951
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Thistlethwaite PA, Mo M, Madani MM, Deutsch R, Blanchard D, Kapelanski DP, Jamieson SW. Operative classification of thromboembolic disease determines outcome after pulmonary endarterectomy. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2002; 124:1203-11. [PMID: 12447188 DOI: 10.1067/mtc.2002.127313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 191] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE We sought to determine whether type and location of thromboembolic disease in the pulmonary vascular tree predicts the hemodynamic result and clinical outcome in patients undergoing pulmonary endarterectomy. METHODS From 1998 to 2000, 202 patients with pulmonary hypertension and pulmonary vascular resistance ranging from 194 to 2950 dynes-s-cm(-5) underwent pulmonary endarterectomy. Preoperative and postoperative tricuspid valve function, pulmonary artery pressure, and pulmonary vascular resistance were determined by means of transthoracic echocardiography and measurements with a Swan-Ganz catheter (Edwards Lifesciences, Irvine, Calif), respectively. Patients underwent intraoperative classification of thromboembolism as follows: type 1 (76 patients), fresh thrombus in the main-lobar pulmonary arteries; type 2 (81 patients), intimal thickening and fibrosis proximal to the segmental arteries; type 3 (38 patients), disease within distal segmental arteries only; and type 4 (7 patients), distal arteriolar vasculopathy without visible thromboembolic disease. RESULTS Overall perioperative mortality was 4.5% (9/202 patients). By means of univariate analysis, patients with type 3 or 4 disease (distal pulmonary vasculopathy) had more residual postoperative tricuspid regurgitation (P <.0001), higher postoperative pulmonary artery systolic pressure (P <.0001), and greater postoperative pulmonary vascular resistance (P <.0001) compared with that seen in patients with type 1 or 2 disease, in whom thromboembolic disease was more surgically accessible. Factors such as severity of preoperative tricuspid regurgitation, patient age, and circulatory arrest time had no correlation with postoperative hemodynamic improvement. Patients with distal thromboembolic disease (type 3-4) had higher perioperative mortality, required longer inotropic support, and had longer hospital stays compared with patients with type 1 or 2 thromboembolic disease. CONCLUSION The degree of improvement in pulmonary hypertension and tricuspid regurgitation after pulmonary endarterectomy is determined by the type and location of pulmonary thromboembolic disease. Classification of thromboembolism is useful for predicting patient outcome after pulmonary endarterectomy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia A Thistlethwaite
- Divisions of Cardiothoracic Surgery, Biostatistics, and Cardiology, University of California, San Diego, Calif. 92103-8892, USA.
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952
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Abstract
Members of the TGF-beta superfamily, which includes TGF-betas, growth differentiation factors, bone morphogenetic proteins, activins, inhibins, and glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor, are synthesized as prepropeptide precursors and then processed and secreted as homodimers or heterodimers. Most ligands of the family signal through transmembrane serine/threonine kinase receptors and SMAD proteins to regulate cellular functions. Many studies have reported the characterization of knockout and knock-in transgenic mice as well as humans or other mammals with naturally occurring genetic mutations in superfamily members or their regulatory proteins. These investigations have revealed that TGF-beta superfamily ligands, receptors, SMADs, and upstream and downstream regulators function in diverse developmental and physiological pathways. This review attempts to collate and integrate the extensive body of in vivo mammalian studies produced over the last decade.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hua Chang
- Department of Pathology, Baylor College of Medicine, One Baylor Plaza, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
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953
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Abstract
Primary pulmonary hypertension (PPH) is a serious pulmonary vascular disease occurring mostly in adult women. Although its occurrence in families was reported within a few years after the original clinical report, PPH was formerly believed rarely to have a genetic basis. Recent progress has not only clarified a basic molecular mechanism for PPH in families, but has also identified mutations of the same gene in many sporadic PPH patients, suggesting that its basis is commonly genetic. Extensive investigations in many centers are now in progress to provide a complete dissection of all the pathogenetic mechanisms of PPH.
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Affiliation(s)
- James E Loyd
- Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Vanderbilt Medical Center North, Nashville, TN 37232, USA.
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954
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Nishimura T, Faul JL, Berry GJ, Vaszar LT, Qiu D, Pearl RG, Kao PN. Simvastatin attenuates smooth muscle neointimal proliferation and pulmonary hypertension in rats. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2002; 166:1403-8. [PMID: 12406854 DOI: 10.1164/rccm.200203-268oc] [Citation(s) in RCA: 149] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Hypertensive pulmonary vascular disease is characterized by abnormal proliferation of vascular endothelial and smooth muscle cells, leading to occlusion of pulmonary arterioles, pulmonary hypertension, right ventricular failure, and death. Compounds with antiproliferative effects on vascular endothelial and smooth muscle cells, such as 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) reductase inhibitors, may prevent the development of experimental hypertensive pulmonary vascular disease. Pneumonectomized rats injected with monocrotaline at 7 days develop severe hypertensive pulmonary vascular disease with neointimal formation. Rats were randomized to receive either vehicle or treatment with the HMG-CoA reductase inhibitor simvastatin (2 mg/kg per day). By Day 35, rats that received vehicle had higher mean pulmonary arterial pressures (53 +/- 2 mm Hg) and right ventricular hypertrophy (right ventricle/[left ventricle plus septum] [RV/LV+S] = 0.78 +/- 0.09) than rats in Group PMS5-35 that received simvastatin from Day 5 to 35 (mean pulmonary arterial pressure = 27 +/- 3 mm Hg, RV/LV+S = 0.34 +/- 0.08; p < or = 0.001). Pulmonary vascular remodeling with neointimal formation consisting of vascular smooth muscle cells was more severe in vehicle-treated rats (vascular occlusion score, 1.98 +/- 0.02) than in Group PMS5-35 (vascular occlusion score, 0.59 +/- 0.46; p < 0.001). In addition, lung endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene expression was decreased in vehicle-treated animals but was restored toward normal levels in simvastatin-treated animals. Simvastatin attenuates monocrotaline-induced pulmonary vascular remodeling with neointimal formation, pulmonary arterial hypertension, and right ventricular hypertrophy in rats.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Anticholesteremic Agents/therapeutic use
- Body Weight/drug effects
- Body Weight/physiology
- Cholesterol/blood
- Disease Models, Animal
- Gene Expression Regulation/drug effects
- Heart Ventricles/pathology
- Hemodynamics/drug effects
- Hemodynamics/physiology
- Hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA Reductase Inhibitors/therapeutic use
- Hypertension, Pulmonary/blood
- Hypertension, Pulmonary/complications
- Hypertension, Pulmonary/prevention & control
- Hypertrophy, Right Ventricular/blood
- Hypertrophy, Right Ventricular/complications
- Hypertrophy, Right Ventricular/prevention & control
- Lung/blood supply
- Lung/metabolism
- Lung/pathology
- Male
- Monocrotaline/administration & dosage
- Muscle, Smooth, Vascular/drug effects
- Muscle, Smooth, Vascular/pathology
- Nitric Oxide Synthase/biosynthesis
- Nitric Oxide Synthase/drug effects
- Organ Size/drug effects
- Organ Size/physiology
- Pneumonectomy
- Pulmonary Artery/pathology
- RNA, Messenger/drug effects
- RNA, Messenger/metabolism
- Rats
- Rats, Sprague-Dawley
- Simvastatin/therapeutic use
- Treatment Outcome
- Tunica Intima/drug effects
- Tunica Intima/pathology
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Affiliation(s)
- Toshihiko Nishimura
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, and Department of Pathology, Stanford University Medical Center, Stanford, California 94305, USA
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955
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956
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Jeffery TK, Morrell NW. Molecular and cellular basis of pulmonary vascular remodeling in pulmonary hypertension. Prog Cardiovasc Dis 2002; 45:173-202. [PMID: 12525995 DOI: 10.1053/pcad.2002.130041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 221] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Clinical pulmonary hypertension is characterized by a sustained elevation in pulmonary arterial pressure. Pulmonary vascular remodeling involves structural changes in the normal architecture of the walls of pulmonary arteries. The process of vascular remodeling can occur as a primary response to injury, or stimulus such as hypoxia, within the resistance vessels of the lung. Alternatively, the changes seen in more proximal vessels may arise secondary to a sustained increase in intravascular pressure. To withstand the chronic increase in intraluminal pressure, the vessel wall becomes thickened and stronger. This "armouring" of the vessel wall with extra-smooth muscle and extracellular matrix leads to a decrease in lumen diameter and reduced capacity for vasodilatation. This maladaptive response results in increased pulmonary vascular resistance and consequently, sustained pulmonary hypertension. The process of pulmonary vascular remodeling involves all layers of the vessel wall and is complicated by the finding that cellular heterogeneity exists within the traditional compartments of the vascular wall: intima, media, and adventitia. In addition, the developmental stage of the organism greatly modifies the response of the pulmonary circulation to injury. This review focuses on the latest advances in our knowledge of these processes as they relate to specific forms of pulmonary hypertension and particularly in the light of recent genetic studies that have identified specific pathways involved in the pathogenesis of severe pulmonary hypertension.
