zearalanol, zearalenone-14-sulfate, and zearalenone-14-glucoside with serum albumin. Mycotoxin Res 2020; 36:389-397. [PMID: 32740802 PMCID: PMC7536148 DOI: 10.1007/s12550-020-00404-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2020] [Revised: 07/16/2020] [Accepted: 07/22/2020] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
The xenoestrogenic mycotoxin zearalenone is a Fusarium-derived food and feed contaminant. In mammals, the reduced (e.g., zearalanone, α-zearalanol, and β-zearalanol) and conjugated (e.g., zearalenone-14-sulfate) metabolites of zearalenone are formed. Furthermore, filamentous fungi and plants are also able to convert zearalenone to conjugated derivatives, including zearalenone-14-sulfate and zearalenone-14-glucoside, respectively. Serum albumin is the dominant plasma protein in the circulation; it interacts with certain mycotoxins, affecting their toxicokinetics. In a previous investigation, we demonstrated the remarkable species differences regarding the albumin binding of zearalenone and zearalenols. In the current study, the interactions of zearalanone, α-zearalanol, β-zearalanol, zearalenone-14-sulfate, and zearalenone-14-glucoside with human, bovine, porcine, and rat serum albumins were examined, employing fluorescence spectroscopy and affinity chromatography. Zearalanone, zearalanols, and zearalenone-14-sulfate form stable complexes with albumins tested (K = 9.3 × 103 to 8.5 × 105 L/mol), while the albumin binding of zearalenone-14-glucoside seems to be weak. Zearalenone-14-sulfate formed the most stable complexes with albumins examined. Considerable species differences were observed in the albumin binding of zearalenone metabolites, which may have a role in the interspecies differences regarding the toxicity of zearalenone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zelma Faisal
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Pécs, Szigeti út 12, Pécs, H-7624, Hungary
- János Szentágothai Research Centre, Ifjúság útja 20, Pécs, H-7624, Hungary
| | - Virág Vörös
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Pécs, Szigeti út 12, Pécs, H-7624, Hungary
- János Szentágothai Research Centre, Ifjúság útja 20, Pécs, H-7624, Hungary
| | - Eszter Fliszár-Nyúl
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Pécs, Szigeti út 12, Pécs, H-7624, Hungary
- János Szentágothai Research Centre, Ifjúság útja 20, Pécs, H-7624, Hungary
| | - Beáta Lemli
- János Szentágothai Research Centre, Ifjúság útja 20, Pécs, H-7624, Hungary
- Institute of Organic and Medicinal Chemistry, Medical School, University of Pécs, Szigeti út 12, Pécs, H-7624, Hungary
| | - Sándor Kunsági-Máté
- János Szentágothai Research Centre, Ifjúság útja 20, Pécs, H-7624, Hungary
- Institute of Organic and Medicinal Chemistry, Medical School, University of Pécs, Szigeti út 12, Pécs, H-7624, Hungary
| | - Miklós Poór
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Pécs, Szigeti út 12, Pécs, H-7624, Hungary.
- János Szentágothai Research Centre, Ifjúság útja 20, Pécs, H-7624, Hungary.
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71
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Mwihia EW, Lyche JL, Mbuthia PG, Ivanova L, Uhlig S, Gathumbi JK, Maina JG, Eshitera EE, Eriksen GS. Co-Occurrence and Levels of Mycotoxins in Fish Feeds in Kenya. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:E627. [PMID: 33008105 PMCID: PMC7600487 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12100627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2020] [Revised: 09/08/2020] [Accepted: 09/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
This study determined the presence, levels and co-occurrence of mycotoxins in fish feeds in Kenya. Seventy-eight fish feeds and ingredients were sampled from fish farms and fish feed manufacturing plants and analysed for 40 mycotoxins using high-performance liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry. Twenty-nine (73%) mycotoxins were identified with 76 (97%) samples testing positive for mycotoxins presence. Mycotoxins with the highest prevalences were enniatin B (91%), deoxynivalenol (76%) and fumonisin B1 (54%) while those with the highest maximum levels were sterigmatocystin (<30.5-3517.1 µg/kg); moniliformin (<218.9-2583.4 µg/kg) and ergotamine (<29.3-1895.6 µg/kg). Mycotoxin co-occurrence was observed in 68 (87%) samples. Correlations were observed between the fumonisins; enniatins B and zearalenone and its metabolites. Fish dietary exposure estimates ranged between <0.16 and 43.38 µg/kg body weight per day. This study shows evidence of mycotoxin presence and co-occurrence in fish feeds and feed ingredients in Kenya. Fish exposure to these levels of mycotoxins over a long period of time may lead to adverse health effects due to their possible additive, synergistic or antagonist toxic effects. Measures to reduce fish feed mycotoxin contamination should be taken to avoid mycotoxicosis in fish and subsequently in humans and animals through residues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evalyn Wanjiru Mwihia
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Surgery, Egerton University, P.O. Box 536, Egerton 20115, Kenya
- Department of Food Safety and Infectious Biology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Norwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU), P.O. Box 8146, 0454 Oslo, Norway;
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 29053, Kangemi 00625, Kenya; (P.G.M.); (J.K.G.)
| | - Jan Ludvig Lyche
- Department of Food Safety and Infectious Biology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Norwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU), P.O. Box 8146, 0454 Oslo, Norway;
| | - Paul Gichohi Mbuthia
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 29053, Kangemi 00625, Kenya; (P.G.M.); (J.K.G.)
| | - Lada Ivanova
- Toxinology Research Group, Norwegian Veterinary Institute, Ullevålsveien 68, Pb 750 Sentrum, 0106 Oslo, Norway; (L.I.); (S.U.)
| | - Silvio Uhlig
- Toxinology Research Group, Norwegian Veterinary Institute, Ullevålsveien 68, Pb 750 Sentrum, 0106 Oslo, Norway; (L.I.); (S.U.)
| | - James K. Gathumbi
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 29053, Kangemi 00625, Kenya; (P.G.M.); (J.K.G.)
| | - Joyce G. Maina
- Department of Animal Production, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 29053, Kangemi 00625, Kenya;
| | - Eric Emali Eshitera
- Department of Animal Health and Production, School of Natural Resource and Animal Sciences, Maasai Mara University, P.O. Box 861, Narok 20500, Kenya;
| | - Gunnar Sundstøl Eriksen
- Toxinology Research Group, Norwegian Veterinary Institute, Ullevålsveien 68, Pb 750 Sentrum, 0106 Oslo, Norway; (L.I.); (S.U.)
