Tumor Necrosis Factor Receptors: Pleiotropic Signaling Complexes and Their Differential Effects

Cytokines as Biomarkers for Evaluating Physical Exercise in Trained and Non-Trained Individuals: A Narrative Review

Physical activity and exercise training have numerous health benefits, including the prevention and management of chronic diseases, improvement of cardiovascular health, and enhancement of mental well-being. However, the effectiveness of training programs can vary widely among individuals due to various factors, such as genetics, lifestyle, and environment. Thus, identifying reliable biomarkers to evaluate physical training effectiveness and personalize training programs is crucial. Cytokines are signaling molecules produced by immune cells that play a vital role in inflammation and tissue repair. In recent years, there has been increasing interest in the potential use of cytokines as biomarkers for evaluating training effectiveness. This review article aims to provide an overview of cytokines, their potential as biomarkers, methods for measuring cytokine levels, and factors that can affect cytokine levels. The article also discusses the potential benefits of using cytokines as biomarkers, such as monitoring muscle damage and inflammation, and the potential for personalized training programs based on cytokine responses. We believe that the use of cytokines as biomarkers holds great promise for optimizing training programs and improving overall health outcomes.

Salivary cytokine expression after non-surgical periodontal therapy in smokers: 12-month follow-up

BACKGROUND

Diverse smoking trajectories may influence cytokine expression after non-surgical periodontal therapy and supportive periodontal care. Thus, we aimed to describe cytokine profiles in periodontal healing after periodontal therapy in smokers.

METHODS

A smoking cessation program and non-surgical periodontal therapy were offered to 80 smokers with periodontitis. Smoking trajectories (quitters/light, moderate, heavy) were observed. The association of salivary interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, IL-12p70, IL-13, interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) with smoking trajectories and periodontal outcomes was determined using mixed-effects linear regression.

RESULTS

Among quitters/light smokers, IL-1β was associated with an increase in mean periodontal pocket depth (PPD) and mean clinical attachment level (CAL). IL-6 was associated with a decrease in mean PPD and CAL in heavy smokers, whereas IL-8 was associated with a decrease in PPD among moderate smokers. TNFα was associated with a reduction in mean PPD and CAL among quitters/light smokers, while among moderate smokers, TNFα was associated with an increase in mean PPD and CAL. IL-12 and IL-13 were associated with a decrease in mean PPD in moderate smokers.

CONCLUSION

Our findings suggest that distinctive smoking exposures induce differential cytokine expression, which, in turn, seems to influence periodontal repair.

Shared inflammatory pathways of rheumatoid arthritis and atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease

The association between chronic inflammation and increased risk of cardiovascular disease in rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is well established. In the general population, inflammation is an established independent risk factor for cardiovascular disease, and much interest is placed on controlling inflammation to reduce cardiovascular events. As inflammation encompasses numerous pathways, the development of targeted therapies in RA provides an opportunity to understand the downstream effect of inhibiting specific pathways on cardiovascular risk. Data from these studies can inform cardiovascular risk management in patients with RA, and in the general population. This Review focuses on pro-inflammatory pathways targeted by existing therapies in RA and with mechanistic data from the general population on cardiovascular risk. Specifically, the discussions include the IL-1, IL-6 and TNF pathways, as well as the Janus kinase (JAK)-signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) signalling pathway, and the role of these pathways in RA pathogenesis in the joint alongside the development of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. Overall, some robust data support inhibition of IL-1 and IL-6 in decreasing the risk of cardiovascular disease, with growing data supporting IL-6 inhibition in both patients with RA and the general population to reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease.

Understanding the initiation, delivery and processing of bone cancer pain from the peripheral to the central nervous system

Bone cancer pain is a complex condition characterized by persistent, sudden, spontaneous pain accompanied by hyperalgesia that typically arises from bone metastases or primary bone tumors, causing severe discomfort and significantly diminishing cancer patients' quality of life and confidence in their ability to overcome the disease. It is widely known that peripheral nerves are responsible for detecting harmful stimuli, which are then transmitted to the brain via the spinal cord, resulting in the perception of pain. In the case of bone cancer, tumors and stromal cells within the bone marrow release various chemical signals, including inflammatory factors, colony-stimulating factors, chemokines, and hydrogen ions. Consequently, the nociceptors located at the nerve endings within the bone marrow sense these chemical signals, generating electrical signals that are then transmitted to the brain through the spinal cord. Subsequently, the brain processes these electrical signals in a complex manner to create the sensation of bone cancer pain. Numerous studies have investigated the transmission of bone cancer pain from the periphery to the spinal cord. However, the processing of pain information induced by bone cancer within the brain remains unclear. With the continuous advancements in brain science and technology, the brain mechanism of bone cancer pain would become more clearly understood. Herein, we focus on summarizing the peripheral nerve perception of the spinal cord transmission of bone cancer pain and provide a brief overview of the ongoing research regarding the brain mechanisms involved in bone cancer pain.

The copper chelator ammonium tetrathiomolybdate inhibits the progression of experimental endometriosis in TNFR1-deficient mice

The TNF-α/TNFR system is involved in endometriosis (EDT), a gynecologic estrogen-dependent disease. Elevated copper concentrations have also been associated with EDT, even in TNFR1-deficient mice where disease worsening occurs. We aimed to evaluate whether treatment with ammonium tetrathiomolybdate (TM, copper chelator) is beneficial in TNFR1-deficient mice presenting with worsened EDT status. Female C57BL/6 mice were divided into three groups: KO Sham, KO EDT, and KO EDT+TM. TM was administered from the 15th postoperative day, and samples were collected one month after inducing pathology. In peritoneal fluid, copper and estradiol levels were determined by electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometry and electrochemiluminescence, respectively. Lesions were processed for the analysis of cell proliferation (PCNA immunohistochemistry), expression of angiogenic markers (RT-qPCR), and oxidative stress (spectrophotometric methods). We found that EDT increased copper and estradiol levels compared to the KO Sham group, while the TM administration restored the levels of both factors. TM also reduced the volume and weight of the lesions and cell proliferation rate. Besides, TM treatment decreased the number of blood vessels and the Vegfa, Fgf2, and Pdgfb expression. Furthermore, superoxide dismutase and catalase activity decreased, and lipid peroxidation increased. TM administration inhibits EDT progression in TNFR1-deficient mice where the pathology is exacerbated.

Cell death checkpoints in the TNF pathway

Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) plays a central role in orchestrating mammalian inflammatory responses. It promotes inflammation either directly by inducing inflammatory gene expression or indirectly by triggering cell death. TNF-mediated cell death-driven inflammation can be beneficial during infection by providing cell-extrinsic signals that help to mount proper immune responses. Uncontrolled cell death caused by TNF is instead highly detrimental and is believed to cause several human autoimmune diseases. Death is not the default response to TNF sensing. Molecular brakes, or cell death checkpoints, actively repress TNF cytotoxicity to protect the organism from its detrimental consequences. These checkpoints therefore constitute essential safeguards against inflammatory diseases. Recent advances in the field have revealed the existence of several new and unexpected brakes against TNF cytotoxicity and pathogenicity.

Neutrophil-intrinsic TNF receptor signaling orchestrates host defense against Staphylococcus aureus

Staphylococcus aureus is the leading cause of skin and soft tissue infections and is a major health burden due to the emergence of antibiotic-resistant strains. To address the unmet need of alternative treatments to antibiotics, a better understanding of the protective immune mechanisms against S. aureus skin infection is warranted. Here, we report that tumor necrosis factor (TNF) promoted protection against S. aureus in the skin, which was mediated by bone marrow-derived immune cells. Furthermore, neutrophil-intrinsic TNF receptor (TNFR) signaling directed immunity against S. aureus skin infections. Mechanistically, TNFR1 promoted neutrophil recruitment to the skin, whereas TNFR2 prevented systemic bacterial dissemination and directed neutrophil antimicrobial functions. Treatment with a TNFR2 agonist showed therapeutic efficacy against S. aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa skin infections, which involved increased neutrophil extracellular trap formation. Our findings revealed nonredundant roles for TNFR1 and TNFR2 in neutrophils for immunity against S. aureus and can be therapeutically targeted for protection against bacterial skin infections.

Cardiovascular hemodynamics in mice with tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated factor 2 mediated cytoprotection in the heart

Introduction

Many studies in mice have demonstrated that cardiac-specific innate immune signaling pathways can be reprogrammed to modulate inflammation in response to myocardial injury and improve outcomes. While the echocardiography standard parameters of left ventricular (LV) ejection fraction, fractional shortening, end-diastolic diameter, and others are used to assess cardiac function, their dependency on loading conditions somewhat limits their utility in completely reflecting the contractile function and global cardiovascular efficiency of the heart. A true measure of global cardiovascular efficiency should include the interaction between the ventricle and the aorta (ventricular-vascular coupling, VVC) as well as measures of aortic impedance and pulse wave velocity.