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Affiliation(s)
- T K Jeffery
- Respiratory Medicine Unit, Department of Medicine, Addenbrooke's Hospital, University of Cambridge School of Clinical Medicine, Cambridge, UK
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957
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Mitani Y, Mutlu A, Russell JC, Brindley DN, DeAlmeida J, Rabinovitch M. Dexfenfluramine protects against pulmonary hypertension in rats. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2002; 93:1770-8. [PMID: 12381765 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00500.2002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Dexfenfluramine (Dex), an appetite suppressant and serotonin reuptake inhibitor, is associated with pulmonary vascular disease (PVD) in some patients. The variability might be related to undetermined genetic abnormalities interacting with factors such as gender, weight loss, and vascular injury. We, therefore, assessed the effect of Dex (5 mg. kg(-1). day(-1)) in female obese rats, designated JCR:LA-cp or cp/cp; in lean rats, designated (+/?); and in normal Sprague-Dawley (S-D) rats under control conditions or after endothelial injury induced by monocrotaline (60 mg/kg). Pulmonary arterial pressure, right ventricular hypertrophy, percent medial wall thickness of muscular arteries, and muscularization of peripheral arteries were assessed as indexes of PVD. Although Dex reduced weight gain in cp/cp and S-D rats (P < 0.05 for both), it did not cause PVD. Moreover, PVD in S-D rats after monocrotaline injection was paradoxically ameliorated by Dex (P < 0.05) despite induction of pulmonary artery elastase (P < 0.05), which we showed is critical in inducing experimental PVD. Thus it is possible that Dex is concomitantly offsetting the sequelae of elastase activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshihide Mitani
- Division of Cardiovascular Research/Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, The Hospital for Sick Children/University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5G1X8, Canada
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958
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Abstract
Severe pulmonary hypertension is a fatal condition associated with marked alterations of the cellular components of pulmonary arteries. In this review, we discuss the component of endothelial cell proliferation present in pulmonary arteries in patients with severe pulmonary hypertension. Because these proliferated endothelial cells exhibit markers of angiogenesis, we have named this process as "disordered or misguided angiogenesis." We also discuss the recent evidence that germline or somatic inactivating mutations in tumor suppressor or proapoptotic genes may play a significant role in the abnormal proliferation of pulmonary endothelial cells. The unraveling of the pathobiology of severe pulmonary hypertension may lead us to novel therapies and approaches to better diagnose the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rubin M Tuder
- Division of Cardiopulmonary Pathology, Department of Pathology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205-2196, USA.
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959
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Tew MB, Arnett FC, Reveille JD, Tan FK. Mutations of bone morphogenetic protein receptor type II are not found in patients with pulmonary hypertension and underlying connective tissue diseases. ARTHRITIS AND RHEUMATISM 2002; 46:2829-30. [PMID: 12384956 DOI: 10.1002/art.10487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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960
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961
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Abstract
Cytokines of the transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta) superfamily transduce their signals by activating receptor-regulated Smads (R-Smads). Distinct R-Smads or combinations of R-Smads are activated by TGF-beta, activin, or bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs). R-Smads activated by BMPs induce expression of Id proteins, which act as inhibitors of differentiation and stimulators of cell growth by inhibiting the function of basic helix-loop-helix transcription factors. In endothelial cells, TGF-beta binds to two distinct type I receptor serine-threonine kinases, ALK-5 and ALK-1; the latter activates the same R-Smads that are activated by BMP and induces synthesis of Id (inhibitor of differentiation or inhibitor of DNA binding) proteins. Growing evidence suggests that Id proteins may play crucial roles in angiogenesis, neurogenesis, and osteogenesis and act as key molecules in regulating biological responses induced by BMPs and TGF-beta.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kohei Miyazono
- Department of Molecular Pathology, Graduate School of Medicine, University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan.
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962
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Abstract
Pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) is a hemodynamic abnormality that ultimately results in mortality due to right heart failure. Although the clinical manifestations of primary and secondary PAH are diverse, medial hypertrophy and arterial vasoconstriction are key components in the vascular remodeling leading to PAH. Abnormalities in the homeostasis of intracellular Ca(2+), transmembrane flux of ions, and membrane potential may play significant roles in the processes leading to pulmonary vascular remodeling. Decreased activity of K(+) channels causes membrane depolarization, leading to Ca(2+) influx. The elevated cytoplasmic Ca(2+) is a major trigger for pulmonary vasoconstriction and an important stimulus for vascular smooth muscle proliferation. Dysfunctional K(+) channels have also been linked to inhibition of apoptosis and contribute further to the medial hypertrophy. This review focuses on the relative role of K(+) and Ca(2+) ions and channels in human pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells in the development of PAH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mehran Mandegar
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of California School of Medicine, San Diego, USA
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963
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Nishihara A, Watabe T, Imamura T, Miyazono K. Functional heterogeneity of bone morphogenetic protein receptor-II mutants found in patients with primary pulmonary hypertension. Mol Biol Cell 2002; 13:3055-63. [PMID: 12221115 PMCID: PMC124142 DOI: 10.1091/mbc.e02-02-0063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2002] [Revised: 05/23/2002] [Accepted: 06/05/2002] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Germline mutations in the BMPR2 gene encoding bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) type II receptor (BMPR-II) have been reported in patients with primary pulmonary hypertension (PPH), but the contribution of various types of mutations found in PPH to the pathogenesis of clinical phenotypes has not been elucidated. To determine the biological activities of these mutants, we performed functional assays testing their abilities to transduce BMP signals. We found that the reported missense mutations within the extracellular and kinase domains of BMPR-II abrogated their signal-transducing abilities. BMPR-II proteins containing mutations at the conserved cysteine residues in the extracellular and kinase domains were detected in the cytoplasm, suggesting that the loss of signaling ability of certain BMPR-II mutants is due at least in part to their altered subcellular localization. In contrast, BMPR-II mutants with truncation of the cytoplasmic tail retained the ability to transduce BMP signals. The differences in biological activities among the BMPR-II mutants observed thus suggest that additional genetic and/or environmental factors may play critical roles in the pathogenesis of PPH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ayako Nishihara
- Department of Molecular Pathology, Graduate School of Medicine, University of Tokyo, Japan
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964
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Abstract
Pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) is a recognized complication of congenital systemic to pulmonary arterial cardiac shunts. The prognosis of PAH in this situation is better than primary or other secondary forms of PAH. Our knowledge of the pathophysiology of PAH complicating congenital heart disease has evolved over the past decade. Despite differences in etiology and pathobiology, therapies that have proven successful for primary PAH may benefit this group of patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- John T Granton
- Department of Medicine, University of Toronto, Division of Respirology and Critical Care Medicine Programme, University Health Network, 10 EN-220, 200 Elizabeth Street, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M5G 2C4.