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72
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Peltomaa R, Fikacek S, Benito-Peña E, Barderas R, Head T, Deo S, Daunert S, Moreno-Bondi MC. Bioluminescent detection of zearalenone using recombinant peptidomimetic Gaussia luciferase fusion protein. Mikrochim Acta 2020; 187:547. [PMID: 32886242 DOI: 10.1007/s00604-020-04538-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2020] [Accepted: 08/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
The development of a bioluminescent immunosensor is reported for the determination of zearalenone (ZEA) based on a peptide mimetic identified by phage display. The peptide mimetic GW, with a peptide sequence GWWGPYGEIELL, was used to create recombinant fusion proteins with the bioluminescent Gaussia luciferase (GLuc) that were directly used as tracers for toxin detection in a competitive immunoassay without the need for secondary antibodies or further labeling. The bioluminescent sensor, based on protein G-coupled magnetic beads for antibody immobilization, enabled determination of ZEA with a detection limit of 4.2 ng mL-1 (corresponding to 420 μg kg-1 in food samples) and an IC50 value of 11.0 ng mL-1. The sensor performance was evaluated in spiked maize and wheat samples, with recoveries ranging from 87 to 106% (RSD < 20%, n = 3). Finally, the developed method was applied to the analysis of a naturally contaminated reference matrix material and good agreement with the reported concentrations was obtained.Graphical abstract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Riikka Peltomaa
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Complutense University, Ciudad Universitaria s/n, 28040, Madrid, Spain
| | - Sabrina Fikacek
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Complutense University, Ciudad Universitaria s/n, 28040, Madrid, Spain
| | - Elena Benito-Peña
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Complutense University, Ciudad Universitaria s/n, 28040, Madrid, Spain.
| | - Rodrigo Barderas
- Chronic Disease Programme, UFIEC, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Ctra. Majadahonda-Pozuelo Km 2.2, 28220, Madrid, Spain
| | - Trajen Head
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Miller School of Medicine, University of Miami, Miami, FL, 33136, USA.,Dr. JT Macdonald Foundation Biomedical Nanotechnology Institute, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL, 33136, USA
| | - Sapna Deo
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Miller School of Medicine, University of Miami, Miami, FL, 33136, USA.,Dr. JT Macdonald Foundation Biomedical Nanotechnology Institute, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL, 33136, USA
| | - Sylvia Daunert
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Miller School of Medicine, University of Miami, Miami, FL, 33136, USA.,Dr. JT Macdonald Foundation Biomedical Nanotechnology Institute, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL, 33136, USA.,University of Miami Clinical and Translational Science Institute, University of Miami, Miami, FL, 33136, USA
| | - María C Moreno-Bondi
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Complutense University, Ciudad Universitaria s/n, 28040, Madrid, Spain.
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73
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Zearalenone and Metabolites in Livers of Turkey Poults and Broiler Chickens Fed with Diets Containing Fusariotoxins. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12080525. [PMID: 32824220 PMCID: PMC7472091 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12080525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2020] [Revised: 08/10/2020] [Accepted: 08/13/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Zearalenone (ZEN) and metabolites were measured in livers of turkeys and broilers fed a control diet free of mycotoxins, a diet that contained 0.5 mg/kg ZEN (ZEN diet), and a diet that contained 0.5, 5, and 20 mg/kg of ZEN, fumonisins, and deoxynivalenol, respectively (ZENDONFB diet). The feed was individually distributed to male Grade Maker turkeys from the 55th to the 70th day of age and to male Ross chickens from the 1st to the 35th day of age, without any signs of toxicity. Together, the free and conjugated forms of ZEN, α- and β-zearalenols (ZOLs), zearalanone (ZAN), and α- and β-zearalanols (ZALs) were measured by UHPLC-MS/MS with [13C18]-ZEN as an internal standard and immunoaffinity clean-up of samples. ZAN and ZALs were not detected. ZEN and ZOLs were mainly found in their conjugated forms. α-ZOL was the most abundant and was found at a mean concentration of 2.23 and 1.56 ng/g in turkeys and chickens, respectively. Consuming the ZENDONFB diet significantly increased the level of total metabolites in the livers of chickens. Furthermore, this increase was more pronounced for the free forms of α-ZOL than for the conjugated forms. An investigation of the presence of ZEN and metabolites in muscle with the methods validated for the liver failed to reveal any traces of these contaminants in this tissue. These results suggest that concomitant dietary exposure to deoxynivalenol (DON) and fumonisins (FB) may alter the metabolism and persistence of ZEN and its metabolites in the liver.
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74
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Woelflingseder L, Adam G, Marko D. Suppression of Trichothecene-Mediated Immune Response by the Fusarium Secondary Metabolite Butenolide in Human Colon Epithelial Cells. Front Nutr 2020; 7:127. [PMID: 32850941 PMCID: PMC7423873 DOI: 10.3389/fnut.2020.00127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2020] [Accepted: 07/01/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Butenolide (BUT, 4-acetamido-4-hydroxy-2-butenoic acid gamma-lactone) is a secondary metabolite produced by several Fusarium species and is co-produced with the major trichothecene mycotoxin deoxynivalenol (DON) on cereal grains throughout the world. BUT has low acute toxicity and only very limited occurrence and exposure data are available. The intestinal epithelium represents the first physiological barrier against food contaminants. We aimed to elucidate the intestinal inflammatory response of the human, non-cancer epithelial HCEC-1CT cells to BUT and to characterize potential combinatory interactions with co-occurring trichothecenes, such as DON and NX-3. Using a reporter gene approach, BUT (≥5 μM, 20 h) was found to decrease lipopolysaccharide (LPS; 10 ng/mL) induced nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) activation in a dose-dependent manner, and in combinatory treatments BUT represses trichothecene-induced enhancement of this important inflammatory pathway. Analysis of transcription and secretion levels of NF-κB-dependent, pro-inflammatory cytokines, revealed a significant down-regulation of IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α in IL-1β-stimulated (25 ng/mL) HCEC-1CT cells after BUT exposure (10 μM). Trichothecene-induced expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines by the presence of 1 μM DON or NX-3 was substantially suppressed in the presence of 10 μM BUT. The emerging mycotoxin BUT has the ability to suppress NF-κB-induced intestinal inflammatory response mechanisms and to modulate substantially the immune responsiveness of HCEC-1CT cells after trichothecene treatment. Our results suggest that BUT, present in naturally occurring mixtures of Fusarium fungal metabolites, should be increasingly monitored, and the mechanism of inhibition of NF-κB that might affect the pathogenesis or progression of intestinal inflammatory disorders, should be further investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lydia Woelflingseder
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- Department of Crop Science, Institute of Plant Protection, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Gerhard Adam
- Department of Applied Genetics and Cell Biology, Institute of Microbial Genetics, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Doris Marko
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
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75
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Individual and Combined In Vitro Effects of Deoxynivalenol and Zearalenone on Boar Semen. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12080495. [PMID: 32752294 PMCID: PMC7472223 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12080495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2020] [Revised: 07/28/2020] [Accepted: 07/30/2020] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZEN) can negatively affect pig health. However, little is known about their effects on boar semen. We assessed the individual and combined effects of DON and ZEN on boar semen in vitro. In a pretrial, we determined the minimum dose (MiD) of each mycotoxin that induces a significant alteration of sperm progressive motility, as investigated using computer-assisted semen analysis (CASA). In the main trial, the individual and combined effects of each mycotoxin’s MiD on sperm motility and kinetics (CASA analysis), morphology (SpermBlue staining), viability (calcein-propidium iodide staining), membrane functional status (hypoosmotic swelling test), and chromatin integrity (acridine orange staining) were analyzed. Pretrial results suggested a MiD of 50.6 μM and 62.8 μM for DON and ZEN, respectively. In the main trial, DON and ZEN administered at MiD significantly affected CASA parameters (e.g., increase of immotile spermatozoa, reduction of progressive motile spermatozoa), decreased sperm viability, and affected sperm morphology (head abnormalities) and membrane functional status. DON and ZEN showed less than additive effects on most parameters tested and a synergistic effect on viability and on two CASA parameters. In conclusion, DON and ZEN showed individual and combined toxic effects on boar semen in vitro.