Methods

We measured cardiac Doppler velocities, blood pressures, along with VVC, aortic impedance, and pulse wave velocity to evaluate global cardiac function in a mouse model of cardiac-restricted low levels of TRAF2 overexpression that conferred cytoprotection in the heart.

Results

While previous studies reported that response to myocardial infarction and reperfusion was improved in the TRAF2 overexpressed mice, we found that TRAF2 mice had significantly lower cardiac systolic velocities and accelerations, diastolic atrial velocity, aortic pressures, rate-pressure product, LV contractility and relaxation, and stroke work when compared to littermate control mice. Also, we found significantly longer aortic ejection time, isovolumic contraction and relaxation times, and significantly higher mitral early/atrial ratio, myocardial performance index, and ventricular vascular coupling in the TRAF2 overexpression mice compared to their littermate controls. We found no significant differences in the aortic impedance and pulse wave velocity.

Discussion

While the reported tolerance to ischemic insults in TRAF2 overexpression mice may suggest enhanced cardiac reserve, our results indicate diminished cardiac function in these mice.

The potential effects of festidinol treatment against the NLRP3 inflammasome and pyroptosis in D-galactose and aluminum chloride-induced Alzheimer's-like pathology in mouse brain

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder that causes cognitive and memory decline. Neuroinflammation is currently considered as being an important pathology in AD. NLRP3, the nucleotide-binding and oligomerization (NOD) domain-like receptor (NLR) family pyrin domain (PYD)-containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome is a critical component of the innate immune response, which plays a key role in the development and progression of AD. Therefore, the NLRP3 inflammasome is one of the target treatments for AD. This study aimed to investigate the effect of festidinol, a flavanol isolated from Dracaena conferta, against NLRP3 inflammasome and blood-brain barrier damage in D-galactose and aluminum chloride-induced mice. The induced mice received D-galactose (150 mg/kg) and aluminum chloride (10 mg/kg) intraperitoneally for 90 days to generate cognitive impairment. Festidinol (30 mg/kg) and donepezil (5 mg/kg) were given by oral gavage for 90 days along with the induction. Then, learning and memory behavior, and molecular and morphological changes in the brain, which related to NLRP3 inflammasome, pyroptosis and the blood-brain barrier were measured. The results indicated that festidinol markedly decreased the escape latency and increased the time in the target quadrant in the Morris water maze test. Furthermore, festidinol significantly decreased the ionized calcium-binding adapter molecule 1 (Iba-1) and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) expression. Festidinol also markedly decreased the NLRP3 inflammasome pathway, interleukin 1 beta (IL-1β), gasdermin-D, N-terminal (GSDMD-N) and caspase-3. Pertinent to the blood-brain barrier, festidinol only decreased tumor necrosis factor-α and matrix metallopeptidase-9, but did not restore the tight junction components. In conclusion, festidinol can restore learning and memory and provide a protective effect against the NLRP3 inflammasome and pyroptosis.

Relation Between the Negative Cognitive Triad, Perceived Everyday Discrimination, Depressive Symptoms, and TNF-⍺ in Adolescents

Our study is guided by Beck's cognitive stress-vulnerability model of depression. We examined the associations between perceived everyday discrimination (PED) and TNF-⍺, an inflammatory biomarker associated with risk for severe illness, through the negative cognitive triad (NCT; negative thoughts about the self, world, and future) and depressive symptoms in adolescents. We utilized a sample of 99 adolescents (36.4% female; ages 13-16, M = 14.10, SD = 0.52) in our cross-sectional study. We used PROCESS and AMOS to compute regressions and direct, indirect, and total effects of PED, NCT aspects and depressive symptoms on TNF-⍺. Negative views of the self and world mediated between PED and depressive symptoms and that negative views of the self and future mediated between PED and TNF-⍺. In conclusion, Beck's theory can be expanded to physical health providing directions for addressing mental and physical health simultaneously by restructuring adolescents' negative view of the self.

TNFα aggravates detrimental effects of SARS-CoV-2 infection in the liver

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). This virus does not only lead to pulmonary infection but can also infect other organs such as the gut, the kidney, or the liver. Recent studies confirmed that severe cases of COVID-19 are often associated with liver damage and liver failure, as well as the systemic upregulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNFα). However, the impact these immune mediators in the liver have on patient survival during SARS-CoV-2 infection is currently unknown. Here, by performing a post-mortem analysis of 45 patients that died from a SARS-CoV-2 infection, we find that an increased expression of TNFA in the liver is associated with elevated mortality. Using publicly available single-cell sequencing datasets, we determined that Kupffer cells and monocytes are the main sources of this TNFα production. Further analysis revealed that TNFα signaling led to the upregulation of pro-inflammatory genes that are associated with an unfavorable outcome. Moreover, high levels of TNFA in the liver were associated with lower levels of interferon alpha and interferon beta. Thus, TNFα signaling in the infected SARS-CoV-2 liver correlates with reduced interferon levels and overall survival time.

Neuroinflammation is a susceptibility factor in developing a PTSD-like phenotype

Introduction

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is a psychological disorder that occurs after a traumatic event in a subset of exposed individuals. This implies the existence of susceptibility factors that foster the development of PTSD. Susceptibility factors are present before trauma and can contribute to the development and maintenance of PTSD after trauma. Manipulation of susceptibility factors may decrease the probability of developing PTSD. A putative susceptibility factor is inflammation. Patients with PTSD have been documented to have a higher pro-inflammatory profile compared to non-PTSD subjects. In addition, they are more likely to develop and die from cardiovascular disease which has a strong inflammation component. It is not known, however, whether inflammation plays a role in developing PTSD or whether reducing inflammation can prevent PTSD.

Methods

We used the Revealing Individual Susceptibility to a PTSD-like phenotype (RISP) model to behaviorally classify male rats as resilient or susceptible before trauma and tested their serum and prefrontal cortical (mPFC) levels of IL-1β, IL-6, TNFα, IL-10, IFN IFNγ, and KC/GRO to determine whether inflammation represents a putative susceptibility factor for PTSD.

Results

We found elevated IL-6 levels in the mPFC, but not serum, of susceptible rats compared to resilient animals before trauma. Serum and mPFC levels were not correlated in any of the cytokines/chemokines. Rats with high anxiety-like behavior had elevated IL-6 and IL-10 mPFC levels. Acoustic startle responses were not associated with cytokine/chemokine levels.

Discussion

Neuroinflammation, rather than systemic inflammation exists in susceptible male rats before trauma and is thus a putative susceptibility factor for PTSD. Thus, susceptibility appears neurogenic in its pathogenesis. The lack of differences between susceptible and resilient rats in serum cytokine/chemokine levels infers that peripheral markers will not be useful in determining susceptibility. Chronic neuroinflammation appears more broadly associated with anxiety rather than startle responses.

Cleistocalyx nervosum var. paniala Berry Seed Protects against TNF-α-Stimulated Neuroinflammation by Inducing HO-1 and Suppressing NF-κB Mechanism in BV-2 Microglial Cells

Sustained inflammatory responses have been implicated in various neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs). Cleistocalyx nervosum var. paniala (CN), an indigenous berry, has been reported to exhibit several health-beneficial properties. However, investigation of CN seeds is still limited. The objective of this study was to evaluate the protective effects of ethanolic seed extract (CNSE) and mechanisms in BV-2 mouse microglial cells using an inflammatory stimulus, TNF-α. Using LC-MS, ferulic acid, aurentiacin, brassitin, ellagic acid, and alpinetin were found in CNSE. Firstly, we examined molecular docking to elucidate its bioactive components on inflammation-related mechanisms. The results revealed that alpinetin, aurentiacin, and ellagic acid inhibited the NF-κB activation and iNOS function, while alpinetin and aurentiacin only suppressed the COX-2 function. Our cell-based investigation exhibited that cells pretreated with CNSE (5, 10, and 25 μg/mL) reduced the number of spindle cells, which was highly observed in TNF-α treatment (10 ng/mL). CNSE also obstructed TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 mRNA levels and repressed the TNF-α and IL-6 releases in a culture medium of BV-2 cells. Remarkably, CNSE decreased the phosphorylated forms of ERK, p38MAPK, p65, and IκB-α related to the inhibition of NF-κB binding activity. CNSE obviously induced HO-1 protein expression. Our findings suggest that CNSE offers good potential for preventing inflammatory-related NDDs.