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965
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Uehara R, Suzuki H, Kurokawa N, Urashima T, Fujiwara M, Matoba M, Eto Y. Novel nonsense mutation of the BMPR-II gene in a Japanese patient with familial primary pulmonary hypertension. Pediatr Int 2002; 44:433-5. [PMID: 12139571 DOI: 10.1046/j.1442-200x.2002.01567.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ritei Uehara
- Department of Pediatrics, Jikei University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan.
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966
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Abstract
The peptide endothelin plays a significant role in a wide array of pathological conditions, including primary pulmonary hypertension and pulmonary arterial hypertension associated with collagen vascular disease. These are life-threatening conditions that can severely compromise the function of the lungs and heart. Inhibiting the actions of endothelin by blockade of its receptors provides a new and effective approach to therapy for patients with these conditions. Bosentan (Tracleer ) is the first orally-active dual endothelin receptor antagonist and has recently been approved in the US, Canada, Switzerland and the EU for the treatment of pulmonary arterial hypertension. Bosentan significantly improves exercise capacity, symptoms and functional status in patients with this disease and also slows clinical deterioration, which may be indicative of a delay of disease progression. Results from large-scale studies of bosentan in patients with pulmonary arterial hypertension and chronic heart failure have established its long-term safety and tolerability profiles. The introduction of the dual endothelin receptor antagonist bosentan has provided an essential treatment for pulmonary arterial hypertension and ongoing trials are evaluating its potential role in the management of other endothelin-mediated disease states.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lewis J Rubin
- Division of Pulmonary & Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of California at San Diego, School of Medicine, 9300 Campus Point Drive, 7372, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA.
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967
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Chan ED, Morales DV, Welsh CH, McDermott MT, Schwarz MI. Calcium deposition with or without bone formation in the lung. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2002; 165:1654-69. [PMID: 12070068 DOI: 10.1164/rccm.2108054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 219] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Pulmonary calcification and ossification occurs with a number of systemic and pulmonary conditions. Specific symptoms are often lacking, but calcification may be a marker of disease severity and its chronicity. Pathophysiologic states predisposing to pulmonary calcification and ossification include hypercalcemia, a local alkaline environment, and previous lung injury. Factors such as enhanced alkaline phosphatase activity, active angiogenesis, and mitogenic effects of growth factors may also contribute. The clinical classification of pulmonary calcification includes both metastatic calcification, in which calcium deposits in previously normal lung or dystrophic calcification, which occurs in previously injured lung. Pulmonary ossification can be idiopathic or can result from a variety of underlying pulmonary, cardiac, or extracardiopulmonary disorders. The diagnosis of pulmonary calcification and ossification requires various imaging techniques, including chest radiography, computed tomographic scanning, and bone scintigraphy. Interpretation of the presence of and the specific pattern of calcification or ossification may obviate the need for invasive biopsy. In this review, specific conditions causing pulmonary calcification or ossification that may impact diagnostic and treatment decisions are highlighted. These include metastatic calcification caused by chronic renal failure and orthotopic liver transplantation, dystrophic calcification caused by granulomatous disorders, DNA viruses, parasitic infections, pulmonary amyloidosis, vascular calcification, the idiopathic disorder pulmonary alveolar microlithiasis, and various forms of pulmonary ossification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward D Chan
- Division of Pulmonary Sciences, University of Colorado Health Sciences Center, Denver, USA.
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968
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Abstract
There have been remarkable advances in our understanding of the pathobiology of pulmonary hypertension. A region on chromosome 2 encoding bone morphogenetic receptor type 2 has been identified to underlie familial and many cases of sporadic primary pulmonary arterial hypertension. The vasoactive mediators, discovered and defined by vascular biologists, have been translated into promising treatments of human disease. Prostacyclin, endothelin receptor blockers, sildenafil, and nitric oxide have been applied therapeutically to limit, and occasionally reverse, the inexorable damage to the pulmonary circulation initiated by recently identified genetic and environmental triggers of pulmonary arterial hypertension.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ian Adatia
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
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969
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Voelkel NF, Cool C, Taraceviene-Stewart L, Geraci MW, Yeager M, Bull T, Kasper M, Tuder RM. Janus face of vascular endothelial growth factor: the obligatory survival factor for lung vascular endothelium controls precapillary artery remodeling in severe pulmonary hypertension. Crit Care Med 2002; 30:S251-6. [PMID: 12004244 DOI: 10.1097/00003246-200205001-00013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) plays a central role in the life and death of pulmonary vascular endothelial cells. Treatment of neonatal or adult rats with a VEGF receptor blocker destroys lung capillaries by inducing endothelial cell apoptosis and causes emphysema. Human lung tissue samples from patients with endstage emphysema have decreased levels of VEGF messenger RNA and protein and have decreased expression of kinase insert domain-containing receptor (VEGF receptor II). These decreases are associated with a high rate of alveolar septal cell apoptosis, indicating perhaps that decreased VEGF and kinase insert domain-containing receptor expression impairs endothelial cell survival in emphysematous lungs. Combination of VEGF receptor blockade with chronic hypoxia (3-wk exposure) results in obliteration of small precapillary pulmonary arteries by proliferating endothelial cells, severe pulmonary hypertension, and death caused by right-side heart failure. We propose that 1) VEGF receptor blockade causes endothelial cell apoptosis, 2) hypoxic vasoconstriction (shear stress) selects apoptosis-resistant endothelial cells that proliferate and obliterate the lumen, and 3) the vascular remodeling observed is relevant to the structural alterations that characterize severe pulmonary hypertension (including primary pulmonary hypertension) in humans. The endovascular cell growth in human disease and in our model exhibits some similarities with neoplastic cell growth. Chemotherapy strategies can now be employed in the animal model in an attempt to treat established vascular-obliterative lung disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Norbert F Voelkel
- University of Colorado Health Sciences Center, Denver, CO 80262, USA.
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970
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Affiliation(s)
- Joan Albert Barberà
- Servicio de Neumología y Alergia Respiratoria. Hospital Clínic de Barcelona. Universidad de Barcelona. Spain.