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76
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Catteuw A, Devreese M, De Baere S, Antonissen G, Huybrechts B, Ivanova L, Uhlig S, Martens A, De Saeger S, De Boevre M, Croubels S. Toxicokinetic Studies in Piglets Reveal Age-Related Differences in Systemic Exposure to Zearalenone, Zearalenone-14-Glucoside, and Zearalenone-14-Sulfate. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2020; 68:7757-7764. [PMID: 32584032 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.0c01943] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Juveniles are considered as one of the most vulnerable population groups concerning mycotoxins and their modified forms. The weaning stage is a particularly vulnerable period in the life of mammals, reflected in intestinal and immune dysfunction. The current study investigated the toxicokinetic (TK) characteristics of zearalenone (ZEN), zearalenone-14-glucoside (ZEN14G), and zearalenone-14-sulfate (ZEN14S) in weaned (4-week-old) piglets, by means of oral and intravenous administration of equimolar doses, i.e., 331, 500, and 415 μg/kg bodyweight, respectively. Plasma and urine were sampled pre- and post-administration and were quantitatively analyzed for ZEN, ZEN14G, ZEN14S, and in vivo metabolites by liquid chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry. Tailor-made TK models were elaborated to process data. A statistical comparison of the results was performed with TK data obtained in a previously reported study in pigs of 8 weeks of age. Additionally, porcine plasma protein binding was determined to support TK findings. The TK results for ZEN, ZEN14G, and ZEN14S, obtained in 4- and 8-week-old pigs, revealed significant age-related differences, based on differences in intestinal permeability, body fat content, gastrointestinal transit time, and biotransformation, with a special emphasis on an increased absorbed fraction of ZEN14G, i.e., 94 vs 61% in 4- compared to 8-week-old pigs. Since the growing pig has been reported to be a suitable pediatric animal model for humans concerning TK processes, these results may contribute to refine the risk assessment concerning modified ZEN forms in juvenile animals and humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amelie Catteuw
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Mathias Devreese
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Siegrid De Baere
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Gunther Antonissen
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
- Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | | | - Lada Ivanova
- Toxinology Research Group, Norwegian Veterinary Institute, Ullevålsveien 68, 0454 Oslo, Norway
| | - Silvio Uhlig
- Toxinology Research Group, Norwegian Veterinary Institute, Ullevålsveien 68, 0454 Oslo, Norway
| | - Ann Martens
- Department of Surgery and Anaesthesiology of Domestic Animals, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Sarah De Saeger
- Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Marthe De Boevre
- Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Siska Croubels
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
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77
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Gonkowski S, Gajęcka M, Makowska K. Mycotoxins and the Enteric Nervous System. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12070461. [PMID: 32707706 PMCID: PMC7404981 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12070461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2020] [Revised: 07/16/2020] [Accepted: 07/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by various fungal species. They are commonly found in a wide range of agricultural products. Mycotoxins contained in food enter living organisms and may have harmful effects on many internal organs and systems. The gastrointestinal tract, which first comes into contact with mycotoxins present in food, is particularly vulnerable to the harmful effects of these toxins. One of the lesser-known aspects of the impact of mycotoxins on the gastrointestinal tract is the influence of these substances on gastrointestinal innervation. Therefore, the present study is the first review of current knowledge concerning the influence of mycotoxins on the enteric nervous system, which plays an important role, not only in almost all regulatory processes within the gastrointestinal tract, but also in adaptive and protective reactions in response to pathological and toxic factors in food.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sławomir Gonkowski
- Department of Clinical Physiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Oczapowskiego 13, 10-957 Olsztyn, Poland;
| | - Magdalena Gajęcka
- Department of Veterinary Prevention and Feed Hygiene, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Oczapowskiego Str. 13, 10-718 Olsztyn, Poland;
| | - Krystyna Makowska
- Department of Clinical Diagnostics, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Oczapowskiego 14, 10-957 Olsztyn, Poland
- Correspondence:
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78
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Zearalenone (ZEN) in Livestock and Poultry: Dose, Toxicokinetics, Toxicity and Estrogenicity. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12060377. [PMID: 32517357 PMCID: PMC7354539 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12060377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2020] [Revised: 06/04/2020] [Accepted: 06/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
One of the concerns when using grain ingredients in feed formulation for livestock and poultry diets is mycotoxin contamination. Aflatoxin, fumonisin, ochratoxin, trichothecene (deoxynivalenol, T-2 and HT-2) and zearalenone (ZEN) are mycotoxins that have been frequently reported in animal feed. ZEN, which has raised additional concern due to its estrogenic response in animals, is mainly produced by Fusarium graminearum (F. graminearum), F. culmorum, F. cerealis, F. equiseti, F. crookwellense and F. semitectums, and often co-occurs with deoxynivalenol in grains. The commonly elaborated derivatives of ZEN are α-zearalenol, β-zearalenol, zearalanone, α-zearalanol, and β-zearalanol. Other modified and masked forms of ZEN (including the extractable conjugated and non-extractable bound derivatives of ZEN) have also been quantified. In this review, common dose of ZEN in animal feed was summarized. The absorption rate, distribution (“carry-over”), major metabolites, toxicity and estrogenicity of ZEN related to poultry, swine and ruminants are discussed.