TNFR2 as a Potential Biomarker for Early Detection and Progression of CKD

The inflammatory pathway driven by TNF-α, through its receptors TNFR1 and TNFR2, is a common feature in the pathogenesis of chronic kidney disease (CKD), regardless of the initial disease cause. Evidence correlates the chronic inflammatory status with decreased renal function. Our aim was to evaluate the potential of TNF receptors as biomarkers for CKD diagnosis and staging, as well as their association with the progression of renal lesions, in rat models of early and moderate CKD. We analyzed the circulating levels of inflammatory molecules—tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), tumor necrosis factor receptor 1 (TNFR1) and 2 (TNFR2) and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-1 (TIMP-1)—and studied their associations with TNFR1 and TNFR2 renal expression, glomerular and tubulointerstitial lesions, and with biomarkers of renal (dys)function. An increase in all inflammatory markers was observed in moderate CKD, as compared to controls, but only circulating levels of both TNFR1 and TNFR2 were significantly increased in the early disease; TNFR2 serum levels were negatively correlated with eGFR. However, only TNFR2 renal expression increased with CKD severity and showed correlations with the score of mild and advanced tubular lesions. Our findings suggest that renal TNFR2 plays a role in CKD development, and has potential to be used as a biomarker for the early detection and progression of the disease. Still, the potential value of this biomarker in disease progression warrants further investigation.

Ly-6A-Induced Growth Inhibition and Cell Death in a Transformed CD4+ T Cell Line: Role of Tumor Necrosis Factor-α

Ly-6A, a member of the Ly-6/uPAR supergene family of proteins, is a cell adhesion and cell signaling protein. Signaling through Ly-6A activates the cell-intrinsic apoptotic cell death pathway in CD4⁺ T cell lines, as indicated by the release of cytochrome C, and activation of caspases 9 and 3. In addition, Ly-6A induces cytokine production and growth inhibition. The mechanism underlying the distinct cellular responses that are triggered by engaging Ly-6A protein has remained unknown. To examine the relatedness of these distinct responses, we have quantified the production of pro-apoptotic, growth inhibitory and tumor suppressive cytokines, such as TNF-α, TGF-β and a related protein GDF-10, in response to Ly-6A signaling. Anti-Ly-6A monoclonal antibody-induced activation of YH16.33 CD4⁺ T cell line generated low levels of TGF-β and GDF-10 but elevated levels of TNF-α. Blocking the biological activity of TNF-α resulted in reduced Ly-6A-induced apoptosis in T cells. The Ly-6A-induced response in the T cell line was distinct, as signaling through the antigen receptor complex did not cause growth inhibition and apoptosis despite high levels of TGF-β and GDF-10 that were detected in these cultures. Additionally, in response to antigen receptor complex signaling, lower amount of TNF-α was detected. These results indicate the contribution of TNF-α in the observed Ly-6A-induced growth inhibition and apoptosis and provide a mechanistic explanation for the biologically distinct responses observed in CD4⁺ T cells after engaging Ly-6A protein. Additionally, the findings reported here will aid in the understanding of inhibitory signaling initiated by Ly-6A protein, especially in the context of its potential immune checkpoint inhibitory role in T cells.

Is the risk of infection higher during treatment with secukinumab than with TNF inhibitors? An observational study from the Nordic countries

OBJECTIVES

The positioning of secukinumab in the treatment of axial SpA (axSpA) and PsA is debated, partly due to a limited understanding of the comparative safety of the available treatments. We aimed to assess the risk of the key safety outcome infections during treatment with secukinumab and TNF inhibitors (TNFi).

METHODS

Patients with SpA and PsA starting secukinumab or TNFi year 2015 through 2018 were identified in four Nordic rheumatology registers. The first hospitalized infection during the first year of treatment was identified through linkage to national registers. Incidence rates (IRs) with 95% CIs per 100 patient-years were calculated. Adjusted hazard ratios were estimated through Cox regression, with secukinumab as the reference. Several sensitivity analyses were performed to investigate confounding by indication.

RESULTS

Among 7708 patients with SpA and 5760 patients with PsA, we identified 16 229 treatment courses of TNFi (53% bionaïve) and 1948 with secukinumab (11% bionaïve). For secukinumab, the first-year risk of hospitalized infection was 3.5% (IR 5.0; 3.9-6.3), compared with 1.7% (IR 2.3; 1.7-3.0) during 3201 courses with adalimumab, with the IRs for other TNFi lying in between these values. The adjusted HR for adalimumab, compared with secukinumab, was 0.58 (0.39-0.85). In sensitivity analyses, the difference from secukinumab was somewhat attenuated and in some analyses no longer statistically significant.

CONCLUSION

When used according to clinical practice in the Nordic countries, the observed first-year absolute risk of hospitalized infection was doubled for secukinumab compared with adalimumab. This excess risk seemed largely explained by confounding by indication.

Loss of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-receptor 1 and TNF-receptor 2 partially replicate effects of TNF deficiency on dendritic spines of granule cells in mouse dentate gyrus

The cytokine tumor necrosis factor (TNF) is involved in the regulation of physiological and pathophysiological processes in the central nervous system. In previous work, we showed that mice lacking constitutive levels of TNF exhibit a reduction in spine density and changes in spine head size distribution of dentate granule cells. Here, we investigated which TNF-receptor pathway is responsible for this phenotype and analyzed granule cell spine morphology in TNF-R1-, TNF-R2-, and TNF-R1/R2-deficient mice. Single granule cells were filled with Alexa568 in fixed hippocampal brain slices and immunostained for the actin-modulating protein synaptopodin (SP), a marker for strong and stable spines. An investigator blind to genotype investigated dendritic spines using deconvolved confocal image stacks. Similar to TNF-deficient mice, TNF-R1 and TNF-R2 mutants showed a decrease in the size of small spines (SP-negative) with TNF-R1/R2-KO mice exhibiting an additive effect. TNF-R1 mutants also showed an increase in the size of large spines (SP-positive), mirroring the situation in TNF-deficient mice. Unlike the TNF-deficient mouse, none of the TNF-R mutants exhibited a reduction in their granule cell spine densities. Since TNF tunes the excitability of networks, lack of constitutive TNF reduces network excitation. This may explain why we observed alterations in spine head size distributions in TNF- and TNF-R-deficient granule cells. The changes in spine density observed in the TNF-deficient mouse could not be linked to canonical TNF-R-signaling. Instead, noncanonical pathways or unknown developmental functions of TNF may cause this phenomenon.

Vascular and Nonvascular Mechanisms of Cognitive Impairment and Dementia

Aging, familial gene mutations, and genetic, environmental, and modifiable lifestyle risk factors predispose individuals to cognitive impairment or dementia by influencing the efficacy of multiple, often interdependent cellular and molecular homeostatic pathways mediating neuronal, glial, and vascular integrity and, ultimately, cognitive status. This review summarizes data from foundational and recent breakthrough studies to highlight common and differential vascular and nonvascular pathogenic mechanisms underlying the progression of Alzheimer disease, vascular dementia, frontotemporal dementia, and dementia with Lewy bodies.

Omics approaches to better understand the molecular mechanism of necroptosis and their translational implications

Necroptosis is a type of programed cell death characterized by an inflammatory phenotype due to extensive membrane permeabilization and rupture. Initiation of necroptosis involves activation of tumor necrosis factor receptors by tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα) followed by coordinated activities of receptor-interacting protein kinases and mixed lineage kinase-like protein (MLKL). Subsequently, MLKL undergoes phosphorylation and translocates to the plasma membrane, leading to permeabilization. Such permeabilization results in the release of various cytokines and causes extensive inflammatory activity at the organismal level. This inflammatory activity is one of the major differences between apoptosis and necroptosis and links necroptosis to several human pathologies that exhibit inflammation, in addition to the ultimate cell death phenotype. Given the crosstalk between the activation of cell death pathway and inflammatory activity, approaches that provide insights on the regulation of transcripts, proteins and their processing at the global level have substantially improved our understanding of necroptosis and its involvement in different disease states. In this review, we highlight recent omic studies probing the transcriptome, proteome and lipidome which elucidate potential new mechanisms and signaling pathways during necroptosis and the necroptosis-associated inflammatory activity observed in various diseases. We specifically focus on studies investigating the transcriptome and intracellular and released proteome that contribute to inflammatory nature of necroptotic cells. We also highlight different lipids that have been implicated in necroptosis and lipidomic studies identifying lipid players in necroptosis. Finally, we review studies which suggest certain necroptosis-related genes as potential prognosis markers for different cancers and discuss their translational implications.

