Liver Fatty Acid Composition and Inflammation in Mice Fed with High-Carbohydrate Diet or High-Fat Diet

Retinoic acid induced 16 deficiency exacerbates high-fat diet-induced steatohepatitis in mice

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) associated with obesity may progress to non-alcoholic steatohepatitis, cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Retinoic acid induced 16 (RAI16) plays an important role in cell apoptosis and is also a potential marker for HCC. Here we aimed to test the effect of RAI16 deficiency on liver pathology in high-fat diet (HFD) fed mice. Wild type (WT) and RAI16 knockout (RAI16-/-) C57BL/6 mice were fed with HFD or chow for up to 12 months. With consumption of HFD diet, RAI16-/- mice on HFD developed much more excess fatty liver within 4 months than WT mice on HFD. The expressions of fatty acid synthesis associated molecules Ppar-γ, Srebp-1c and Fas were further increased in RAI16-/- mice compared with WT mice on HFD. Macrophage infiltration related molecules Mcp-1 and F4/80 and pro-inflammatory factor Lcn2 were significantly increased in RAI16-/- mice compared with WT mice on HFD. Conclusively, RAI16 deficiency exacerbated HFD-induced liver injury, associated with increased inflammation. These findings indicate that RAI16 plays an important role in HFD-induced liver pathology and might be considered as a target for treatment of NAFLD. SIGNIFICANCE: 1. RAI16-/- mice on HFD developed much more excess fatty liver. 2. RAI16-/- mice showed more macrophage infiltration and proinflammation.

A high-carbohydrate diet induces greater inflammation than a high-fat diet in mouse skeletal muscle

We previously reported that both the high-carbohydrate diet (HCD) and high-fat diet (HFD) given for two months promote lipid deposition and inflammation in the liver and brain of mice. The results obtained indicate a tissue-specific response to both diets. Herein, we compared the effects of HCD and HFD on fatty acid (FA) composition and inflammation in the gastrocnemius muscle. Male Swiss mice were fed with HCD or HFD for 1 or 2 months. Saturated FA (SFA), monounsaturated FA (MUFA), n-3 polyunsaturated FA (n-3 PUFA), and n-6 PUFA were quantified. The activities of stearoyl-CoA desaturase 1 (SCD-1), Δ-6 desaturase (D6D), elongase 6, and de novo lipogenesis (DNL) were estimated. As for indicators of the inflammatory tissue state, we measured myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity and gene expression of F4/80, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin (IL)-4, IL-6, and IL-10. The HCD led to a lower deposition of SFA, MUFA, n-3 PUFA, and n-6 PUFA compared to HFD. However, the HCD increased arachidonic acid levels, SFA/n-3 PUFA ratio, DNL, SCD-1, D6D, and MPO activities, and expression of IL-6, contrasting with the general idea that increased lipid deposition is associated with more intense inflammation. The HCD was more potent to induce skeletal muscle inflammation than the HFD, regardless of the lower lipid accumulation.

High-fat diet-induced dysregulation of ovarian gene expression is restored with chronic omega-3 fatty acid supplementation

Chronic high-fat diet (HFD) consumption causes ovarian dysfunction in rodents. Acute dietary treatment with docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) increases oocyte quality and ovarian reserve at advanced reproductive age. We hypothesized that DHA supplementation after HFD exposure reverses HFD-induced ovarian defects. We conducted a dietary intervention with reversal to chow, DHA-supplemented chow, or DHA-supplemented HFD after HFD consumption. After 10 weeks, HFD-fed mice had impaired estrous cyclicity, decreased primordial follicles, and altered ovarian expression of 24 genes compared to chow controls. Diet reversal to either chow or chow + DHA restored estrous cyclicity, however only chow + DHA appeared to mitigated the impact of HFD on ovarian reserve. All dietary interventions restored HFD-dysregulated gene expression to chow levels. We found no association between follicular fluid DHA levels and ovarian reserve. In conclusion our data suggest some benefit of DHA supplementation after HFD, particularly in regards to ovarian gene expression, however complete restoration of ovarian function was not achieved.