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79
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Rausch AK, Brockmeyer R, Schwerdtle T. Development and Validation of a QuEChERS-Based Liquid Chromatography Tandem Mass Spectrometry Multi-Method for the Determination of 38 Native and Modified Mycotoxins in Cereals. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2020; 68:4657-4669. [PMID: 32216338 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.9b07491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Here, a reliable and sensitive method for the determination of 38 (modified) mycotoxins was developed. Using a QuEChERS-based extraction method [acetonitrile/water/formic acid (75:20:5, v/v/v)], followed by two runs of high performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry with different conditions, relevant mycotoxins in cereals were analyzed. The method was validated according to the performance criteria defined by the European Commission (EC) in Commission Decision no. 657/2002. Limits of quantification ranged from 0.05 to 150 μg/kg. Good linearity (R2 > 0.99), recovery (61-120%), repeatability (RSDr < 15%), and reproducibility (RSDR < 20%) were obtained for most mycotoxins. However, validation results for Alternaria toxins and fumonisins were unsatisfying. Matrix effects (-69 to +59%) were compensated for using standard addition. Application on reference materials gave correct results while analysis of samples from local retailers revealed contamination, especially with deoxynivalenol, deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside, fumonisins, and zearalenone, in concentrations up to 369, 58, 1002, and 21 μg/kg, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ann-Kristin Rausch
- Department of Food Chemistry, Institute of Nutritional Science, University of Potsdam, Arthur-Scheunert-Allee 114-116, 14558 Nuthetal, Germany
- Eurofins SOFIA GmbH, Rudower Chaussee 29, 12489 Berlin, Germany
| | | | - Tanja Schwerdtle
- Department of Food Chemistry, Institute of Nutritional Science, University of Potsdam, Arthur-Scheunert-Allee 114-116, 14558 Nuthetal, Germany
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80
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Palumbo R, Crisci A, Venâncio A, Cortiñas Abrahantes J, Dorne JL, Battilani P, Toscano P. Occurrence and Co-Occurrence of Mycotoxins in Cereal-Based Feed and Food. Microorganisms 2020; 8:E74. [PMID: 31947721 PMCID: PMC7023405 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms8010074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2019] [Revised: 12/30/2019] [Accepted: 12/31/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Dietary (co)-exposure to mycotoxins is associated with human and animal health concerns as well as economic losses. This study aims to give a data-based insight from the scientific literature on the (co-)occurrence of mycotoxins (i.e., parent and modified forms) in European core cereals, and to estimate potential patterns of co-exposure in humans and animals. Mycotoxins were mainly reported in wheat and maize showing the highest concentrations of fumonisins (FBs), deoxynivalenol (DON), aflatoxins (AFs), and zearalenone (ZEN). The maximum concentrations of FB1+FB2 were reported in maize both in feed and food and were above legal maximum levels (MLs). Similar results were observed in DON-food, whose max concentrations in wheat, barley, maize, and oat exceeded the MLs. Co-occurrence was reported in 54.9% of total records, meaning that they were co-contaminated with at least two mycotoxins. In the context of parental mycotoxins, co-occurrence of DON was frequently observed with FBs in maize and ZEN in wheat; DON + NIV and DON + T2/HT2 were frequently reported in barley and oat, respectively. Apart from the occurrence of ZEN and its phase I and phase II modified forms, only a limited number of quantified data were available for other modified forms; i.e., mainly the acetyl derivatives of DON. Data gaps are highlighted together with the need for monitoring studies on multiple mycotoxins to identify co-occurrence patterns for parent mycotoxins, metabolites, and their modified forms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberta Palumbo
- Department of Sustainable Crop Production (DI.PRO.VE.S.), Faculty of Agriculture, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Via Emilia Parmense 84, 29100 Piacenza, Italy;
| | - Alfonso Crisci
- National Research Council, Institute of BioEconomy (IBE), 50145 Florence, Italy; (A.C.); (P.T.)
| | - Armando Venâncio
- Centre of Biological Engineering (CEB), University of Minho, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal;
| | | | - Jean-Lou Dorne
- European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), 43126 Parma, Italy; (J.C.A.); (J.-L.D.)
| | - Paola Battilani
- Department of Sustainable Crop Production (DI.PRO.VE.S.), Faculty of Agriculture, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Via Emilia Parmense 84, 29100 Piacenza, Italy;
| | - Piero Toscano
- National Research Council, Institute of BioEconomy (IBE), 50145 Florence, Italy; (A.C.); (P.T.)
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81
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Battilani P, Palumbo R, Giorni P, Dall’Asta C, Dellafiora L, Gkrillas A, Toscano P, Crisci A, Brera C, De Santis B, Rosanna Cammarano R, Della Seta M, Campbell K, Elliot C, Venancio A, Lima N, Gonçalves A, Terciolo C, Oswald IP. Mycotoxin mixtures in food and feed: holistic, innovative, flexible risk assessment modelling approach:. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2020. [DOI: 10.2903/sp.efsa.2020.en-1757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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82
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Rykaczewska A, Gajęcka M, Onyszek E, Cieplińska K, Dąbrowski M, Lisieska-Żołnierczyk S, Bulińska M, Babuchowski A, Gajęcki MT, Zielonka Ł. Imbalance in the Blood Concentrations of Selected Steroids in Pre-pubertal Gilts Depending on the Time of Exposure to Low Doses of Zearalenone. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:E561. [PMID: 31557818 PMCID: PMC6832454 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11100561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2019] [Revised: 09/19/2019] [Accepted: 09/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Zearalenone (ZEN) is a mycotoxin that not only binds to estrogen receptors, but also interacts with steroidogenic enzymes and acts as an endocrine disruptor. The aim of this study was to verify the hypothesis that low doses, minimal anticipated biological effect level (MABEL), no-observed-adverse-effect level (NOAEL) and lowest-adverse-effect level (LOAEL), of ZEN administered orally for 42 days can induce changes in the peripheral blood concentrations of selected steroid hormones (estradiol, progesterone and testosterone) in pre-pubertal gilts. The experiment was performed on 60 clinically healthy gilts with average BW of 14.5 ± 2 kg, divided into three experimental groups and a control group. Group ZEN5 animals were orally administered ZEN at 5 μg ZEN/kg BW, group ZEN10 - at 10 μg ZEN/kg BW, group ZEN15 - at 15 μg ZEN/kg BW, whereas group C received a placebo. Five gilts from every group were euthanized on analytical dates 1, 2 and 3 (days 7, 14 and 42 of the experiment). Qualitative and quantitative changes in the biotransformation of low ZEN doses were observed. These processes were least pronounced in group ZEN5 (MABEL dose) where ZEN metabolites were not detected on the first analytical date, and where β-ZEL was the predominant metabolite on successive dates. The above was accompanied by an increase in the concentration of estradiol (E2) which, together with "free ZEN", probably suppressed progesterone (P4) and testosterone (T) levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Rykaczewska
- Department of Veterinary Prevention and Feed Hygiene, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Oczapowskiego 13/29, 10-718 Olsztyn, Poland.
| | - Magdalena Gajęcka
- Department of Veterinary Prevention and Feed Hygiene, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Oczapowskiego 13/29, 10-718 Olsztyn, Poland.
| | - Ewa Onyszek
- Dairy Industry Innovation Institute Ltd., 11-700 Mrągowo, Poland.
| | - Katarzyna Cieplińska
- Microbiology Laboratory, Non-Public Health Care Centre, ul. Limanowskiego 31A, 10-342 Olsztyn, Poland.
| | - Michał Dąbrowski
- Department of Veterinary Prevention and Feed Hygiene, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Oczapowskiego 13/29, 10-718 Olsztyn, Poland.
| | - Sylwia Lisieska-Żołnierczyk
- Independent Public Health Care Centre of the Ministry of the Interior and Administration, and the Warmia and Mazury Oncology Centre in Olsztyn, Wojska Polskiego 37, 10-228 Olsztyn, Poland.
| | - Maria Bulińska
- Department of Discrete Mathematics and Theoretical Computer Science, Faculty of Mathematics and Computer Science, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Słoneczna 34, 10-710 Olsztyn, Poland.
| | | | - Maciej T Gajęcki
- Department of Veterinary Prevention and Feed Hygiene, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Oczapowskiego 13/29, 10-718 Olsztyn, Poland.
| | - Łukasz Zielonka
- Department of Veterinary Prevention and Feed Hygiene, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Oczapowskiego 13/29, 10-718 Olsztyn, Poland.