Gut region-specific TNFR expression: TNFR2 is more affected than TNFR1 in duodenal myenteric ganglia of diabetic rats

BACKGROUND

Cytokines are essential in autoimmune inflammatory processes that accompany type 1 diabetes. Tumor necrosis factor alpha plays a key role among others in modulating enteric neuroinflammation, however, it has a dual role in cell degeneration or survival depending on different TNFRs. In general, TNFR1 is believed to trigger apoptosis, while TNFR2 promotes cell regeneration. The importance of the neuronal microenvironment has been recently highlighted in gut region-specific diabetic enteric neuropathy, however, the expression and alterations of different TNFRs in the gastrointestinal tract has not been reported.

AIM

To investigate the TNFR1 and TNFR2 expression in myenteric ganglia and their environment in different intestinal segments of diabetic rats.

METHODS

Ten weeks after the onset of hyperglycemia, gut segments were taken from the duodenum, ileum and colon of streptozotocin-induced (60 mg/body weight kg i.p.) diabetic (n = 17), insulin-treated diabetic (n = 15) and sex- and age-matched control (n = 15) rats. Myenteric plexus whole-mount preparations were prepared from different gut regions for TNFR1/HuCD or TNFR2/HuCD double-labeling fluorescent immunohistochemistry. TNFR1 and TNFR2 expression was evaluated by post-embedding immunogold electron microscopy on ultrathin sections of myenteric ganglia. TNFRs levels were measured by enzyme-linked immun-osorbent assay in muscle/myenteric plexus-containing (MUSCLE-MP) tissue homogenates from different gut segments and experimental conditions.

RESULTS

A distinct region-dependent TNFRs expression was detected in controls. The density of TNFR1-labeling gold particles was lowest, while TNFR2 density was highest in duodenal ganglia and a decreased TNFRs expression from proximal to distal segments was observed in MUSCLE-MP homogenates. In diabetics, the TNFR2 density was only significantly altered in the duodenum with decrease in the ganglia (0.32 ± 0.02 vs 0.45 ± 0.04, P < 0.05), while no significant changes in TNFR1 density was observed. In diabetic MUSCLE-MP homogenates, both TNFRs levels significantly decreased in the duodenum (TNFR1: 4.06 ± 0.65 vs 20.32 ± 3.1, P < 0.001; TNFR2: 11.72 ± 0.39 vs 15.91 ± 1.04, P < 0.01), which markedly influenced the TNFR2/TNFR1 proportion in both the ganglia and their muscular environment. Insulin treatment had controversial effects on TNFR expression.

CONCLUSION

Our findings show diabetes-related region-dependent changes in TNFR expression and suggest that TNFR2 is more affected than TNFR1 in myenteric ganglia in the duodenum of type 1 diabetic rats.

Differences in expression of tumor suppressor, innate immune, inflammasome, and potassium/gap junction channel host genes significantly predict viral reservoir size during treated HIV infection

The major barrier to an HIV cure is the persistence of infected cells that evade host immune surveillance despite effective antiretroviral therapy (ART). Most prior host genetic HIV studies have focused on identifying DNA polymorphisms (e.g., CCR5Δ32 , MHC class I alleles) associated with viral load among untreated "elite controllers" (~1% of HIV+ individuals who are able to control virus without ART). However, there have been few studies evaluating host genetic predictors of viral control for the majority of people living with HIV (PLWH) on ART. We performed host RNA sequencing and HIV reservoir quantification (total DNA, unspliced RNA, intact DNA) from peripheral CD4+ T cells from 191 HIV+ ART-suppressed non-controllers. Multivariate models included covariates for timing of ART initiation, nadir CD4+ count, age, sex, and ancestry. Lower HIV total DNA (an estimate of the total reservoir) was associated with upregulation of tumor suppressor genes NBL1 (q=0.012) and P3H3 (q=0.012). Higher HIV unspliced RNA (an estimate of residual HIV transcription) was associated with downregulation of several host genes involving inflammasome ( IL1A, CSF3, TNFAIP5, TNFAIP6, TNFAIP9 , CXCL3, CXCL10 ) and innate immune ( TLR7 ) signaling, as well as novel associations with potassium ( KCNJ2 ) and gap junction ( GJB2 ) channels, all q<0.05. Gene set enrichment analyses identified significant associations with TLR4/microbial translocation (q=0.006), IL-1β/NRLP3 inflammasome (q=0.008), and IL-10 (q=0.037) signaling. HIV intact DNA (an estimate of the "replication-competent" reservoir) demonstrated trends with thrombin degradation ( PLGLB1 ) and glucose metabolism ( AGL ) genes, but data were (HIV intact DNA detected in only 42% of participants). Our findings demonstrate that among treated PLWH, that inflammation, innate immune responses, bacterial translocation, and tumor suppression/cell proliferation host signaling play a key role in the maintenance of the HIV reservoir during ART. Further data are needed to validate these findings, including functional genomic studies, and expanded epidemiologic studies in female, non-European cohorts.

Author Summary

Although lifelong HIV antiretroviral therapy (ART) suppresses virus, the major barrier to an HIV cure is the persistence of infected cells that evade host immune surveillance despite effective ART, "the HIV reservoir." HIV eradication strategies have focused on eliminating residual virus to allow for HIV remission, but HIV cure trials to date have thus far failed to show a clinically meaningful reduction in the HIV reservoir. There is an urgent need for a better understanding of the host-viral dynamics during ART suppression to identify potential novel therapeutic targets for HIV cure. This is the first epidemiologic host gene expression study to demonstrate a significant link between HIV reservoir size and several well-known immunologic pathways (e.g., IL-1β, TLR7, TNF-α signaling pathways), as well as novel associations with potassium and gap junction channels (Kir2.1, connexin 26). Further data are needed to validate these findings, including functional genomic studies and expanded epidemiologic studies in female, non-European cohorts.

Synthetic selenium nanoparticles as co-adjuvant improved immune responses against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is one of the leading causes of hospital-acquired infections worldwide, which is resistant to many antibiotics, resulting in significant mortality in societies. Vaccination is a well-known approach to preventing disease. Autolysin, a surface-associated protein in S. aureus with multiple functions, is a suitable candidate for vaccine development. As a co-adjuvant, selenium nanoparticles (SeNPs) can increase the immune system, presumably resulting in increased vaccine efficacy. The present study evaluated the immunogenicity and defense of recombinant autolysin formulated in SeNPs and Alum adjuvants against MRSA. r-Autolysin was expressed and purified by the Ni-NTA affinity chromatography. SeNPs were synthetically obtained from sodium dioxide, followed by an assessment of shape and size using SEM and DLS. Balb/c mice were injected subcutaneously with 20 mg of r-autolysin formulated in Alum and SeNps adjuvants three times with the proper control group in 2 weeks intervals. Cytokine profile and isotyping ELISA were conducted to determine the type of induced immunity. Opsonophagocytosis tests assessed the functional activity of the vaccine, and the bacterial burden from the infected tissues was determined. Results showed that mice receiving SeNps and r-Autolysin had higher levels of total IgG and isotypes (IgG1 and IgG2a) and increased cytokine levels (IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-12, and IL-4) as compared with those only receiving autolysin and PBS as a control. More importantly, mice immunized with SeNps and r-Autolysin exhibited a decrease in mortality and bacterial burden compared to the control group. We concluded that SeNps could stimulate immune responses and can be used as an adjuvant element in vaccine formulation.

Co-administration of Nanowired DL-3-n-Butylphthalide (DL-NBP) Together with Mesenchymal Stem Cells, Monoclonal Antibodies to Alpha Synuclein and TDP-43 (TAR DNA-Binding Protein 43) Enhance Superior Neuroprotection in Parkinson's Disease Following Concussive Head Injury

dl-3-n-butylphthalide (dl-NBP) is one of the potent antioxidant compounds that induces profound neuroprotection in stroke and traumatic brain injury. Our previous studies show that dl-NBP reduces brain pathology in Parkinson's disease (PD) following its nanowired delivery together with mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) exacerbated by concussive head injury (CHI). CHI alone elevates alpha synuclein (ASNC) in brain or cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) associated with elevated TAR DNA-binding protein 43 (TDP-43). TDP-43 protein is also responsible for the pathologies of PD. Thus, it is likely that exacerbation of brain pathology in PD following brain injury may be thwarted using nanowired delivery of monoclonal antibodies (mAb) to ASNC and/or TDP-43. In this review, the co-administration of dl-NBP with MSCs and mAb to ASNC and/or TDP-43 using nanowired delivery in PD and CHI-induced brain pathology is discussed based on our own investigations. Our observations show that co-administration of TiO2 nanowired dl-NBP with MSCs and mAb to ASNC with TDP-43 induced superior neuroprotection in CHI induced exacerbation of brain pathology in PD, not reported earlier.