High dietary n6/n3 ratio decreases eicosapentaenoic to arachidonic acid ratios and upregulates NFκB/p50 expression in short-term low-dose streptozotocin and high-fructose rat model of diabetes

We studied the influence of dietary n6/n3 ratio and docosahexaenoic (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic (EPA) acids supplementation on fatty acid profile, lipid peroxidation and NFκ/p50 expression in diabetes type 2. Treatments consisted of three dietary n6/n3 ratios: 6 (Control), 50 (high n6) and 1 (DHA and EPA supplemented). Half of the rats in each of the dietary treatments were made diabetic using the fructose/low-streptozotocin model. The Control and high n6 diets decreased EPA/ARA (arachidonic acid) ratios in the plasma and in the hepatic tissue suggesting proinflammatory fatty acid profile. The high n6 diet additionally increased the 4-HNE and NFκ/p50 expression in the hepatic tissue. These changes were the consequence of a decrease in the plasma content of DHA and EPA and an increase in the content of arachidonic acid in the liver neutral lipids. The supplementation with the DHA and EPA attenuated the change in EPA/ARA ratios, which imply the importance of the n6/n3 ratio in diabetes type 2.

Functional Effects of EPS-Producing Bifidobacterium Administration on Energy Metabolic Alterations of Diet-Induced Obese Mice

Obesity has been recognized by the World Health Organization as a global epidemic. The gut microbiota is considered as a factor involved in the regulation of numerous metabolic pathways by impacting several functions of the host. It has been suggested that probiotics can modulate host gene expression and metabolism, and thereby positively influence host adipose tissue development and obesity related-metabolic disorders. The aim of the present work was to evaluate the effect of an exopolysaccharide (EPS)-producing Bifidobacterium strain on host glucose and lipid metabolism and the gut microbial composition in a short-term diet-induced obesity (DIO) in mice. C57BL/6J male mice were randomly divided into three groups: a control group that received control standard diet, a group fed a high-fat diet (HF), and a group fed HF supplemented with Bifidobacterium animalis IPLA R1. Fasting serum insulin as well as triglycerides accumulation in the liver were significantly reduced in the group receiving B. animalis IPLA R1. The treatment with the EPS-producing B. animalis IPLA R1 tended to down-regulate the expression of host genes involved in the hepatic synthesis of fatty acids which was concomitant with an upregulation in the expression of genes related with fatty acid oxidation. B. animalis IPLA R1 not only promoted the increase of Bifidobacterium but also the levels of Bacteroides-Prevotella. Our data indicate that the EPS-producing Bifidobacterium IPLA R1 strain may have beneficial effects in metabolic disorders associated with obesity, by modulating the gut microbiota composition and promoting changes in lipids metabolism and glucose homeostasis.

High-Fat Feeding in Time-Dependent Manner Affects Metabolic Routes Leading to Nervonic Acid Synthesis in NAFLD

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is characterized by excessive lipid accumulation in the liver. The disturbances in the fatty acid composition of stored lipids are more important than the lipid species itself, which may influence the overall effect caused by these molecules. Thus, uncovering time-dependent changes in the fatty acid composition of accumulated lipid fractions after a high fat diet seems to be a new marker of NAFLD occurrence. The experiments were conducted on high fat fed Wistar rats. The blood and liver samples were collected at the end of each experimental week and used to assess the content of lipid fractions and their fatty acid composition by gas liquid chromatography. The expression of proteins from lipid metabolism pathways and of fatty acid exporting proteins were detected by Western blotting. In the same high fat feeding period, decreased de novo lipogenesis, increased β-oxidation and lipid efflux were demonstrated. The observed effects may be the first liver protective mechanisms against lipotoxicity. Nevertheless, such effects were still not sufficient to prevent the liver from proinflammatory lipid accumulation. Moreover, the changes in liver metabolic pathways caused the plasma nervonic acid concentration in sphingomyelin to decrease simultaneously with NAFLD development, which may be a steatosis occurrence prognostic marker.