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971
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Cohen MM. Bone morphogenetic proteins with some comments on fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva and NOGGIN. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF MEDICAL GENETICS 2002; 109:87-92. [PMID: 11977155 DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.10289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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972
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Atkinson C, Stewart S, Upton PD, Machado R, Thomson JR, Trembath RC, Morrell NW. Primary pulmonary hypertension is associated with reduced pulmonary vascular expression of type II bone morphogenetic protein receptor. Circulation 2002; 105:1672-8. [PMID: 11940546 DOI: 10.1161/01.cir.0000012754.72951.3d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 461] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Mutations in the type II receptor for bone morphogenetic protein (BMPR-II), a receptor member of the transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta) superfamily, underlie many familial and sporadic cases of primary pulmonary hypertension (PPH). METHODS AND RESULTS Because the sites of expression of BMPR-II in the normal and hypertensive lung are unknown, we studied the cellular localization of BMPR-II and the related type I and II receptors for TGF-beta by immunohistochemistry in lung sections from patients undergoing heart-lung transplantation for PPH (n=11, including 3 familial cases) or secondary pulmonary hypertension (n=6) and from unused donor lungs (n=4). In situ hybridization was performed for BMPR-II mRNA. Patients were screened for the presence of mutations in BMPR2. In normal lungs, BMPR-II expression was prominent on vascular endothelium, with minimal expression in airway and arterial smooth muscle. In pulmonary hypertension cases, the intensity of BMPR-II immunostaining varied between lesions but involved endothelial and myofibroblast components. Image analysis confirmed that expression of BMPR-II was markedly reduced in the peripheral lung of PPH patients, especially in those harboring heterozygous BMPR2 mutations. A less marked reduction was also observed in patients with secondary pulmonary hypertension. In contrast, there was no difference in level of staining for TGF-betaRII or the endothelial marker CD31. CONCLUSIONS The cellular localization of BMPR-II is consistent with a role in the formation of pulmonary vascular lesions in PPH, and reduced BMPR-II expression may contribute to the process of vascular obliteration in severe pulmonary hypertension.
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MESH Headings
- Activin Receptors, Type I/biosynthesis
- Adult
- Biomarkers/analysis
- Bone Morphogenetic Protein Receptors, Type II
- DNA Mutational Analysis
- Endothelium, Vascular/metabolism
- Endothelium, Vascular/pathology
- Female
- Heterozygote
- Humans
- Hypertension, Pulmonary/genetics
- Hypertension, Pulmonary/metabolism
- Hypertension, Pulmonary/pathology
- Immunohistochemistry
- In Situ Hybridization
- Lung/blood supply
- Lung/metabolism
- Lung/pathology
- Male
- Middle Aged
- Mutation
- Organ Specificity
- Protein Serine-Threonine Kinases/biosynthesis
- Protein Serine-Threonine Kinases/genetics
- Pulmonary Circulation/genetics
- RNA, Messenger/analysis
- RNA, Messenger/biosynthesis
- Receptor, Transforming Growth Factor-beta Type I
- Receptor, Transforming Growth Factor-beta Type II
- Receptors, Transforming Growth Factor beta/biosynthesis
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Affiliation(s)
- Carl Atkinson
- Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge School of Clinical Medicine, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Cambridge, UK
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973
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Abstract
The etiopathogenesis of systemic sclerosis (SSc) is unclear. With no definitive evidence supporting an environmental cause, recent attention has focused on genetic factors. Familial clustering and ethnic influences have been demonstrated. Human leukocyte antigen (HLA) associations exist but are more related to the presence of particular autoantibodies rather than to the disease. In addition, no single major histocompatibility complex (MHC) allele predisposes to SSc in all ethnic groups. The role of microchimerism in SSc is a novel yet unproven hypothesis that may be related to intergenerational HLA compatibility. Recent studies investigating polymorphisms in genes coding for extracellular matrix proteins and cell-signaling molecules implicate non-MHC areas in SSc pathogenesis. The data reviewed suggest that SSc is a multigenic complex disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Randall W Johnson
- University of Texas Health Science Center, Department of Internal Medicine, 6431 Fannin MSB 5.260, Houston, TX 77030, USA.
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974
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Abstract
Primary pulmonary hypertension (PPH) is a rare disorder of the lung vasculature characterised by an increase in pulmonary artery pressure. Although the aetiology of this disease remains unknown, knowledge of the pathophysiology of the disease has advanced considerably. Diagnosis of PPH is largely by exclusion. The clinical symptoms associated with PPH are aspecific and similar to those seen in other cardiovascular and pulmonary diseases. Electrocardiography, echocardiography, pulmonary function tests, and a lung perfusion scan are necessary to exclude secondary forms of pulmonary hypertension and also help to confirm the diagnosis of PPH. A definite diagnosis of PPH is established by right-heart catheterisation which gives a precise measure of the blood pressure in the right side of the heart and the pulmonary artery, right ventricular function and cardiac output. Once a diagnosis of PPH is established, treatment involving drug therapy or surgery is commenced on the basis of the New York Heart Association functional class. Conventional treatment consists of lifetime administration of anticoagulants, oxygen, diuretics, and digoxin. Vasodilator therapy with calcium channel antagonists is indicated in patients who are 'vasoreactive' to acute vasodilator challenge as assessed by right-heart catheterisation. Promising results are obtained by continuous intravenous administration of epoprostenol (prostacyclin). Newer therapies for PPH include prostacyclin analogues, endothelin receptor antagonists, nitric oxide, phosphodiesterase-5 inhibitors, elastase inhibitors, and gene therapy. Surgical treatment consists of atrial septostomy, thromboendarterectomy, and lung or heart-lung transplantation.
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Affiliation(s)
- T L De Backer
- Department of Cardiology, Thoraxcentre, Erasmus Medical Centre Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
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975
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Janssen B, Rindermann M, Barth U, Miltenberger-Miltenyi G, Mereles D, Abushi A, Seeger W, Kübler W, Bartram CR, Grünig E. Linkage analysis in a large family with primary pulmonary hypertension: genetic heterogeneity and a second primary pulmonary hypertension locus on 2q31-32. Chest 2002; 121:54S-56S. [PMID: 11893685 DOI: 10.1378/chest.121.3_suppl.54s] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Bart Janssen
- Institute of Human Genetics, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany.
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976
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Affiliation(s)
- Jane H Morse
- Department of Medicine, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, NY 10032, USA
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977
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Affiliation(s)
- James E Loyd
- Allergy, Pulmonary, and Critical Care Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA.