Cdc42 regulates cytokine expression and trafficking in bronchial epithelial cells

Airway epithelial cells can respond to incoming pathogens, allergens and stimulants through the secretion of cytokines and chemokines. These pro-inflammatory mediators activate inflammatory signaling cascades that allow a robust immune response to be mounted. However, uncontrolled production and release of cytokines and chemokines can result in chronic inflammation and appears to be an underlying mechanism for the pathogenesis of pulmonary disorders such as asthma and COPD. The Rho GTPase, Cdc42, is an important signaling molecule that we hypothesize can regulate cytokine production and release from epithelial cells. We treated BEAS-2B lung epithelial cells with a set of stimulants to activate inflammatory pathways and cytokine release. The production, trafficking and secretion of cytokines were assessed when Cdc42 was pharmacologically inhibited with ML141 drug or silenced with lentiviral-mediated shRNA knockdown. We found that Cdc42 inhibition with ML141 differentially affected gene expression of a subset of cytokines; transcription of IL-6 and IL-8 were increased while MCP-1 was decreased. However, Cdc42 inhibition or depletion disrupted IL-8 trafficking and reduced its secretion even though transcription was increased. Cytokines transiting through the Golgi were particularly affected by Cdc42 disruption. Our results define a role for Cdc42 in the regulation of cytokine production and release in airway epithelial cells. This underscores the role of Cdc42 in coupling receptor activation to downstream gene expression and also as a regulator of cytokine secretory pathways.

The Influence of Severity and Disease Duration on TNF Receptors' Redistribution in Asthma and Rheumatoid Arthritis

One of the mechanisms of cellular dysfunction during the chronization of immune-system-mediated inflammatory diseases is a change in the profile of expression and co-expression of receptors on cells. The aim of this study was to compare patterns of redistribution of TNF receptors (TNFRs) among patients with different durations of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) or asthma. Subgroup analysis was performed on RA (n = 41) and asthma (n = 22) patients with disease duration<10 years and >10 years and on 30 comparable healthy individuals. The co-expression profile of TNFR1 and TNFR2 was assessed in T cells, B cells, monocytes, regulatory T cells, T-helper subsets, and cytotoxic T-lymphocyte subsets. Percentages of cells with different co-expression combinations and receptor density per cell were estimated. Longer disease duration was significantly associated with a redistribution of receptors in immunocompetent cell subsets with an increase in the expression of TNFR1 in asthma but did not correlate with significant unidirectional changes in receptor expression in RA. In asthma, a higher proportion of cells with a certain type of TNF receptor (as compared with the healthy group) was correlated with a simultaneous greater density of this receptor type. In RA, an inverse correlation was observed (compensatory lower receptor density). Mechanisms of long-term changes in the expression of TNF receptors differ significantly between the diseases of autoimmune and allergic etiology. The formation of irreversible morphostructural alterations was strongly correlated with changes in the expression of TNFR1 in asthma and with changes in the expression of TNFR2 in RA.

Polypharmacological Cell-Penetrating Peptides from Venomous Marine Animals Based on Immunomodulating, Antimicrobial, and Anticancer Properties

Complex pathological diseases, such as cancer, infection, and Alzheimer's, need to be targeted by multipronged curative. Various omics technologies, with a high rate of data generation, demand artificial intelligence to translate these data into druggable targets. In this study, 82 marine venomous animal species were retrieved, and 3505 cryptic cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) were identified in their toxins. A total of 279 safe peptides were further analyzed for antimicrobial, anticancer, and immunomodulatory characteristics. Protease-resistant CPPs with endosomal-escape ability in Hydrophis hardwickii, nuclear-localizing peptides in Scorpaena plumieri, and mitochondrial-targeting peptides from Synanceia horrida were suitable for compartmental drug delivery. A broad-spectrum S. horrida-derived antimicrobial peptide with a high binding-affinity to bacterial membranes was an antigen-presenting cell (APC) stimulator that primes cytokine release and naïve T-cell maturation simultaneously. While antibiofilm and wound-healing peptides were detected in Synanceia verrucosa, APC epitopes as universal adjuvants for antiviral vaccination were in Pterois volitans and Conus monile. Conus pennaceus-derived anticancer peptides showed antiangiogenic and IL-2-inducing properties with moderate BBB-permeation and were defined to be a tumor-homing peptide (THP) with the ability to inhibit programmed death ligand-1 (PDL-1). Isoforms of RGD-containing peptides with innate antiangiogenic characteristics were in Conus tessulatus for tumor targeting. Inhibitors of neuropilin-1 in C. pennaceus are proposed for imaging probes or therapeutic delivery. A Conus betulinus cryptic peptide, with BBB-permeation, mitochondrial-targeting, and antioxidant capacity, was a stimulator of anti-inflammatory cytokines and non-inducer of proinflammation proposed for Alzheimer's. Conclusively, we have considered the dynamic interaction of cells, their microenvironment, and proportional-orchestrating-host- immune pathways by multi-target-directed CPPs resembling single-molecule polypharmacology. This strategy might fill the therapeutic gap in complex resistant disorders and increase the candidates' clinical-translation chance.

Responses to Ang II (Angiotensin II), Salt Intake, and Lipopolysaccharide Reveal the Diverse Actions of TNF-α (Tumor Necrosis Factor-α) on Blood Pressure and Renal Function

TNF-α (tumor necrosis factor-alpha) is the best known as a proinflammatory cytokine; yet, this cytokine also has important immunomodulatory and regulatory functions. As the effects of TNF-α on immune system function were being revealed, the spectrum of its activities appeared in conflict with each other before investigators defined the settings and mechanisms by which TNF-α contributed to both host defense and chronic inflammation. These effects reflect self-protective mechanisms that may become harmful when dysregulated. The paradigm of physiological and pathophysiological effects of TNF-α has since been uncovered in the lung, colon, and kidney where its role has been identified in pulmonary edema, electrolyte reabsorption, and blood pressure regulation, respectively. Recent studies on the prohypertensive and inflammatory effects of TNF-α in the cardiovascular system juxtaposed to those related to NaCl and blood pressure homeostasis, the response of the kidney to lipopolysaccharide, and protection against bacterial infections are helping define the mechanisms by which TNF-α modulates distinct functions within the kidney. This review discusses how production of TNF-α by renal epithelial cells may contribute to regulatory mechanisms that not only govern electrolyte excretion and blood pressure homeostasis but also maintain the appropriate local hypersalinity environment needed for optimizing the innate immune response to bacterial infections in the kidney. It is possible that the wide range of effects mediated by TNF-α may be related to severity of disease, amount of inflammation and TNF-α levels, and the specific cell types that produce this cytokine, areas that remain to be investigated further.

Recent advances in the pharmacological targeting of ubiquitin-regulating enzymes in cancer

As a post-translational modification that has pivotal roles in protein degradation, ubiquitination ensures that intracellular proteins act in a precise spatial and temporal manner to regulate diversified cellular processes. Perturbation of the ubiquitin system contributes directly to the onset and progression of a wide variety of diseases, including various subtypes of cancer. This highly regulated system has been for years an active research area for drug discovery that is exemplified by several approved drugs. In this review, we will provide an update of the main breakthrough scientific discoveries that have been leading the clinical development of ubiquitin-targeting therapies in the last decade, with a special focus on E1 and E3 modulators. We will further discuss the unique challenges of identifying new potential therapeutic targets within this ubiquitous and highly complex machinery, based on available crystallographic structures, and explore chemical approaches by which these challenges might be met.

Sex Differences in Neuropathy: The Paradigmatic Case of MetFormin

As a widely prescribed anti-diabetic drug, metformin has been receiving novel attention for its analgesic potential. In the study of the complex etiology of neuropathic pain (NeP), male and female individuals exhibit quite different responses characterized by higher pain sensitivity and greater NeP incidence in women. This "gender gap" in our knowledge of sex differences in pain processing strongly limits the sex-oriented treatment of patients suffering from NeP. Besides, the current investigation of the analgesic potential of metformin has not addressed the "gender gap" problem. Hence, this study focuses on metformin and sex-dependent analgesia in a murine model of NeP induced by chronic constriction injury of the sciatic nerve. We investigated sexual dimorphism in signaling pathways involved by 7 days of metformin administration, such as changes in AMP-activated protein kinase and the positive regulation of autophagy machinery, discovering that metformin affected in a sexually dimorphic manner the immunological and inflammatory response to nerve lesion. These effects were complemented by morphological and adaptive changes occurring after peripheral nerve injury. Altogether these data can contribute to explaining a number of potential mechanisms responsible for the complete recovery from NeP found in male mice, as opposed to the failure of long-lasting recovery in female animals.