Dietary chia seeds (Salvia hispanica) improve acute dyslipidemia and steatohepatitis in rats

Chia seeds (Salvia hispanica L.) are rich in omega fatty acids. Dyslipidemia and steatohepatitis are diseases that require effective treatments in obese and non-obese patients. The aim was to evaluate the effect of chia intake on acute tyloxapol (TI)-induced dyslipidemia, on acute carbon tetrachloride (TC)-induced steatohepatitis, and on mixed damage (TC+TI) in non-obese rats. Four experimental groups were fed for 4 weeks a diet with established rodent food (DE), and four groups were fed a diet with 15% added chia (DC). Plasma samples were analyzed for total cholesterol, triglycerides, glucose, biochemical liver damage markers, and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α). Liver samples were used to quantify glycogen, catalase, lipid peroxidation, and TNF-α. A histopathological analysis was performed. DC intake partially or totally prevented steatohepatitis, and reduced lipids in the dyslipidemic groups. The hypolipidemic and hepatoprotective effects of chia may be correlated to its high content of α-linolenic acid (omega-3) and phenolics. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Metabolic syndrome is associated with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), which are currently the most common causes of chronic liver disease, cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) worldwide. Dyslipidemia is a significant risk factor for NAFLD and NASH. Non-obese patients may have NAFLD or NASH. Metabolic syndrome and dyslipidemia are more strongly associated with NAFLD in non-obese than in obese patients. This is the first study evaluating the hypolipidemic and hepatoprotective effects of chia seed intake on acute dyslipidemia and/or steatohepatitis caused by the individual or combined administration of the inducers tyloxapol and carbon tetrachloride, respectively, in non-obese rats. The pharmacological effects of dietary chia are correlated to its high content of omega-3 and omega-6 (1:1), protein, dietary fiber, and phenolics. The results suggest that inclusion of chia in diets of non-obese patients with dyslipidemia and/or NAFLD/NASH may improve their health state and preventing cirrhosis or HCC.

miR-122 promotes hepatic lipogenesis via inhibiting the LKB1/AMPK pathway by targeting Sirt1 in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease

BACKGROUND

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a common hepatic disease with an increasing prevalence but an unclear aetiology. This study aimed to investigate the functional implications of microRNA-122 (miR-122) in the pathogenesis of NAFLD and the possible molecular mechanisms.

METHODS

Both in vitro and in vivo models of NAFLD were generated by treating HepG2 and Huh-7 cells with free fatty acids (FFA) and by feeding mice a high-fat diet (HFD), respectively. HE and Oil Red O staining were used to examine liver tissue morphology and lipid deposition, respectively. Immunohistochemical (IHC) staining was used to examine Sirt1 expression in liver tissues. qRT-PCR and Western blotting were employed to measure the expression of miR-122, Sirt1, and proteins involved in lipogenesis and the AMPK pathway. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was used to quantify triglyceride (TG) levels in HepG2 and Huh-7 cells and in liver tissues. The interaction between miR-122 and the Sirt1 gene was further examined by a dual luciferase reporter assay and RNA-immunoprecipitation (RIP).

RESULTS

NAFLD hepatic tissues and FFA-treated HepG2 and Huh-7 cells presented excess lipid production and TG secretion, accompanied by miR-122 upregulation, Sirt1 downregulation, and potentiated lipogenesis-related genes. miR-122 suppressed Sirt1 expression via binding to its 3'-untranslated region (UTR). Knockdown of miR-122 effectively mitigated excessive lipid production and suppressed the expression of lipogenic genes in FFA-treated HepG2 and Huh-7 cells via upregulating Sirt1. Furthermore, miR-122 knockdown activated the LKB1/AMPK signalling pathway.

CONCLUSION

The inhibition of miR-122 protects hepatocytes from lipid metabolic disorders such as NAFLD and suppresses lipogenesis via elevating Sirt1 and activating the AMPK pathway. These data support miR-122 as a promising biomarker and drug target for NAFLD.

Omega-3 fatty acid decreases oleic acid by decreasing SCD-1 expression in the liver and kidney of a cyclosporine-induced nephropathy rat model

Aim: Stearoyl-CoA desaturase (SCD)-1 and elongase-6 (Elovl-6) are associated with fatty acid (FA) synthesis. We evaluated the effect of omega-3 FA on erythrocyte membrane FA contents through SCD-1 and Elovl-6 expression in the liver and kidney of a cyclosporine (CsA)-induced rat model.