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978
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Marqués G, Bao H, Haerry TE, Shimell MJ, Duchek P, Zhang B, O'Connor MB. The Drosophila BMP type II receptor Wishful Thinking regulates neuromuscular synapse morphology and function. Neuron 2002; 33:529-43. [PMID: 11856528 DOI: 10.1016/s0896-6273(02)00595-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 257] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Proper synaptic development is critical for establishing all aspects of neural function including learning, memory, and locomotion. Here, we describe the phenotypic consequences of mutations in the wishful thinking (wit) gene, the Drosophila homolog of the vertebrate BMP type II receptor. Mutations in wit result in pharate lethality that can be rescued by expression of a wit transgene in motor neurons but not in muscles. Mutant larvae exhibit small synapses, severe defects in evoked junctional potentials, a lower frequency of spontaneous vesicle release, and an alteration in the ultrastructure of synaptic active zones. These results reveal a novel role for BMP signaling in regulating Drosophila neuromuscular junction synapse assembly and activity and may indicate that similar pathways could govern vertebrate synapse development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guillermo Marqués
- The Department of Genetics, Cell Biology and Development, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
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979
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Tuder RM, Zaiman AL. Prostacyclin analogs as the brakes for pulmonary artery smooth muscle cell proliferation: is it sufficient to treat severe pulmonary hypertension? Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2002; 26:171-4. [PMID: 11804866 DOI: 10.1165/ajrcmb.26.2.f230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antihypertensive Agents/chemistry
- Antihypertensive Agents/pharmacology
- Antihypertensive Agents/therapeutic use
- Cell Division/drug effects
- Epoprostenol/analogs & derivatives
- Epoprostenol/chemistry
- Epoprostenol/pharmacology
- Epoprostenol/physiology
- Humans
- Hypertension, Pulmonary/drug therapy
- Hypertension, Pulmonary/etiology
- Hypertension, Pulmonary/pathology
- Hypertension, Pulmonary/physiopathology
- Lung/metabolism
- Lung/pathology
- Models, Biological
- Muscle, Smooth, Vascular/cytology
- Muscle, Smooth, Vascular/drug effects
- Muscle, Smooth, Vascular/metabolism
- Pulmonary Artery/cytology
- Pulmonary Artery/drug effects
- Pulmonary Artery/metabolism
- Receptors, Epoprostenol
- Receptors, Prostaglandin/metabolism
- Signal Transduction/physiology
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Affiliation(s)
- Rubin M Tuder
- Division of Cardiopulmonary Pathology, Department of Pathology, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 720 Rutland Ave., Baltimore, MD 21205, USA.
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980
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Caestecker MD, Meyrick B. Bone morphogenetic proteins, genetics and the pathophysiology of primary pulmonary hypertension. Respir Res 2002; 2:193-7. [PMID: 11686884 PMCID: PMC59576 DOI: 10.1186/rr57] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2001] [Revised: 05/17/2001] [Accepted: 05/17/2001] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Several recent papers have shown that both familial primary pulmonary hypertension (FPPH) and sporadic primary pulmonary hypertension (PPH) may have a common etiology that is associated with the inheritance and/or spontaneous development of germline mutations in the bone morphogenetic protein receptor (BMPR) type II gene. Because BMPR-II is a ubiquitously expressed receptor for a family of secreted growth factors known as the bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs), these findings suggest that BMPs play an important role in the maintenance of normal pulmonary vascular physiology. In the present commentary we discuss the implications of these findings in the context of BMP receptor biology, and relate these data to the genetics and pulmonary pathophysiology of patients with PPH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark De Caestecker
- Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Barbara Meyrick
- Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
- Department of Pathology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
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981
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Geraci MW, Gao B, Hoshikawa Y, Yeager ME, Tuder RM, Voelkel NF. Genomic approaches to research in pulmonary hypertension. Respir Res 2002; 2:210-5. [PMID: 11686886 PMCID: PMC59578 DOI: 10.1186/rr59] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2001] [Revised: 03/22/2001] [Accepted: 04/03/2001] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Genomics, or the study of genes and their function, is a burgeoning field with many new technologies. In the present review, we explore the application of genomic approaches to the study of pulmonary hypertension (PH). Candidate genes, important to the pathobiology of the disease, have been investigated. Rodent models enable the manipulation of selected genes, either by transgenesis or targeted disruption. Mutational analysis of genes in the transforming growth factor-beta family have proven pivotal in both familial and sporadic forms of primary PH. Finally, microarray gene expression analysis is a robust molecular tool to aid in delineating the pathobiology of this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- M W Geraci
- Division of Pulmonary Sciences and Critical Care Medicine, University of Colorado Health Sciences Center, Denver, Colorado, USA.
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982
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Eddahibi S, Adnot S. Anorexigen-induced pulmonary hypertension and the serotonin (5-HT) hypothesis: lessons for the future in pathogenesis. Respir Res 2002; 3:9. [PMID: 11806844 PMCID: PMC64820 DOI: 10.1186/rr181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2001] [Revised: 08/28/2001] [Accepted: 09/07/2001] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Epidemiological studies have established that fenfluramine, D-fenfluramine, and aminorex, but not other appetite suppressants, increase the risk of primary pulmonary hypertension (PH). One current hypothesis suggests that fenfluramine-like medications may act through interactions with the serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine [5-HT]) transporter (5-HTT) located on pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells and responsible for the mitogenic action of 5-HT. Anorexigens may contribute to PH by boosting 5-HT levels in the bloodstream, directly stimulating smooth muscle cell growth, or altering 5-HTT expression. We suggest that individuals with a high basal level of 5-HTT expression related to the presence of the long 5-HTT gene promoter variant may be particularly susceptible to one or more of these potential mechanisms of appetite-suppressant-related PH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saadia Eddahibi
- INSERM U492, Département de Physiologie, Hôpital H. Mondor, Créteil, France
| | - Serge Adnot
- INSERM U492, Département de Physiologie, Hôpital H. Mondor, Créteil, France
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983
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Desai TJ, Cardoso WV. Growth factors in lung development and disease: friends or foe? Respir Res 2002; 3:2. [PMID: 11806837 PMCID: PMC64813 DOI: 10.1186/rr169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2001] [Revised: 08/07/2001] [Accepted: 08/09/2001] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Growth factors mediate tissue interactions and regulate a variety of cellular functions that are critical for normal lung development and homeostasis. Besides their involvement in lung pattern formation, growth and cell differentiation during organogenesis, these factors have been also implicated in modulating injury-repair responses of the adult lung. Altered expression of growth factors, such as transforming growth factor beta1, vascular endothelial growth factor and epidermal growth factor, and/or their receptors, has been found in a number of pathological lung conditions. In this paper, we discuss the dual role of these molecules in mediating beneficial feedback responses or responses that can further damage lung integrity; we shall also discuss the basis for their prospective use as therapeutic agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tushar J Desai
- Pulmonary Center, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Wellington V Cardoso
- Pulmonary Center, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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984