The role of SPATA2 in TNF signaling, cancer, and spermatogenesis

The activation of TNF receptors can lead to cell death with a mechanism of cell necrosis regulated genetically and distinct from apoptosis which is defined as necroptosis. Necroptosis has been one of the most studied emerging cell death/signaling pathways in recent years, especially in light of the role of this process in human disease. However, not all regulatory components of TNF signaling have been identified in relation to both physiological and pathological conditions. In 2008, Spata2 (Spermatogenesis-associated protein 2) was identified as one of the seven fundamental genes for the cellular signaling network that regulates necroptosis and apoptosis. This gene had been cloned by our group and named Spata2 as its expression was found to be elevated in the testis compared to other tissues, localized at the Sertoli cell level and FSH-dependent. More recently, it has been demonstrated that deletion of Spata2 gene causes increased inhibin α expression and attenuated fertility in male mice. However, more importantly, five recently published reports have highlighted that SPATA2 is crucial for recruiting CYLD to the TNFR1 signaling complex thus promoting its activation leading to TNF-induced cell death. Loss of SPATA2 increases transcriptional activation of NF-kB and limits TNF-induced necroptosis. Here we will discuss these important findings regarding SPATA2 and, in particular, focus attention on the evidence that suggests a role for this protein in the TNF signaling pathway.

An orally available small molecule that targets soluble TNF to deliver anti-TNF biologic-like efficacy in rheumatoid arthritis

Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) is a pleiotropic cytokine belonging to a family of trimeric proteins with both proinflammatory and immunoregulatory functions. TNF is a key mediator in autoimmune diseases and during the last couple of decades several biologic drugs have delivered new therapeutic options for patients suffering from chronic autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis and chronic inflammatory bowel disease. Attempts to design small molecule therapies directed to this cytokine have not led to approved products yet. Here we report the discovery and development of a potent small molecule inhibitor of TNF that was recently moved into phase 1 clinical trials. The molecule, SAR441566, stabilizes an asymmetrical form of the soluble TNF trimer, compromises downstream signaling and inhibits the functions of TNF in vitro and in vivo. With SAR441566 being studied in healthy volunteers we hope to deliver a more convenient orally bioavailable and effective treatment option for patients suffering with chronic autoimmune diseases compared to established biologic drugs targeting TNF.

An orally active, small-molecule TNF inhibitor that disrupts the homotrimerization interface improves inflammatory arthritis in mice

Excessive signaling by the proinflammatory cytokine TNF is involved in several autoimmune diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis (RA). However, unlike the approved biologics currently used to treat this and other conditions, commercially available small-molecule inhibitors of TNF trimerization are cytotoxic or exhibit low potency. Here, we report a TNF-inhibitory molecule (TIM) that reduced TNF signaling in vitro and was an effective treatment in a mouse model of RA. The initial lead compound, TIM1, attenuated TNF-induced apoptosis of human and mouse cells by delaying the induction of proinflammatory NF-κB and MAPK signaling and caspase 3– and caspase 8–dependent apoptosis. TIM1 inhibited the secretion of the proinflammatory cytokines IL-6 and IL-8 by disrupting TNF homotrimerization, thereby preventing its association with the TNF receptor. In a mouse model of collagen-induced polyarthritis, the more potent TIM1 analog TIM1c was orally bioavailable and reduced paw swelling, histological indicators of knee joint pathology, inflammatory infiltration of the joint, and the overall arthritis index. Orally delivered TIM1c showed immunological effects similar to those elicited by intraperitoneal injection of the FDA-approved TNF receptor decoy etanercept. Thus, TIM1c is a promising lead compound for the development of small-molecule therapies for the treatment of RA and other TNF-dependent systemic inflammation disorders.

Genomic and Immune Approach in Platinum Refractory HPV-Negative Head and Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma Patients Treated with Immunotherapy: A Novel Combined Profile

Introduction: Only a minority of patients with platinum refractory head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (PR/HNSCC) gain some lasting benefit from immunotherapy. Methods: The combined role of the comprehensive genomic (through the FoundationOne Cdx test) and immune profiles of 10 PR/HNSCC patients treated with the anti-PD-1 nivolumab was evaluated. The immune profiles were studied both at baseline and at the second cycle of immunotherapy, weighing 20 circulating cytokines/chemokines, adhesion molecules, and 14 soluble immune checkpoints dosed through a multiplex assay. A connectivity map was obtained by calculating the Spearman correlation between the expression profiles of circulating molecules. Results: Early progression occurred in five patients, each of them showing TP53 alteration and three of them showing a mutation/loss/amplification of genes involved in the cyclin-dependent kinase pathway. In addition, ERB2 amplification (1 patient), BRCA1 mutation (1 patient), and NOTCH1 genes alteration (3 patients) occurred. Five patients achieved either stable disease or partial response. Four of them carried mutations in PI3K/AKT/PTEN pathways. In the only two patients, with a long response to immunotherapy, the tumor mutational burden (TMB) was high. Moreover, a distinct signature, in terms of network connectivity of the circulating soluble molecules, characterizing responder and non-responder patients, was evidenced. Moreover, a strong negative and statistically significant (p-value ≤ 0.05) correlation with alive status was evidenced for sE-selectin at T1. Conclusions: Our results highlighted the complexity and heterogeneity of HNSCCs, even though it was in a small cohort. Molecular and immune approaches, combined in a single profile, could represent a promising strategy, in the context of precision immunotherapy.

Evaluation of Inflammatory Response System (IRS) and Compensatory Immune Response System (CIRS) in Adolescent Major Depression

Purpose

Nowadays, the role of two tightly interconnected systems, the inflammatory response system (IRS) and the compensatory immune response system (CIRS) in depression, is increasingly discussed. Various studies indicate pro-inflammatory activity in adolescent depression; however, there is an almost complete lack of findings about IRS and CIRS balance. Thus, we aimed to assess different IRS and CIRS indices, profiles, and IRS/CIRS ratios in drug-naïve MDD patients at adolescent age, with respect to sex.

Patients and Methods

One hundred MDD adolescents (40 boys, average age: 15.4±1.2 yrs.) and 60 controls (28 boys, average age: 15.3±1.5 yrs.) were examined. Evaluated parameters were 1. plasma levels of interleukin (IL)-1α, IL-1β, IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, interferon gamma, tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), soluble receptor of IL-6 (sIL-6R), soluble receptors of TNF-α (sTNF-R1, sTNF-R2); 2. profiles: IL-6 trans-signaling, M1 macrophage signaling, helper T lymphocytes (Th) 1 profile, regulatory T lymphocytes (Treg)+Th2, allIRS, and allCIRS; 3. IRS vs CIRS activity ratios: TNF-α/TNF-R1, TNF-α/TNF-R2, TNF-α/sTNF-Rs (ie sTNF-R1+sTNF-R2), Th1/Th2, Th1/Treg, Th1/Th2+Treg, M1/Th2, M1/Treg, M1/Treg+Th2, allIRS/allCIRS.

Results

MDD patients showed increased IL-4, IL-10, TNF-α, sIL-6R, Treg+Th2, allIRS, allCIRS, and TNF-α/sTNF-Rs, and decreased Th1/Th2+Treg. MDD females showed increased IL-10 and TNF-α compared to control females. MDD males showed increased IL-4, IL-10, sIL-6R, Treg+Th2, and TNF-α/TNF-R1 compared to control males. Increased sTNF-R1 was found in MDD males compared to MDD females. Positive correlations were found between CDI score and sIL-6R and IL-10 in the total group and between CDI score and IL-10 in adolescent males.

Conclusion

Our study for the first time extensively evaluated IRS and CIRS interactions revealing enhanced pro-inflammatory TNF-α signaling and IL-6 trans-signaling in association with increased IL-10- and IL-4-mediated anti-inflammatory activity in first-episode depression at the adolescent age. Moreover, results reflect the sex-specific simultaneous activation of IRS and CIRS pathways in adolescent depression.

Selected Mediators of Inflammation in Patients with Acute Ischemic Stroke

During a stroke, a series of biochemical and metabolic changes occur which eventually lead to the death of cells by necrosis or apoptosis. This is a multi-stage process involving oxidative stress and an inflammatory response from the first signs of occlusion of a blood vessel until the late stages of regeneration and healing of ischemic tissues. The purpose of the research was to assess the concentration of pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-6 and TNF-α in the blood serum of patients with ischemic stroke (AIS) and to investigate their role as new markers in predicting functional prognosis after thrombolytic therapy. The researches have shown that the concentrations of the measured biomarkers were higher compared to the control group. Serum levels of IL-6 and THF-α before the initiation of intravenous thrombolysis were lower in the subgroup of patients with a favourable functional result (mRS: 0−2 pts) compared to the group of patients with an unfavourable functional result (mRS: 3−6 pts). A positive correlation was found between the concentration of IL-6 and TNF-α in patients with AIS during <4.5 h and on one day after the onset of stroke, which means that the concentration of IL-6 increases with the increase in TNF-α concentration. It has also been shown that higher levels of IL-6 in the acute phase of stroke and on the first and seventh days, and TNF-α during onset, were associated with poorer early and late prognosis in patients treated with intravenous thrombolysis. A relationship was found between the level of IL-6 and TNF-α in the subacute AIS and the severity of the neurological deficit. It has been shown that the investigated biomarkers may be a prognostic factor in the treatment of thrombolytic AIS.