Methods: Male Sprague Dawley rats were divided into control, CsA, and CsA treated with omega-3 FA groups. We measured SCD-1 and Elovl-6 expression levels via western blot and immunohistochemistry analysis.

Results: Erythrocyte membrane oleic acid content was lower in the CsA with omega-3 FA group compared to the CsA group. Compared to the control group, CsA-induced rats showed elevated SCD-1 expression in the kidney and liver, which omega-3 FA treatment reversed. Elovl-6 expression was increased in the liver, but decreased in the kidney in CsA group compared to control, which omega-3 FA treatment also reversed.

Conclusions: Omega-3 FA supplementation decreased erythrocyte membrane oleic acid content by modulating SCD-1 and Elovl-6 expression in the kidney and liver of CsA-induced rats.

Ameliorative Effect of Spinach on Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease Induced in Rats by a High-Fat Diet

The purpose of this work was to evaluate the effect of dietary carotenoids from spinach on the inflammation and oxidative stress biomarkers, liver lipid profile, and liver transcriptomic and metabolomics profiles in Sprague–Dawley rats with steatosis induced by a high-fat diet. Two concentrations of spinach powder (2.5 and 5%) were used in two types of diet: high-fat (H) and standard (N). Although rats fed diet H showed an accumulation of fat in hepatocytes, they did not show differences in the values of adiponectin, tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), and oxygen radical absorption (ORAC) in plasma or of isoprostanes in urine compared with animals fed diet N. The consumption of spinach and the accumulation of α and β carotenes and lutein in the liver was inversely correlated with serum total cholesterol and glucose and the content of hepatic cholesterol, increasing monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA), polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) and reducing cholesterol in the livers of rats fed diet H and spinach. In addition, changes in the expression of genes related to the fatty liver condition occurred, and the expression of genes involved in the metabolism of fatty acids and cholesterol increased, mainly through the overexpression of peroxisome proliferator activated receptors (PPARs). Related to liver metabolites, animals fed with diet H showed hypoaminoacidemia, mainly for the glucogenic aminoacids. Although no changes were observed in inflammation and oxidative stress biomarkers, the consumption of spinach modulated the lipid metabolism in liver, which must be taken into consideration during the dietary treatment of steatosis.

Adipose tissue is less responsive to food restriction anti-inflammatory effects than liver, muscle, and brain in mice

High caloric intake promotes chronic inflammation, insulin resistance, and chronic diseases such as type-2 diabetes, which may be prevented by food restriction (FR). The effect of FR on expression of pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory genes in adipose tissue, liver, muscle, and brain was compared. Male Swiss mice were submitted to FR (FR group) or had free access to food (control group) during 56 days. The liver, gastrocnemius muscle, brain, and epididymal white adipose tissue (WAT) were collected for analysis of gene expressions. FR attenuated inflammation in the liver, brain, and gastrocnemius muscle but did not markedly change inflammatory gene expression in epididymal WAT. We concluded that adipose tissue was less responsive to FR in terms of gene expression of pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory genes.

Fat-1 Transgene Is Associated With Improved Reproductive Outcomes

High intake of ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) has been associated with a variety of health benefits. However, the role of ω-3 PUFAs in female reproductive function is unclear, with studies showing both positive and negative effects. The type of diet that ω-3 fatty acids are consumed with, for example, a balanced diet vs a high-fat diet (HFD), may influence how ω-3 fatty acids affect female reproductive function. To address the role of ω-3 PUFAs in female reproduction, we used the fat-1 mouse both with and without HFD exposure. Fat-1 mice constitutively express the fat-1 transgene, allowing the conversion of ω-6 to ω-3 fatty acids to yield an optimal tissue ratio of ω-6 to ω-3 fatty acids (∼1:1). In our study, at 15 weeks of age, fat-1 mice had elevated primordial follicles compared with wild-type controls with both standard chow and HFD feeding. Higher serum levels of the ω-3 docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), docosapentaenoic acid (DPA), and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) were positively associated with primordial follicle numbers, whereas the ratio of the ω-6 arachidonic acid to EPA + DPA + DHA had the opposite effect. Furthermore, fat-1 mice had increased pregnancy rates and shorter time to pregnancy when fed an HFD compared with wild-type mice. In conclusion, our novel preclinical model suggests that high tissue levels of long-chain ω-3 PUFAs are associated with an improved ovarian reserve and improved reproductive outcomes. Further studies are needed to evaluate ω-3 PUFAs as a potential intervention strategy in women with diminished ovarian reserve.