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Campbell AI, Zhao Y, Sandhu R, Stewart DJ. Cell-based gene transfer of vascular endothelial growth factor attenuates monocrotaline-induced pulmonary hypertension. Circulation 2001; 104:2242-8. [PMID: 11684638 DOI: 10.1161/hc4201.097838] [Citation(s) in RCA: 135] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Pulmonary arterial hypertension is characterized by increased pulmonary vascular resistance secondary to a decrease in the caliber and number of pulmonary vascular channels. We hypothesized that the targeted overexpression of an angiogenic factor within the lung would potentially minimize the development and progression of pulmonary arterial hypertension by preventing the loss of existing vessels or by inducing the development of new blood vessels within the lung. METHODS AND RESULTS We used a cell-based method of gene transfer to the pulmonary microvasculature by delivering syngeneic smooth muscle cells overexpressing vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-A to inbred Fisher 344 rats in which pulmonary hypertension was induced with the pulmonary endothelial toxin monocrotaline. Four weeks after simultaneous endothelial injury and cell-based gene transfer, right ventricular (RV) hypertension and RV and vascular hypertrophy were significantly decreased in the VEGF-treated animals. Four weeks after gene transfer, the plasmid VEGF transcript was still detectable in the pulmonary tissue of animals injected with VEGF-transfected cells, demonstrating survival of the transfected cells and persistent transgene expression. In addition, delay of cell-based gene transfer until after the development of pulmonary hypertension also resulted in a significant decrease in the progression of RV hypertension and hypertrophy. CONCLUSIONS These results indicate that cell-based VEGF gene transfer is an effective method of preventing the development and progression of pulmonary hypertension in the monocrotaline model and suggest a potential therapeutic role for angiogenic factors in the therapy of this devastating disease.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Cell Transplantation/methods
- Cells, Cultured
- Disease Models, Animal
- Endothelial Growth Factors/administration & dosage
- Endothelial Growth Factors/biosynthesis
- Endothelial Growth Factors/genetics
- Fluorescent Dyes
- Gene Transfer Techniques
- Genetic Therapy/methods
- Hypertension, Pulmonary/chemically induced
- Hypertension, Pulmonary/pathology
- Hypertension, Pulmonary/therapy
- Lung/blood supply
- Lung/drug effects
- Lung/pathology
- Lymphokines/administration & dosage
- Lymphokines/biosynthesis
- Lymphokines/genetics
- Microcirculation/drug effects
- Monocrotaline
- Muscle, Smooth, Vascular/cytology
- Muscle, Smooth, Vascular/metabolism
- Muscle, Smooth, Vascular/transplantation
- Pulmonary Circulation/drug effects
- Pulmonary Circulation/genetics
- Rats
- Rats, Inbred F344
- Transplantation, Isogeneic
- Treatment Outcome
- Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor A
- Vascular Endothelial Growth Factors
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Affiliation(s)
- A I Campbell
- Division of Cardiac Surgery, University of Toronto, Terrence Donnelly Heart Centre, St Michael's Hospital, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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985
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Eddahibi S, Humbert M, Fadel E, Raffestin B, Darmon M, Capron F, Simonneau G, Dartevelle P, Hamon M, Adnot S. Serotonin transporter overexpression is responsible for pulmonary artery smooth muscle hyperplasia in primary pulmonary hypertension. J Clin Invest 2001; 108:1141-50. [PMID: 11602621 PMCID: PMC209526 DOI: 10.1172/jci12805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 130] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Hyperplasia of pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells (PA-SMCs) is a hallmark pathological feature of primary pulmonary hypertension (PPH). Here we found that PA-SMCs from patients with PPH grow faster than PA-SMCs from controls when stimulated by serotonin or serum and that these effects are due to increased expression of the serotonin transporter (5-HTT), which mediates internalization of indoleamine. In the presence of 5-HTT inhibitors, the growth stimulatory effects of serum and serotonin were markedly reduced and the difference between growth of PA-SMCs from patients and controls was no longer observed. As compared with controls, the expression of 5-HTT was increased in cultured PA-SMCs as well as in platelets and lungs from patients with PPH where it predominated in the media of thickened pulmonary arteries and in onion-bulb lesions. The L-allelic variant of the 5HTT gene promoter, which is associated with 5-HTT overexpression and increased PA-SMC growth, was present in homozygous form in 65% of patients but in only 27% of controls. We conclude that 5-HTT activity plays a key role in the pathogenesis of PA-SMC proliferation in PPH and that a 5HTT polymorphism confers susceptibility to PPH.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Eddahibi
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM) U492, Hôpital Henri Mondor, AP-HP, 94010 Créteil, France
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986
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Eddahibi S, Humbert M, Fadel E, Raffestin B, Darmon M, Capron F, Simonneau G, Dartevelle P, Hamon M, Adnot S. Serotonin transporter overexpression is responsible for pulmonary artery smooth muscle hyperplasia in primary pulmonary hypertension. J Clin Invest 2001. [DOI: 10.1172/jci200112805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 402] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
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987
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Rabinovitch M. Linking a serotonin transporter polymorphism to vascular smooth muscle proliferation in patients with primary pulmonary hypertension. J Clin Invest 2001; 108:1109-11. [PMID: 11602617 PMCID: PMC209537 DOI: 10.1172/jci14205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- M Rabinovitch
- Department of Pediatrics, Cardiovascular Research Program, University of Toronto, The Hospital for Sick Children, 555 University Avenue, 7003 McM, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M5G1X8.
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988
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Rabinovitch M. Linking a serotonin transporter polymorphism to vascular smoothmuscle proliferation in patients with primary pulmonary hypertension. J Clin Invest 2001. [DOI: 10.1172/jci200114205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
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989
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Tuder RM, Chacon M, Alger L, Wang J, Taraseviciene-Stewart L, Kasahara Y, Cool CD, Bishop AE, Geraci M, Semenza GL, Yacoub M, Polak JM, Voelkel NF. Expression of angiogenesis-related molecules in plexiform lesions in severe pulmonary hypertension: evidence for a process of disordered angiogenesis. J Pathol 2001; 195:367-74. [PMID: 11673836 DOI: 10.1002/path.953] [Citation(s) in RCA: 346] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Pulmonary arteries of patients with severe pulmonary hypertension (SPH) presenting in an idiopathic form (primary PH-PPH) or associated with congenital heart malformations or collagen vascular diseases show plexiform lesions. It is postulated that in lungs with SPH, endothelial cells in plexiform lesions express genes encoding for proteins involved in angiogenesis, in particular, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and those involved in VEGF receptor-2 (VEGFR-2) signalling. On immunohistochemistry and in situ hybridization, endothelial cells in the plexiform lesions expressed VEGF mRNA and protein and overexpressed the mRNA and protein of VEGFR-2, and the transcription factor subunits HIF-1alpha and HIF-1beta of hypoxia inducible factor, which are responsible for the hypoxia-dependent induction of VEGF. When compared with normal lungs, SPH lungs showed decreased expression of the kinases PI3 kinase and src, which, together with Akt, relay the signal transduction downstream of VEGFR-2. Because markers of angiogenesis are expressed in plexiform lesions in SPH, it is proposed that these lesions may form by a process of disordered angiogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- R M Tuder
- Department of Pathology, Division of Pulmonary Sciences and Critical Care Medicine, Pulmonary Hypertension Center, University of Colorado Health Sciences Center, Colorado, USA
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990
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Fagan KA, Weil JV. Potential genetic contributions to control of the pulmonary circulation and ventilation at high altitude. High Alt Med Biol 2001; 2:165-71. [PMID: 11442998 DOI: 10.1089/152702901750265279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
This review examines evidence that genetic factors may be important determinants of response of the pulmonary circulation and ventilation at high altitude. Early observations of cattle at high altitude with brisket disease-pulmonary hypertension with right heart failure-found that the disorder ran in families. Subsequent studies confirmed a genetic determination of the pulmonary vasoconstrictor response to hypoxia by selective breeding of cattle for high and low responses. Clear interspecies and interstrain differences in the hypoxic pulmonary pressor response also underscore a major role for genetic influence in animals. In humans, differences in pulmonary hemodynamics are also evident among discrete populations living at altitude in the Andes, Himalayas, and North America suggesting an evolutionary, genetic influence on the response of the lung circulation to the hypoxia of altitude. Ventilation is increased by the hypoxia of high altitude. The strength of the ventilatory response to hypoxia shows considerable variation among individuals at low altitude. Family clusters of high and low responses and greater concordance among identical than fraternal twins suggest a strong genetic modulation of the human hypoxic ventilatory response. Similar effects are seen in interstrain differences among inbred strains of rats and mice. Differences among diverse altitude populations support the possible influence of genetic variation in the hypoxic response on ventilation and adaptation at altitude. Mechanisms linking genetic influences to variation in the hypoxic pulmonary pressor and ventilatory responses are unknown, but could reflect effects on hypoxic sensor, mediator or effector limbs of the response.