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83
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Faisal Z, Fliszár-Nyúl E, Dellafiora L, Galaverna G, Dall'Asta C, Lemli B, Kunsági-Máté S, Szente L, Poór M. Cyclodextrins Can Entrap Zearalenone-14-Glucoside: Interaction of the Masked Mycotoxin with Cyclodextrins and Cyclodextrin Bead Polymer. Biomolecules 2019; 9:E354. [PMID: 31405003 PMCID: PMC6724229 DOI: 10.3390/biom9080354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2019] [Revised: 08/07/2019] [Accepted: 08/07/2019] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Zearalenone (ZEN) is a Fusarium-derived xenoestrogenic mycotoxin. In plants, zearalenone-14-O-β-d-glucoside (Z14G) is the major conjugated metabolite of ZEN, and is a masked mycotoxin. Masked mycotoxins are plant-modified derivatives, which are not routinely screened in food and feed samples. Cyclodextrins (CDs) are cyclic oligosaccharides built up from D-glucopyranose units. CDs can form stable host-guest type complexes with lipophilic molecules (e.g., with some mycotoxins). In this study, the interaction of Z14G with native and chemically modified β- and γ-CDs was examined employing fluorescence spectroscopy and molecular modeling. Furthermore, the removal of Z14G from aqueous solution by insoluble β-CD bead polymer (BBP) was also tested. Our results demonstrate that Z14G forms the most stable complexes with γ-CDs under acidic and neutral conditions (K ≈ 103 L/mol). Among the CDs tested, randomly methylated γ-CD induced the highest increase in the fluorescence of Z14G (7.1-fold) and formed the most stable complexes with the mycotoxin (K = 2 × 103 L/mol). Furthermore, BBP considerably reduced the Z14G content of aqueous solution. Based on these observations, CD technology seems a promising tool to improve the fluorescence analytical detection of Z14G and to discover new mycotoxin binders which can also remove masked mycotoxins (e.g., Z14G).
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Affiliation(s)
- Zelma Faisal
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Pécs, Szigeti út 12, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary
- János Szentágothai Research Center, University of Pécs, Ifjúság útja 20, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary
| | - Eszter Fliszár-Nyúl
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Pécs, Szigeti út 12, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary
- János Szentágothai Research Center, University of Pécs, Ifjúság útja 20, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary
| | - Luca Dellafiora
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, Via G.P. 7 Usberti 17/A, 43124 Parma, Italy
| | - Gianni Galaverna
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, Via G.P. 7 Usberti 17/A, 43124 Parma, Italy
| | - Chiara Dall'Asta
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, Via G.P. 7 Usberti 17/A, 43124 Parma, Italy
| | - Beáta Lemli
- János Szentágothai Research Center, University of Pécs, Ifjúság útja 20, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary
- Institute of Organic and Medicinal Chemistry, Medical School, University of Pécs, Szigeti út 12, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary
| | - Sándor Kunsági-Máté
- János Szentágothai Research Center, University of Pécs, Ifjúság útja 20, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary
- Institute of Organic and Medicinal Chemistry, Medical School, University of Pécs, Szigeti út 12, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary
| | - Lajos Szente
- CycloLab Cyclodextrin Research & Development Laboratory, Ltd., Illatos út 7, H-1097 Budapest, Hungary
| | - Miklós Poór
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Pécs, Szigeti út 12, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary.
- János Szentágothai Research Center, University of Pécs, Ifjúság útja 20, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary.
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84
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Niermans K, Woyzichovski J, Kröncke N, Benning R, Maul R. Feeding study for the mycotoxin zearalenone in yellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor) larvae-investigation of biological impact and metabolic conversion. Mycotoxin Res 2019; 35:231-242. [PMID: 30864055 PMCID: PMC6611894 DOI: 10.1007/s12550-019-00346-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2018] [Revised: 02/18/2019] [Accepted: 02/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Edible insects as additional food and/or feed source may represent one important component to solve the problem of food security for a growing human population. Especially for covering the rising demand for protein of animal origin, seven insect species currently allowed as feed constituents in the European Union are gaining more interest. However, before considering insects such as yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) as suitable for, e.g. human consumption, the possible presence and accumulation of contaminants must be elucidated. The present work investigates the effects of the mycotoxin zearalenone (ZEN) and its metabolites on insect larvae. Seven different diets were prepared: toxin-free control, spiked and artificially contaminated (both containing approx.500 μg/kg and approx. 2000 μg/kg of ZEN) as well as two naturally contaminated diets (600 μg/kg and 900 μg/kg ZEN). The diets were used in a multiple-week feeding trial using T. molitor larvae as model insects. The amount of ZEN and its metabolites in the feed, larvae and the residue were measured by HPLC-MS/MS. A significantly enhanced individual larval weight was found for the insects fed on the naturally contaminated diets compared to the other feeding groups after 8 weeks of exposure. No ZEN or ZEN metabolites were detected in the T. molitor larvae after harvest. However, ZEN, α- and β-stereoisomers of zearalenol were found in the residue samples indicating an intense metabolism of ZEN in the larvae. No further ZEN metabolites could be detected in any sample. Thus, ZEN is not retained to any significant amount in T. molitor larvae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelly Niermans
- BfR - German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Max-Dohrn-Str. 8-10, 10589, Berlin, Germany
| | - Jan Woyzichovski
- University of Applied Sciences Bremerhaven, An der Karlstadt 8, 27568, Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Nina Kröncke
- University of Applied Sciences Bremerhaven, An der Karlstadt 8, 27568, Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Rainer Benning
- University of Applied Sciences Bremerhaven, An der Karlstadt 8, 27568, Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Ronald Maul
- BfR - German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Max-Dohrn-Str. 8-10, 10589, Berlin, Germany.
- University of Applied Sciences Bremerhaven, An der Karlstadt 8, 27568, Bremerhaven, Germany.