Interleukin-12 as a biomarker of the beneficial effects of food restriction in mice receiving high fat diet or high carbohydrate diet

The impact of food restriction (FR) during 56 days on serum levels of cytokines in mice fed a high-fat diet (HFD) or high-carbohydrate diet (HCD) were evaluated. The amount of food was reduced 50% for HFD-FR and HCD-FR groups compared to mice receiving free access to HFD (HFD group) or HCD (HCD group). We quantified the serum levels of basic fibroblast growth factor, granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor, inducible protein 10, interferon γ, interleukin 1α (IL-1α), IL-1β, IL-2, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-10, IL-12, IL-13, IL-17, keratinocyte chemoattractant, macrophage inflammatory protein-1α, monocyte chemotactic protein 1, monokine induced by IFN-γ, and tumor necrosis factor α. Only IL-12 levels were lower (P<0.05), for both HFD-FR (HFD-FR vs HFD) and HCD-FR (HCD-FR vs HCD). Therefore, IL-12 levels could be considered a biological marker of the beneficial effects of FR.

Brain Fatty Acid Composition and Inflammation in Mice Fed with High-Carbohydrate Diet or High-Fat Diet

Both high fat diet (HFD) and high carbohydrate diet (HCD) modulate brain fatty acids (FA) composition. Notwithstanding, there is a lack of information on time sequence of brain FA deposition either for HFD or HCD. The changes in brain FA composition in mice fed with HFD or HCD for 7, 14, 28, or 56 days were compared with results of 0 (before starting given the diets). mRNA expressions of allograft inflammatory factor 1 (Aif1), cyclooxygenase-2 (Cox 2), F4/80, inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), integrin subunit alpha m (Itgam), interleukin IL-1β (IL-1β), IL-6, IL-10, and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) were measured. The HFD group had higher speed of deposition of saturated FA (SFA), monounsaturated FA (MUFA), and polyunsaturated FA (PUFA) at the beginning of the experimental period. However, on day 56, the total amount of SFA, MUFA, and PUFA were similar. mRNA expressions of F4/80 and Itgam, markers of microglia infiltration, were increased (p < 0.05) in the brain of the HCD group whereas inflammatory marker index (IMI) was higher (46%) in HFD group. In conclusion, the proportion of fat and carbohydrates in the diet modulates the speed deposition of FA and expression of inflammatory gene markers.

Establishment and Comparison of Juvenile Female Mouse Models of Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease and Nonalcoholic Steatohepatitis

Experimental research has successfully established an adult offspring animal model of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), but the female offspring model of NAFLD in young age has not been well characterized yet. The aim of this study was to present a direct comparison of the maternal versus postweaning female juvenile NAFLD and nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) animal models. Four different female mouse models were established and compared using different high-fat diet feeding (HF) strategies in maternal mice and their offspring. The models were non-HF maternal mice and HF offspring with high-high fat (C/HHF), non-HF maternal mice and HF offspring with low-high fat (C/LHF), HF maternal mice and offspring both with high-high fat (HHF/HHF), and HF maternal mice and offspring both with low-high fat (LHF/LHF). A female control group (C/C) was also established. The offspring mice were raised to the age of 8 weeks and then euthanized. Blood glucose levels, lipid profiles, liver function, and triglycerides/total cholesterol contents were examined. Hepatic morphology and superoxide anion levels were evaluated. The nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide phosphate activity and related regulatory subunits protein expression in the liver tissue were also determined. Our data demonstrated that offspring fat intake contributed to the successful establishment of NAFLD and maternal-offspring fat intake contributed to the successful establishment of NASH in juvenile female mice. Offspring high-fat exposure might be associated with the development of NAFLD and maternal high-fat exposure might be associated with the development of NASH in juvenile female offspring. Higher calories from a fat diet program (both in maternal and offspring) are more prone to inducing liver injury in offspring. In addition, the combination of the aforementioned two factors could aggravate this process. Moreover, oxidative stress was prominent in the juvenile female mouse model of NAFLD/NASH, and the mechanism might be related to the activation of liver NADPH oxidase.