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Affiliation(s)
- K A Fagan
- Cardiovascular Pulmonary Research Laboratory, University of Colorado Health Sciences Center, 4200 East Ninth Avenue, Denver CO 80262, USA
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991
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Humbert M, Nunes H, Sitbon O, Parent F, Hervé P, Simonneau G. Risk factors for pulmonary arterial hypertension. Clin Chest Med 2001; 22:459-75. [PMID: 11590841 DOI: 10.1016/s0272-5231(05)70284-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
The present limitations in knowledge of the potential risk factors for PPH undoubtedly are attributable to the facts that PPH is a rare disease with an unknown pathogenesis and lacking large case series. Moreover, definite epidemiologic data are rare and ideally should be obtained from epidemiologic surveys such as large case-control studies. The increased incidence of the disease in young women, the familial cases, the association with autoimmune disorders, and the recent discovery that mutation of the PPH1 gene may not be restricted to familial PPH support the hypothesis that the development of pulmonary hypertension likely implies an individual susceptibility or predisposition, which is probably genetically determined. It is also now commonly believed that the development of pulmonary hypertension in some of these predisposed individuals could be hastened or precipitated by various expression factors (some of them yet unrecognized), such as ingestion of certain drugs or diets, portal hypertension, or HIV infection.
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MESH Headings
- Altitude
- Aminorex/adverse effects
- Aminorex/analogs & derivatives
- Animals
- Anti-Inflammatory Agents, Non-Steroidal/adverse effects
- Antidepressive Agents, Second-Generation/adverse effects
- Appetite Depressants/adverse effects
- Brassica
- Comorbidity
- Eisenmenger Complex/epidemiology
- Fatty Acids, Monounsaturated
- Female
- Fenfluramine/adverse effects
- Fenfluramine/analogs & derivatives
- Glycogen Storage Disease/epidemiology
- HIV Infections/epidemiology
- Hematologic Diseases/epidemiology
- Humans
- Hypertension, Portal/epidemiology
- Hypertension, Pulmonary/chemically induced
- Hypertension, Pulmonary/epidemiology
- Hypertension, Pulmonary/etiology
- Hypertension, Pulmonary/physiopathology
- Plant Oils/adverse effects
- Pregnancy
- Pregnancy Complications, Cardiovascular/physiopathology
- Rapeseed Oil
- Risk Factors
- Smoking
- Splenectomy
- Telangiectasia, Hereditary Hemorrhagic/epidemiology
- Thrombosis/epidemiology
- Thyroid Diseases/epidemiology
- Tryptophan/adverse effects
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Affiliation(s)
- M Humbert
- Service de Pneumologie et Réanimation Respiratoire, Centre des Maladies Vasculaires Pulmonaires, Hôpital Antoine Béclère, Université Paris-Sud, Clamart, France.
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992
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Reynolds PN, Nicklin SA, Kaliberova L, Boatman BG, Grizzle WE, Balyasnikova IV, Baker AH, Danilov SM, Curiel DT. Combined transductional and transcriptional targeting improves the specificity of transgene expression in vivo. Nat Biotechnol 2001; 19:838-42. [PMID: 11533642 DOI: 10.1038/nbt0901-838] [Citation(s) in RCA: 173] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
The promise of gene therapy for health care will not be realized until gene delivery systems are capable of achieving efficient, cell-specific gene delivery in vivo. Here we describe an adenoviral system for achieving cell-specific transgene expression in pulmonary endothelium. The combination of transductional targeting to a pulmonary endothelial marker (angiotensin-converting enzyme, ACE) and an endothelial-specific promoter (for vascular endothelial growth factor receptor type 1, flt-1) resulted in a synergistic, 300,000-fold improvement in the selectivity of transgene expression for lung versus the usual site of vector sequestration, the liver. This combined approach should be useful for the design of other gene delivery systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- P N Reynolds
- Division of Human Gene Therapy, Departments of Medicine, Surgery and Pathology, and Gene Therapy Center, University of Alabama at Birmingham, USA.
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993
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Abstract
Familial primary pulmonary hypertension (FPPH) is a well described clinical entity in which the disease occurs in at least two first degree relatives. It is clinically and pathologically indistinguishable from sporadic PPH. Mutations in the gene which encodes bone morphogenetic receptor 2 have recently been discovered in familial and sporadic PPH. This review discusses the basic clinical and genetic features of FPPH, and describes the research that led to the discovery of the disease-causing gene. Potential mechanisms of disease are also discussed, as well as implications for future investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Q Thomas
- Division of Allergy, Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Center for Lung Research, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee, USA.
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994
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Abstract
The pathologic features of primary pulmonary hypertension (PPH) are well known but its pathogenesis remains uncertain. In the first section, this chapter outlines the characteristic structural changes of PPH. The second section deals with the pathogenesis of these changes drawing on animal models of chronic pulmonary hypertension. The third section deals with phenotypic alterations in cells from the wall of the pulmonary artery of hypertensive animals. The recent identification of a germlike mutation in the BMPR2 gene in patients with PPH provides a novel opportunity to further our understanding of the pathogenesis of this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Meyrick
- Departments of Pathology and Medicine, Center for Lung Research, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, USA.