Do or Die: HPV E5, E6 and E7 in Cell Death Evasion

Human papillomaviruses (HPVs) infect the dividing cells of human epithelia and hijack the cellular replication machinery to ensure their own propagation. In the effort to adapt the cell to suit their own reproductive needs, the virus changes a number of processes, amongst which is the ability of the cell to undergo programmed cell death. Viral infections, forced cell divisions and mutations, which accumulate as a result of uncontrolled proliferation, all trigger one of several cell death pathways. Here, we examine the mechanisms employed by HPVs to ensure the survival of infected cells manipulated into cell cycle progression and proliferation.

Interferon gamma upregulates the cytokine receptors IFNGR1 and TNFRSF1A in HT-29-MTX E12 cells

The intestinal mucosa protects the body from physical damage, pathogens, and antigens. However, inflammatory bowel diseases (IBDs) patients suffer from poor mucosal tissue function, including the lack of an effective cellular and/or mucus barrier. We investigated the mucus producing human colonic epithelial cell line HT29-MTX E12 to study its suitability as an in vitro model of cell/mucus barrier adaption during IBD. It was found that the proinflammatory cytokine interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), but not tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), reduced cell viability. IFN-γ and TNF-α were found to synergize to decrease barrier function, as measured by trans-epithelial electric resistance (TER) and molecular flux assays. Cells cultured under an air-liquid interface produced an adherent mucus layer, and under these conditions reduced barrier function was found after cytokine exposure. Furthermore, IFN-γ, but not TNF-α treatment, upregulated the IFN-γ receptor 1 (IFNGR1) and TNF-α receptor super family 1A (TNFRSF1A) subunit mRNA in vitro. Co-stimulation resulted in increased mRNA expression of CLDN 2 and 5, two gene known to play a role in epithelial barrier integrity. Analysis of IBD patient samples revealed IFNGR1 and TNFRSF mRNA increased coincidently with guanylate binding protein 1 (GBP1) expression, an indicator of NFkB activity. Lastly, CLDN2 was found at higher levels in IBD patients while HNF4a was suppressed with disease. In conclusion, IFN-γ and TNF-α degrade epithelial/mucus barriers coincident with changes in CLDN gene and cytokine receptor subunit mRNA expression in HT29-MTX E12 cells. These changes largely reflect those observed in IBD patient samples.

A Comparative Analysis of Mucus Immunomodulatory Properties from Seven Marine Gastropods from the Mediterranean Sea

The treatment of inflammatory and immune-related diseases due to dysfunctioning of the immune system necessitates modulation of the immune response through immunomodulatory compounds. Marine environments are considered as a new frontier for health benefit product implementations. Marine biodiversity is still a low explored resource, despite it is expected to represent an important platform for chemical bioactive compounds. Within the phylum Mollusca, gastropods are known to synthetize mucus, the latter presenting relevant bioactive properties, e.g., related to immunomodulant molecules able to activate the innate and acquired immune system. This study proposes a bioprospecting of the immunomodulant activity of mucus isolated from seven common gastropod species from the Gulf of Naples (Mediterranean Sea). Results showed that not all mucus displayed a significant cytotoxic activity on the two human cancer cell lines A549 and A2058. On the other hand, the mucus from Bolinus brandaris was strongly bioactive and was therefore thoroughly investigated at cellular, molecular, and protein levels on the human monocytes U937 line. It can conclusively induce monocyte differentiation in vitro and significantly stimulate natural immunity response.

SBP-0636457, a Novel Smac Mimetic, Cooperates with Doxorubicin to Induce Necroptosis in Breast Cancer Cells during Apoptosis Blockage

Breast cancer (BC) is a common health concern worldwide. Doxorubicin (Dox) is a widely used chemotherapeutic agent to treat various cancers, including BC. However, drug resistance and severe side effects often hinder the clinical application of Dox. Combination therapy is an effective potent strategy to increase chemosensitivity and reduce the adverse effects. Smac is a proapoptotic protein that interacts with inhibitors of apoptosis proteins (IAPs) and thereby promotes cell death. Smac mimetic compounds can mimic its function and can be used to kill cancer cells. In this study, Dox and SBP-0636457, a novel Smac mimetic, were found to have cooperative effects in inducing BC cell death. Dox and SBP-0636457 cotreatment induced necroptosis instead of apoptosis in BC cells. Receptor-interacting serine/threonine-protein kinase 1 or mixed-lineage kinase domain-like silencing could attenuate cell death caused by Dox/SBP-0636457 in BC cells. In addition, this combined treatment caused synergistic induction of TNFα, and TNFα/TNFR signalling is essential for cell death induced by Dox/SBP-0636457 in BC cells. Moreover, both canonical and noncanonical nuclear factor kappa B pathways were found to contribute to TNFα upregulation induced by Dox/SBP-0636457. Therefore, the findings suggest that SBP-0636457 combined with Dox is an alternative strategy for treating BC.

TNFR1 Contributes to Activation-Induced Cell Death of Pathological CD4+ T Lymphocytes During Ischemic Heart Failure

CD4⁺ T cells turn pathological during heart failure (HF). We show that the expression of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and tumor necrosis factor receptor (TNFR1) increases in HF-activated CD4⁺ T cells. However, the role of the TNF-α/TNFR1 axis in T-cell activation/proliferation is unknown. We show that TNFR1 neutralization during T-cell activation (ex vivo) or the loss of TNFR1 in adoptively transferred HF-activated CD4⁺ T cells (in vivo) augments their prosurvival and proliferative signaling. Importantly, TNFR1 neutralization does not affect CD69 expression or the pathological activity of HF-activated TNFR1^-/- CD4⁺ T cells. These results show that during HF TNFR1 plays an important role in quelling prosurvival and proliferative signals in CD4⁺ T cells without altering their pathological activity.

RIPK1 in Liver Parenchymal Cells Limits Murine Hepatitis during Acute CCl4-Induced Liver Injury

Some life-threatening acute hepatitis originates from drug-induced liver injury (DILI). Carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄)-induced acute liver injury in mice is the widely used model of choice to study acute DILI, which pathogenesis involves a complex interplay of oxidative stress, necrosis, and apoptosis. Since the receptor interacting protein kinase-1 (RIPK1) is able to direct cell fate towards survival or death, it may potentially affect the pathological process of xenobiotic-induced liver damage. Two different mouse lines, either deficient for Ripk1 specifically in liver parenchymal cells (Ripk1^LPC-KO) or for the kinase activity of RIPK1 (Ripk1^K45A, kinase dead), plus their respective wild-type littermates (Ripk1^fl/fl, Ripk1^wt/wt), were exposed to single toxic doses of CCl₄. This exposure led in similar injury in Ripk1^K45A mice and their littermate controls. However, Ripk1^LPC-KO mice developed more severe symptoms with massive hepatocyte apoptosis as compared to their littermate controls. A pretreatment with a TNF-α receptor decoy exacerbated liver apoptosis in both Ripk1^fl/fl and Ripk1^LPC-KO mice. Besides, a FasL antagonist promoted hepatocyte apoptosis in Ripk1^fl/fl mice but reduced it in Ripk1^LPC-KO mice. Thus, the scaffolding properties of RIPK1 protect hepatocytes from apoptosis during CCl₄ intoxication. TNF-α and FasL emerged as factors promoting hepatocyte survival. These protective effects appeared to be independent of RIPK1, at least in part, for TNF-α, but dependent on RIPK1 for FasL. These new data complete the deciphering of the molecular mechanisms involved in DILI in the context of research on their prevention or cure.

Downregulation of TNFR2 decreases survival gene expression, promotes apoptosis and affects the cell cycle of gastric cancer cells

BACKGROUND

Chronic inflammation due to Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) infection promotes gastric carcinogenesis. Tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), a key mediator of inflammation, induces cell survival or apoptosis by binding to two receptors (TNFR1 and TNFR2). TNFR1 can induce both survival and apoptosis, while TNFR2 results only in cell survival. The dysregulation of these processes may contribute to carcinogenesis.

AIM

To evaluate the effects of TNFR1 and TNFR2 downregulation in AGS cells treated with H. pylori extract on the TNF-α pathway.