Insights into Stearoyl-CoA Desaturase-1 Regulation of Systemic Metabolism

Stearoyl-coenzyme A desaturase 1 (SCD1) is a central regulator of fuel metabolism and may represent a therapeutic target to control obesity and the progression of related metabolic diseases including type 2 diabetes and hepatic steatosis. SCD1 catalyzes the synthesis of monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs), mainly oleate and palmitoleate, which are important in controlling weight gain in response to feeding high carbohydrate diets. In this review, we evaluate the role of SCD1 isoform in the regulation of lipid and glucose metabolism in metabolic tissues. These highlights of recent findings are aimed toward advancing our understanding of the role of SCD1 in the development of metabolic diseases, which may help evaluate the possible health outcomes of modulating MUFA levels through targeting SCD1 activity.

Isocaloric Dietary Changes and Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease in High Cardiometabolic Risk Individuals

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) incorporates an extensive spectrum of histologic liver abnormalities, varying from simple triglyceride accumulation in hepatocytes non-alcoholic fatty liver (NAFL) to non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), and it is the most frequent chronic liver disease in the industrialized world. Beyond liver related complications such as cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma, NAFLD is also an emerging risk factor for type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease. Currently, lifestyle intervention including strategies to reduce body weight and to increase regular physical activity represents the mainstay of NAFLD management. Total caloric intake plays a very important role in both the development and the treatment of NAFLD; however, apart from the caloric restriction alone, modifying the quality of the diet and modulating either the macro- or micronutrient composition can also markedly affect the clinical evolution of NAFLD, offering a more realistic and feasible treatment alternative. The aim of the present review is to summarize currently available evidence from randomized controlled trials on the effects of different nutrients including carbohydrates, lipids, protein and other dietary components, in isocaloric conditions, on NAFLD in people at high cardiometabolic risk. We also describe the plausible mechanisms by which different dietary components could modulate liver fat content.

Membrane-lipid therapy: A historical perspective of membrane-targeted therapies - From lipid bilayer structure to the pathophysiological regulation of cells

Our current understanding of membrane lipid composition, structure and functions has led to the investigation of their role in cell signaling, both in healthy and pathological cells. As a consequence, therapies based on the regulation of membrane lipid composition and structure have been recently developed. This novel field, known as Membrane Lipid Therapy, is growing and evolving rapidly, providing treatments that are now in use or that are being studied for their application to oncological disorders, Alzheimer's disease, spinal cord injury, stroke, diabetes, obesity, and neuropathic pain. This field has arisen from relevant discoveries on the behavior of membranes in recent decades, and it paves the way to adopt new approaches in modern pharmacology and nutrition. This innovative area will promote further investigation into membranes and the development of new therapies with molecules that target the cell membrane. Due to the prominent roles of membranes in the cells' physiology and the paucity of therapeutic approaches based on the regulation of the lipids they contain, it is expected that membrane lipid therapy will provide new treatments for numerous pathologies. The first on-purpose rationally designed molecule in this field, minerval, is currently being tested in clinical trials and it is expected to enter the market around 2020. However, it seems feasible that during the next few decades other membrane regulators will also be marketed for the treatment of human pathologies. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Membrane Lipid Therapy: Drugs Targeting Biomembranes edited by Pablo V. Escribá.

WITHDRAWN: Membrane-lipid therapy: A historical perspective of membrane-targeted therapies-From lipid bilayer structure to the pathophysiological regulation of cells

The Publisher regrets that this article is an accidental duplication of an article that has already been published, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bbamem.2017.05.017. The duplicate article has therefore been withdrawn. The full Elsevier Policy on Article Withdrawal can be found at https://www.elsevier.com/about/our-business/policies/article-withdrawal.