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85
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Woelflingseder L, Warth B, Vierheilig I, Schwartz-Zimmermann H, Hametner C, Nagl V, Novak B, Šarkanj B, Berthiller F, Adam G, Marko D. The Fusarium metabolite culmorin suppresses the in vitro glucuronidation of deoxynivalenol. Arch Toxicol 2019; 93:1729-1743. [PMID: 31049613 PMCID: PMC6620244 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-019-02459-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2019] [Accepted: 04/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Glucuronidation is a major phase II conjugation pathway in mammals, playing an important role in the detoxification and biotransformation of xenobiotics including mycotoxins such as deoxynivalenol (DON). Culmorin (CUL), a potentially co-occurring Fusarium metabolite, was recently found to inhibit the corresponding detoxification reaction in plants, namely DON-glucoside formation, raising the question whether CUL might affect also the mammalian counterpart. Using cell-free conditions, CUL when present equimolar (67 µM) or in fivefold excess, suppressed DON glucuronidation by human liver microsomes, reducing the formation of DON-15-glucuronide by 15 and 50%, and DON-3-glucuronide by 30 and 50%, respectively. Substantial inhibitory effects on DON glucuronidation up to 100% were found using the human recombinant uridine 5'-diphospho-glucuronosyltransferases (UGT) 2B4 and 2B7, applying a tenfold excess of CUL (100 µM). In addition, we observed the formation of a novel metabolite of CUL, CUL-11-glucuronide, identified for the first time in vitro as well as in vivo in piglet and human urine samples. Despite the observed potency of CUL to inhibit glucuronidation, no significant synergistic toxicity on cell viability was observed in combinations of CUL (0.1-100 µM) and DON (0.01-10 µM) in HT-29 and HepG2 cells, presumably reflecting the limited capacity of the tested cell lines for DON glucuronidation. However, in humans, glucuronidation is known to represent the main detoxification pathway for DON. The present results, including the identification of CUL-11-glucuronide in urine samples of piglets and humans, underline the necessity of further studies on the relevance of CUL as a potentially co-occurring modulator of DON toxicokinetics in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lydia Woelflingseder
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währingerstrasse 38, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Benedikt Warth
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währingerstrasse 38, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Immina Vierheilig
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währingerstrasse 38, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Heidi Schwartz-Zimmermann
- Christian Doppler Laboratory for Mycotoxin Metabolism and Center for Analytical Chemistry, Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU), Konrad-Lorenz-Strasse 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - Christian Hametner
- Institute of Applied Synthetic Chemistry, Vienna University of Technology, Getreidemarkt 9/163, 1060 Vienna, Austria
| | - Veronika Nagl
- BIOMIN Research Center, Technopark 1, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - Barbara Novak
- BIOMIN Research Center, Technopark 1, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - Bojan Šarkanj
- Department of Applied Chemistry and Ecology, Faculty of Food Technology, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, Franje Kuhača 20, 31000 Osijek, Croatia
| | - Franz Berthiller
- Christian Doppler Laboratory for Mycotoxin Metabolism and Center for Analytical Chemistry, Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU), Konrad-Lorenz-Strasse 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - Gerhard Adam
- Department of Applied Genetics and Cell Biology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU), Konrad-Lorenz-Strasse 24, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - Doris Marko
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währingerstrasse 38, 1090 Vienna, Austria
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86
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Xia L, Sugita-Konishi Y, Gong Y, Routledge M. Dietary Deoxynivalenol Exposure Assessment in University Students from Japan. Food Saf (Tokyo) 2019; 7:48-53. [PMID: 31998586 PMCID: PMC6978884 DOI: 10.14252/foodsafetyfscj.2018021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2019] [Accepted: 05/22/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
This study was conducted to give a preliminary estimation of deoxynivalenol (DON) dietary exposure in Japanese university students (n = 30, aged 22-25 years) using a biomarker approach and to examine the correlation between wheat food intake and DON exposure levels. Spot urine samples were collected from 30 students of Azabu University, Tokyo. Urine samples were treated with enzyme digestion (for total DON measurement) and without (for unconjugated DON analysis) before clean-up using an immuno-affinity column and analysis using an LC-MS method, with a 13C15- DON internal standard used for accurate quantification. The limit of detection for this method is 0.5 ng/mL urine. The geometric mean (95% CI) of DON concentration was 2.03 (1.64 - 6.87) ng per mL urine. Ninety of the urine samples had detectable levels of urinary DON. The DON dietary intake exposure estimation suggested that one out of the 30 subjects had an intake of DON that exceeded Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI) level. Mean ratio of free DON to total DON was determined to be 19%. Wheat intake assessed using a basic food frequent questionnaire method did not show a significant correlation with the urinary DON level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Xia
- School of Food Science & Nutrition, University of Leeds,
Leeds, UK
| | | | - Yunyun Gong
- School of Food Science & Nutrition, University of Leeds,
Leeds, UK
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87
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Cieplińska K, Gajęcka M, Dąbrowski M, Rykaczewska A, Lisieska-Żołnierczyk S, Bulińska M, Zielonka Ł, Gajęcki MT. Time-Dependent Changes in the Intestinal Microbiome of Gilts Exposed to Low Zearalenone Doses. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:E296. [PMID: 31137638 PMCID: PMC6563319 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11050296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2019] [Revised: 05/20/2019] [Accepted: 05/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Zearalenone is a frequent contaminant of cereals and their by-products in regions with a temperate climate. This toxic molecule is produced naturally by Fusarium fungi in crops. The aim of this study was to determine the influence of low zearalenone doses (LOAEL, NOAEL and MABEL) on the intestinal microbiome of gilts on different days of exposure (days 7, 21 and 42). Intestinal contents were sampled from the duodenal cap, the third part of the duodenum, jejunum, caecum and the descending colon. The experiment was performed on 60 clinically healthy gilts with average BW of 14.5 ± 2 kg, divided into three experimental groups and a control group. Group ZEN5 animals were orally administered ZEN at 5 μg /kg BW, group ZEN10-10 μg ZEN/kg BW and group ZEN15-15 µg ZEN/kg BW. Five gilts from every group were euthanized on analytical dates 1, 2 and 3. Differences in the log values of microbial counts, mainly Escherichia coli and Enterococcus faecalis, were observed between the proximal and distal segments of the intestinal tract on different analytical dates as well as in the entire intestinal tract. Zearalenone affected the colony counts of intestinal microbiota rather than microbiome diversity, and its effect was greatest in groups ZEN10 and ZEN15. Microbial colony counts were similar in groups ZEN5 and C. In the analysed mycobiome, ZEN exerted a stimulatory effect on the log values of yeast and mould counts in all intestinal segments, in particular in the colon, and the greatest increase was noted on the first analytical date.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katarzyna Cieplińska
- Microbiology Laboratory, Non-Public Health Care Centre, Limanowskiego 31A, 10-342 Olsztyn, Poland.
| | - Magdalena Gajęcka
- Department of Veterinary Prevention and Feed Hygiene, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Oczapowskiego 13, 10-718 Olsztyn, Poland.
| | - Michał Dąbrowski
- Department of Veterinary Prevention and Feed Hygiene, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Oczapowskiego 13, 10-718 Olsztyn, Poland.
| | - Anna Rykaczewska
- Department of Veterinary Prevention and Feed Hygiene, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Oczapowskiego 13, 10-718 Olsztyn, Poland.
| | - Sylwia Lisieska-Żołnierczyk
- Independent Public Health Care Centre of the Ministry of the Interior and Administration, and the Warmia and Mazury Oncology Centre in Olsztyn, Wojska Polskiego 37, 10-228 Olsztyn, Poland.
| | - Maria Bulińska
- Department of Discrete Mathematics and Theoretical Computer Science, Faculty of Mathematics and Computer Science, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Słoneczna 34, 10-710 Olsztyn, Poland.
| | - Łukasz Zielonka
- Department of Veterinary Prevention and Feed Hygiene, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Oczapowskiego 13, 10-718 Olsztyn, Poland.
| | - Maciej T Gajęcki
- Department of Veterinary Prevention and Feed Hygiene, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Oczapowskiego 13, 10-718 Olsztyn, Poland.