METHODS

AGS cell lines containing TNFR1 and TNFR2 receptors downregulated by specific shRNAs and nonsilenced AGS cells were treated with H. pylori extract for 6 h. Subsequently, quantitative polymerase chain reaction with TaqMan^® assays was used for the relative quantification of the mRNAs (TNFA, TNFR1, TNFR2, TRADD, TRAF2, CFLIP, NFKB1, NFKB2, CASP8, CASP3) and miRNAs (miR-19a, miR-34a, miR-103a, miR-130a, miR-181c) related to the TNF-α signalling pathway. Flow cytometry was employed for cell cycle analysis and apoptosis assays.

RESULTS

In nonsilenced AGS cells, H. pylori extract treatment increased the expression of genes involved in cell survival and inhibited both apoptosis (NFKB1, NFKB2 and CFLIP) and the TNFR1 receptor. TNFR1 downregulation significantly decreased the expression of the TRADD and CFLIP genes, although no change was observed in the cellular process or miRNA expression. In contrast, TNFR2 downregulation decreased the expression of the TRADD and TRAF2 genes, which are both important downstream mediators of the TNFR1-mediated pathway, as well as that of the NFKB1 and CFLIP genes, while upregulating the expression of miR-19a and miR-34a. Consequently, a reduction in the number of cells in the G0/G1 phase and an increase in the number of cells in the S phase were observed, as well as the promotion of early apoptosis.

CONCLUSION

Our findings mainly highlight the important role of TNFR2 in the TNF-α pathway in gastric cancer, indicating that silencing it can reduce the expression of survival and anti-apoptotic genes.

Effects of ethanol and deferoxamine on rat primary glial cell cultures, in regard with ischemia induced by traumatic spinal cord injury

Although they have been regarded, in the past, as passive support cells, many experimental data have shown that glial cells play a critical role in the development and functioning of the nervous system. Despite the advances that have been made in understanding astrocytes' role in the nervous system's development and function, our knowledge of their interactions with other cells is still limited, albeit neurons are dependent on the trophic support provided by astrocytes release. Materials and Methods. The use of the McCarthy and de Vellis methods for isolating glial cells has been regarded as an essential tool for studying their function. This study aims to evaluate the effects of ethanol and deferoxamine on primary rat glial cell cultures and try to explain, as far as possible, the relevance of such effects for patients with chronic alcoholism and traumatic spinal cord injuries. Discussion. Because glial cells are very important in the functioning of the central nervous system and experiments cannot be performed on human primary nerve cell cultures, we performed an experiment on glial cells harvested from the newborn rat, analyzing the dynamics of IL-6 and TNF alpha on models of suffering in spinal cord injury (hypoxia and thermally stress). Conclusion. Inhibition of TNF alpha synthesis was more important at 7 days posttraumatic in cells with prolonged ethanolic exposure, even if protein levels of IL-6 were elevated (under similar experimental conditions). Thus, we can say that long-term exposure to ethanol of nerve cells can ensure a favorable evolution of medical recovery (by increasing TNF alpha), even if the inflammatory process remains active (shown by elevated IL-6 values). Keywords: ethyl alcohol, deferoxamine, primary glial cells cultures, traumatic Spinal Cord Injury

Redistribution of TNF Receptor 1 and 2 Expression on Immune Cells in Patients with Bronchial Asthma

Background: The co-expression patterns of type 1 and 2 tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α membrane receptors (TNFR1/TNFR2) are associated with the presence, stage, and activity of allergic diseases. The aim of this study was to assess the expression levels and dynamics of TNFRs on immune cells and to assess associations between their expression and severity of bronchial asthma (BA). Methods: Patients with severe (n = 8), moderate (n = 10), and mild (n = 4) BA were enrolled. As a comparison group, data from 46 healthy volunteers (HV) were accessed. Co-expression of TNFR1/2 was evaluated as a percentage of cells and the number of receptors of each type per cell. Multivariate logistic regression analysis was used to identify diagnostic biomarkers of BA. Results: More than 90% of the monocytes in patients with mild BA were TNFR1+TNFR2+ but had significantly lower TNFR1 expression density compared with HV (7.82- to 14.08-fold, depending on disease severity). Lower percentages of the TNFR+ B-lymphocytes were observed in combination with significantly lower receptors density in BA compared with HV (2.59- to 11.64-fold for TNFR1 and 1.72- to 3.4-fold for TNFR2, depending on disease severity). The final multivariate model for predicting the presence of BA included the percentage of double-positive CD5+ B-lymphocytes and average number of TNFR1 molecules expressed on cytotoxic naive T-lymphocytes and T-helper cells (R² = 0.87). Conclusions: The co-expression patterns of TNFRs on immune cells in BA differed significantly compared with HV. The expression differences were associated with disease severity. TNFR1 expression changes were key parameters that discriminated patients with BA from those with HV.

The expression pattern of membranous TNF-α is distinct from its intracellular form in the breast cancer draining lymph nodes

Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) is mostly known as a soluble cytokine. However, this study focused on its membranous form whose significance is rarely investigated in antitumor immunity. Herein, we assessed the expression of both membranous and intracellular forms of TNF-α (m/icTNF-α) in the lymphocytes derived from breast cancer-draining lymph nodes. CD4⁺T cells were the main subset expressing mTNF-α with the highest intensity, whereas icTNF-α expression was most intense in CD8⁺T cells. An inverse correlation was seen between the frequency of mTNF-α and the expression intensity of this cytokine in B cells. In the clinical context, the higher intensity of mTNF-α expression in CD19⁺ cells correlated with poor prognosticators, while the frequency of mTNF-α⁺CD19⁺ cells showed a reverse correlation with the number of involved lymph nodes. The two forms of TNF-α did not show similar associations with cancer parameters, which highlights the complex role of this cytokine in breast cancer immunity.

Ataxin-3, The Spinocerebellar Ataxia Type 3 Neurodegenerative Disorder Protein, Affects Mast Cell Functions

Spinocerebellar ataxia type 3 (SCA3), also known as Machado-Joseph Disease, is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by loss of neuronal matter due to the expansion of the CAG repeat in the ATXN3/MJD1 gene and subsequent ataxin-3 protein. Although the underlying pathogenic protein expansion has been known for more than 20 years, the complexity of its effects is still under exploration. The ataxin-3 protein in its expanded form is known to aggregate and disrupt cellular processes in neuronal tissue but the role of the protein on populations of immune cells is unknown. Recently, mast cells have emerged as potential key players in neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration. Here, we examined the mast cell-related effects of ataxin-3 expansion in the brain tissues of 304Q ataxin-3 knock-in mice and SCA3 patients. We also established cultures of mast cells from the 304Q knock-in mice and examined the effects of 304Q ataxin-3 knock-in on the immune responses of these cells and on markers involved in mast cell growth, development and function. Specifically, our results point to a role for expanded ataxin-3 in suppression of mast cell marker CD117/c-Kit, pro-inflammatory cytokine TNF-α and NF-κB inhibitor IκBα along with an increased expression of the granulocyte-attracting chemokine CXCL1. These results are the beginning of a more holistic understanding of ataxin-3 and could point to the development of novel therapeutic targets which act on inflammation to mitigate symptoms of SCA3.

Inflammatory biomarkers in staging of chronic kidney disease: elevated TNFR2 levels accompanies renal function decline

BACKGROUND

Inflammation is a common feature in the pathogenesis of chronic kidney disease (CKD), regardless of the disease cause. Our aim was to evaluate the potential of several inflammatory biomarkers in CKD diagnosis and staging.

METHODS

A total of 24 healthy controls and 92 pre-dialysis CKD patients with diverse etiologies, were enrolled in this study and grouped according to their CKD stage. We analysed the circulating levels of inflammatory molecules, C-reactive protein (CRP), interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), tumor necrosis factor receptor 2 (TNFR2), pentraxin 3 (PTX3) and leptin, as well as the hemogram. We studied their association with parameters of kidney function and kidney injury, to evaluate their potential as early markers of the disease and/or of its worsening, as well as their interplay.

RESULTS

Compared to controls, patients in CKD stages 1-2 presented significantly higher IL-6 and TNFR2 levels, and higher neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio. All inflammatory cytokines and acute-phase proteins showed a trend to increase up to stage 3, stabilizing or declining thereafter, save for TNFR2, which steadily increased from stage to stage. All inflammatory molecules, apart from PTX3, were negatively and significantly correlated with eGFR, with a remarkable value for TNFR2 (r = - 0.732, p < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

TNFR2 might be useful for an early detection of CKD, as well as for disease staging/worsening. Still, the potential value of this biomarker in disease progression warrants further investigation.