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88
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Lorenz N, Dänicke S, Edler L, Gottschalk C, Lassek E, Marko D, Rychlik M, Mally A. A critical evaluation of health risk assessment of modified mycotoxins with a special focus on zearalenone. Mycotoxin Res 2019; 35:27-46. [PMID: 30209771 PMCID: PMC6331505 DOI: 10.1007/s12550-018-0328-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2018] [Revised: 08/23/2018] [Accepted: 08/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
A comprehensive definition introducing the term "modified mycotoxins" to encompass all possible forms in which mycotoxins and their modifications can occur was recently proposed and has rapidly gained wide acceptance within the scientific community. It is becoming increasingly evident that exposure to such modified mycotoxins due to their presence in food and feed has the potential to pose a substantial additional risk to human and animal health. Zearalenone (ZEN) is a well-characterized Fusarium toxin. Considering the diversity of modified forms of ZEN occurring in food and feed, the toxicologically relevant endocrine activity of many of these metabolites, and the fact that modified forms add to a dietary exposure which approaches the tolerable daily intake by free ZEN alone, modified forms of ZEN present an ideal case study for critical evaluation of modified mycotoxins in food safety. Following a summary of recent scientific opinions of EFSA dealing with health risk assessment of ZEN alone or in combination with its modified forms, uncertainties and data gaps are highlighted. Issues essential for evaluation and prioritization of modified mycotoxins in health risk assessment are identified and discussed, including opportunities to improve exposure assessment using biomonitoring data. Further issues such as future consideration of combinatory effects of the parent toxin with its modified forms and also other compounds co-occurring in food and feed are addressed. With a particular focus on ZEN, the most pressing challenges associated with health risk assessment of modified mycotoxins are identified and recommendations for further research to fill data gaps and reduce uncertainties are made.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole Lorenz
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR), Max-Dohrn-Str. 8-10, 10589, Berlin, Germany.
| | - Sven Dänicke
- Institute of Animal Nutrition, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute (FLI), Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Bundesallee 50, 38116, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Lutz Edler
- Division of Biostatistics, German Cancer Research Center, Im Neuenheimer Feld 280, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Christoph Gottschalk
- Chair of Food Safety, Veterinary Faculty, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Schönleutnerstr. 8, 85764, Oberschleissheim, Germany
| | - Eva Lassek
- Bavarian Health and Food Safety Authority, Luitpoldstr. 1, 97082, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Doris Marko
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, University of Vienna, Währingerstr. 38, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Michael Rychlik
- Chair of Analytical Food Chemistry, Technical University Munich, Alte Akademie 10, 85354, Freising, Germany
| | - Angela Mally
- Department of Toxicology, University of Würzburg, Versbacher Strasse 9, 97078, Würzburg, Germany
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89
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Panasiuk L, Jedziniak P, Pietruszka K, Piatkowska M, Bocian L. Frequency and levels of regulated and emerging mycotoxins in silage in Poland. Mycotoxin Res 2019; 35:17-25. [PMID: 30136099 PMCID: PMC6331501 DOI: 10.1007/s12550-018-0327-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2017] [Revised: 08/09/2018] [Accepted: 08/15/2018] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
In this study, 120 silage samples collected in 2015 from farms in Poland were analysed by a multimycotoxin method based on liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. The study included toxins which are regulated within the European Union (aflatoxins, deoxynivalenol, fumonisins, T-2/HT-2 toxins, ochratoxin A and zearalenone) and non-regulated mycotoxins (enniatins, beauvericin, 8-ketotrichothecenes, sterigmatocystin, zearalenone derivatives). All silage samples were positive for at least one mycotoxin, and 61% of samples contained five or more mycotoxins simultaneously. The most frequently detected toxins were deoxynivalenol, nivalenol, zearalenone, enniatins and beauvericin, although the levels of these toxins were relatively low. The mean concentration of deoxynivalenol and zearalenon was 406 and 80.6 μg/kg, respectively, and two toxins were positive-correlated. This is the first study that provides information about emerging mycotoxins contaminating silage in Poland.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Panasiuk
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, National Veterinary Research Institute, Partyzantow Avenue 57, 24-100, Pulawy, Poland.
| | - P Jedziniak
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, National Veterinary Research Institute, Partyzantow Avenue 57, 24-100, Pulawy, Poland
| | - K Pietruszka
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, National Veterinary Research Institute, Partyzantow Avenue 57, 24-100, Pulawy, Poland
| | - M Piatkowska
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, National Veterinary Research Institute, Partyzantow Avenue 57, 24-100, Pulawy, Poland
- Center for Analytical Chemistry, Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Konrad Lorenz Str. 20, 3430, Tulln, Austria
| | - L Bocian
- Department of Epidemiology and Risk Assessment, National Veterinary Research Institute, Partyzantow Avenue 57, 24-100, Pulawy, Poland
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90
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Hart A, Maxim L, Siegrist M, Von Goetz N, da Cruz C, Merten C, Mosbach-Schulz O, Lahaniatis M, Smith A, Hardy A. Guidance on Communication of Uncertainty in Scientific Assessments. EFSA J 2019; 17:e05520. [PMID: 32626067 PMCID: PMC7292191 DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2019.5520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
This document provides guidance for communicators on how to communicate the various expressions of uncertainty described in EFSA's document: 'Guidance on uncertainty analysis in scientific assessments'. It also contains specific guidance for assessors on how best to report the various expressions of uncertainty. The document provides a template for identifying expressions of uncertainty in scientific assessments and locating the specific guidance for each expression. The guidance is structured according to EFSA's three broadly defined categories of target audience: 'entry', 'informed' and 'technical' levels. Communicators should use the guidance for entry and informed audiences, while assessors should use the guidance for the technical level. The guidance was formulated using evidence from the scientific literature, grey literature and two EFSA research studies, or based on judgement and reasoning where evidence was incomplete or missing. The limitations of the evidence sources inform the recommendations for further research on uncertainty communication.
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Cieplińska K, Gajęcka M, Nowak A, Dąbrowski M, Zielonka Ł, Gajęcki MT. The Genotoxicity of Caecal Water in Gilts Exposed to Low Doses of Zearalenone. Toxins (Basel) 2018; 10:E350. [PMID: 30200392 PMCID: PMC6162682 DOI: 10.3390/toxins10090350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2018] [Revised: 08/22/2018] [Accepted: 08/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Zearalenone is a toxic low-molecular-weight molecule that is naturally produced by moulds on crops as a secondary metabolite. The aim of this study was to determine the genotoxicity of caecal water collected successively from the caecal contents of gilts exposed to low doses (LOAEL, NOAEL, and MABEL) of zearalenone. The experiment was performed on 60 clinically healthy gilts with average BW of 14.5 ± 2 kg, divided into three experimental groups and a control group. Group ZEN5 were orally administered ZEN at 5 μg/kg BW, group ZEN10-10 μg ZEN/kg BW and group ZEN15-15 µg ZEN/kg BW. Five gilts from every group were euthanized on analytical dates 1, 2, and 3. Caecal water samples for in vitro analysis were collected from the ileocaecal region. The genotoxicity of caecal water was noted, particularly after date 1 in groups ZEN10 and ZEN15 with a decreasing trend. Electrophoresis revealed the presence of numerous comets without tails in groups C and ZEN5 and fewer comets with clearly expressed tails in groups ZEN10 and ZEN15. The distribution of LLC-PK1 cells ranged from 15% to 20% in groups C and ZEN5, and from 30% to 60% in groups ZEN10 and ZEN15. The analysis of caecal water genotoxicity during exposure to very low doses of ZEN revealed the presence of a counter response and a compensatory effect in gilts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katarzyna Cieplińska
- Microbiology Laboratory, Non-Public Health Care Centre, ul. Limanowskiego 31A, 10-342 Olsztyn, Poland.
| | - Magdalena Gajęcka
- Department of Veterinary Prevention and Feed Hygiene, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Oczapowskiego 13, 10-718 Olsztyn, Poland.
| | - Adriana Nowak
- Institute of Fermentation Technology and Microbiology, Lodz University of Technology, 90-924 Lodz, Poland.
| | - Michał Dąbrowski
- Department of Veterinary Prevention and Feed Hygiene, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Oczapowskiego 13, 10-718 Olsztyn, Poland.
| | - Łukasz Zielonka
- Department of Veterinary Prevention and Feed Hygiene, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Oczapowskiego 13, 10-718 Olsztyn, Poland.
| | - Maciej T Gajęcki
- Department of Veterinary Prevention and Feed Hygiene, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Oczapowskiego 13, 10-718 Olsztyn, Poland.
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Interactions of zearalenone and its reduced metabolites α-zearalenol and β-zearalenol with serum albumins: species differences, binding sites, and thermodynamics. Mycotoxin Res 2018; 34:269-278. [PMID: 30014206 DOI: 10.1007/s12550-018-0321-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2018] [Revised: 07/05/2018] [Accepted: 07/10/2018] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Zearalenone (ZEN) is a mycotoxin produced by Fusarium species. ZEN mainly appears in cereals and related foodstuffs, causing reproductive disorders in animals, due to its xenoestrogenic effects. The main reduced metabolites of ZEN are α-zearalenol (α-ZEL) and β-zearalenol (β-ZEL). Similarly to ZEN, ZELs can also activate estrogen receptors; moreover, α-ZEL is the most potent endocrine disruptor among these three compounds. Serum albumin is the most abundant plasma protein in the circulation; it affects the tissue distribution and elimination of several drugs and xenobiotics. Although ZEN binds to albumin with high affinity, albumin-binding of α-ZEL and β-ZEL has not been investigated. In this study, the complex formation of ZEN, α-ZEL, and β-ZEL with human (HSA), bovine (BSA), porcine (PSA), and rat serum albumins (RSA) was investigated by fluorescence spectroscopy, affinity chromatography, thermodynamic studies, and molecular modeling. Our main observations are as follows: (1) ZEN binds with higher affinity to albumins than α-ZEL and β-ZEL. (2) The low binding affinity of β-ZEL toward albumin may result from its different binding position or binding site. (3) The binding constants of the mycotoxin-albumin complexes significantly vary with the species. (4) From the thermodynamic point of view, the formation of ZEN-HSA and ZEN-RSA complexes are similar, while the formation of ZEN-BSA and ZEN-PSA complexes are markedly different. These results suggest that the toxicological relevance of ZEN-albumin and ZEL-albumin interactions may also be species-dependent.
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Camenzuli L, Van Dam R, de Rijk T, Andriessen R, Van Schelt J, Van der Fels-Klerx HJI. Tolerance and Excretion of the Mycotoxins Aflatoxin B₁, Zearalenone, Deoxynivalenol, and Ochratoxin A by Alphitobius diaperinus and Hermetia illucens from Contaminated Substrates. Toxins (Basel) 2018; 10:E91. [PMID: 29495278 PMCID: PMC5848191 DOI: 10.3390/toxins10020091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2018] [Revised: 02/14/2018] [Accepted: 02/20/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
This study aimed to investigate the potential accumulation of mycotoxins in the lesser mealworm (Alphitobius diaperinus, LMW) and black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens, BSF) larvae. Feed was spiked with aflatoxin B₁, deoxynivalenol (DON), ochratoxin A or zearalenone, and as a mixture of mycotoxins, to concentrations of 1, 10, and 25 times the maximum limits set by the European Commission for complete feed. This maximum limit is 0.02 mg/kg for aflatoxin B₁, 5 mg/kg for DON, 0.5 mg/kg for zearalenone and 0.1 mg/kg for ochratoxin A. The mycotoxins and some of their metabolites were analysed in the larvae and residual material using a validated and accredited LC-MS/MS-based method. Metabolites considered were aflatoxicol, aflatoxin P₁, aflatoxin Q₁, and aflatoxin M₁, 3-acetyl-DON, 15-acetyl-DON and DON-3-glycoside, and α- and β-zearalenol. No differences were observed between larvae reared on mycotoxins individually or as a mixture with regards to both larvae development and mycotoxin accumulation/excretion. None of the mycotoxins accumulated in the larvae and were only detected in BSF larvae several orders of magnitude lower than the concentration in feed. Mass balance calculations showed that BSF and LMW larvae metabolized the four mycotoxins to different extents. Metabolites accounted for minimal amounts of the mass balance, except for zearalenone metabolites in the BSF treatments, which accounted for an average maximum of 86% of the overall mass balance. Both insect species showed to excrete or metabolize the four mycotoxins present in their feed. Hence, safe limits for these mycotoxins in substrates to be used for these two insect species possibly could be higher than for production animals. However, additional analytical and toxicological research to fully understand the safe limits of mycotoxins in insect feed, and thus the safety of the insects, is required.
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Affiliation(s)
- Louise Camenzuli
- ExxonMobil Petroleum & Chemical, Hermeslaan 2, 1831 MAchelen, Belgium.
- RIKILTWageningen Research, Akkermaalsbos 2, 6708 WBWageningen, The Netherlands.
| | - Ruud Van Dam
- RIKILTWageningen Research, Akkermaalsbos 2, 6708 WBWageningen, The Netherlands.
| | - Theo de Rijk
- RIKILTWageningen Research, Akkermaalsbos 2, 6708 WBWageningen, The Netherlands.
| | - Rob Andriessen
- Proti-Farm, Harderwijkerweg 141a, 3852 AB Ermelo, The Netherlands.
| | - Jeroen Van Schelt
- Koppert BV, Veilingweg 14, 2650 AD Berkel en Rodenrijs, The Netherlands.
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Interaction of zearalenone with bovine serum albumin as determined by fluorescence quenching. Mycotoxin Res 2017; 34:39-48. [DOI: 10.1007/s12550-017-0297-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2017] [Revised: 10/25/2017] [Accepted: 10/26/2017] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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