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995
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Abstract
Therapeutic medical advances over the past two decades have resulted in significant improvements in the outcome for patients with various forms of pulmonary arterial hypertension. As the current understanding of the pathology and pathobiology of pulmonary arterial hypertension has moved forward, rationale for additional therapeutic modalities with novel therapeutic agents has led to increased clinical investigations. A brief overview of the pathology and pathobiology is presented as background for an introduction to the current medical therapy for pulmonary arterial hypertension as well as the goals for future treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- R J Barst
- Department of Pediatrics, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, Division of Pediatric Cardiology, Pulmonary Hypertension Center, New York Presbyterian Hospital, New York, New York, USA
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996
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Abstract
Changes in the extracellular matrix underlie the structural and functional abnormalities in the vessel wall that lead to progressive pulmonary vascular disease. Studies are reviewed aimed at addressing the cellular and molecular programs that regulate the production of the extracellular matrix describing new ways to arrest proliferation and migration of smooth muscle cells and to induce apoptosis. The latter can lead to the reversal of pathology at least in experimental animal models.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Rabinovitch
- Departments of Pediatrics, Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, and Medicine, University of Toronto, Cardiovascular Research Program, Research Institute, Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
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997
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Tuder RM, Cool CD, Yeager M, Taraseviciene-Stewart L, Bull TM, Voelkel NF. The pathobiology of pulmonary hypertension. Endothelium. Clin Chest Med 2001; 22:405-18. [PMID: 11590837 DOI: 10.1016/s0272-5231(05)70280-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 136] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Dysfunctional endothelial cells have a central and critical role in the initiation and progression of severe pulmonary hypertension. The elucidation of the mechanisms involved in the control of endothelial cell proliferation and cell death in the pulmonary vasculature, therefore, is fundamentally important in the pathogenesis of severe pulmonary hypertension and of great interest for a better understanding of endothelial cell biology. Because the intravascular growth of endothelial cells resulting in tumorlets is unique to severe pulmonary hypertension, this phenomenon can teach researchers about the factors involved in the formation and maintenance of the normal endothelial cell monolayer. Clearly, in severe pulmonary hypertension, the "law of the endothelial cell monolayer" has been broken. The ultimate level of such a control is at the altered gene expression pattern that is conducive to endothelial cell growth and disruption of pulmonary blood flow. Secondary pulmonary hypertension certainly also is associated with proliferated pulmonary endothelial cells and plexiform lesions that are histologically indistinguishable from those in PPH. What is then the difference in the mechanisms of endothelial cell proliferation between primary and secondary pulmonary hypertension? The authors believe that PPH is a disease caused by somatic mutations in key angiogenesis- or apoptosis-related genes such as the TGF-beta receptor-2 and Bax. The loss of these important cell growth control mechanisms allows for the clonal expansion of endothelial cells from a single cell that has acquired a selective growth advantage. On the other hand, the proliferated endothelial cells in secondary pulmonary hypertension are polyclonal. It follows from this finding that local (vascular) factor(s) (such as increased shear stress), rather than mutations, play a major role in triggering endothelial cell proliferation. In PPH and secondary pulmonary hypertension, the researcher can postulate that the pulmonary vascular bed contains progenitor-like cells with the capacity of dysregulated growth. The main difference in the pathogenesis of primary and secondary pulmonary endothelial cell proliferation therefore may be the initial mechanism involved in the recruitment of an endothelial progenitor-like cell. In PPH, anorexigen-associated, and familial PPH, the proliferation of endothelial cells occurs from a mutated single cell, whereas in secondary pulmonary hypertension, several progenitor-like cells would be activated to grow. The abnormal endothelial cells in both forms of severe pulmonary hypertension expand because of the expression of angiogenesis-related molecules such as VEGF, VEGFR-2, HIF-1 alpha, and HIF-beta. Also important for the expansion of these cells is the down-regulation of expression of apoptosis-related mediators such as TGF-beta receptor-2 or Bax. The success of any therapy for severe pulmonary hypertension requires that the underlying process of endothelial cell proliferation could be controlled or reversed.
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Affiliation(s)
- R M Tuder
- Departments of Pathology, and Medicine, University of Colorado Health Sciences Center, Denver, Colorado, USA.
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998
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Morrell NW, Yang X, Upton PD, Jourdan KB, Morgan N, Sheares KK, Trembath RC. Altered growth responses of pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells from patients with primary pulmonary hypertension to transforming growth factor-beta(1) and bone morphogenetic proteins. Circulation 2001; 104:790-5. [PMID: 11502704 DOI: 10.1161/hc3201.094152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 304] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Mutations in the type II receptor for bone morphogenetic protein (BMPR-II), a receptor member of the transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta) superfamily, underlie many cases of familial and sporadic primary pulmonary hypertension (PPH). We postulated that pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells (PASMCs) from patients with PPH might demonstrate abnormal growth responses to TGF-beta superfamily members. METHODS AND RESULTS For studies of (3)H-thymidine incorporation or cell proliferation, PASMCs (passages 4 to 8) were derived from main pulmonary arteries. In control cells, 24-hour incubation with TGF-beta(1) (10 ng/mL) or bone morphogenetic protein (BMP)-2, -4, and -7 (100 ng/mL) inhibited basal and serum-stimulated (3)H-thymidine incorporation, and TGF-beta(1) and BMPs inhibited the proliferation of serum-stimulated PASMCs. In contrast, TGF-beta(1) stimulated (3)H-thymidine incorporation (200%; P<0.001) and cell proliferation in PASMCs from PPH but not from patients with secondary pulmonary hypertension. In addition, BMPs failed to suppress DNA synthesis and proliferation in PASMCs from PPH patients. Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction of PASMC mRNA detected transcripts for type I (TGF-betaRI, Alk-1, ActRI, and BMPRIB) and type II (TGF-betaRII, BMPR-II, ActRII, ActRIIB) receptors. Receptor binding and cross-linking studies with (125)I-TGF-beta(1) confirmed that the abnormal responses in PPH cells were not due to differences in TGF-beta receptor binding. Mutation analysis of PASMC DNA failed to detect mutations in TGF-betaRII and Alk-1 but confirmed the presence of a mutation in BMPR-II in 1 of 5 PPH isolates. CONCLUSIONS We conclude that PASMCs from patients with PPH exhibit abnormal growth responses to TGF-beta(1) and BMPs and that altered integration of TGF-beta superfamily growth signals may contribute to the pathogenesis of PPH.
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MESH Headings
- Activin Receptors
- Adult
- Binding, Competitive/drug effects
- Bone Morphogenetic Protein Receptors, Type II
- Bone Morphogenetic Proteins/pharmacology
- Cell Division/drug effects
- Cells, Cultured
- Cross-Linking Reagents/pharmacology
- DNA/biosynthesis
- DNA/genetics
- DNA Mutational Analysis
- Female
- Gene Expression Profiling
- Humans
- Hypertension, Pulmonary/pathology
- Hypertension, Pulmonary/physiopathology
- Male
- Middle Aged
- Muscle, Smooth, Vascular/drug effects
- Muscle, Smooth, Vascular/pathology
- Muscle, Smooth, Vascular/physiopathology
- Protein Serine-Threonine Kinases/biosynthesis
- Protein Serine-Threonine Kinases/genetics
- Pulmonary Artery
- RNA, Messenger/biosynthesis
- Receptor, Transforming Growth Factor-beta Type II
- Receptors, Transforming Growth Factor beta/biosynthesis
- Receptors, Transforming Growth Factor beta/genetics
- Signal Transduction/drug effects
- Thymidine/pharmacokinetics
- Transforming Growth Factor beta/pharmacology
- Transforming Growth Factor beta1
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Affiliation(s)
- N W Morrell
- Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, Addenbrooke's and Papworth Hospitals, Cambridge, United Kingdom.
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999
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Newman JH, Wheeler L, Lane KB, Loyd E, Gaddipati R, Phillips JA, Loyd JE. Mutation in the gene for bone morphogenetic protein receptor II as a cause of primary pulmonary hypertension in a large kindred. N Engl J Med 2001; 345:319-24. [PMID: 11484688 DOI: 10.1056/nejm200108023450502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 237] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Most patients with primary pulmonary hypertension are thought to have sporadic, not inherited, disease. Because clinical disease develops in only 10 to 20 percent of persons carrying the gene for familial primary pulmonary hypertension, we hypothesized that many patients with apparently sporadic primary pulmonary hypertension may actually have familial primary pulmonary hypertension. METHODS In a study conducted over 20 years, we developed a registry of 67 families affected by familial primary pulmonary hypertension. Through patient referrals, extensive family histories, and correlation of family pedigrees, we discovered shared ancestry among five subfamilies. We established the diagnosis of primary pulmonary hypertension by direct evaluation of patients and review of autopsy material and medical records. We assessed some family members for mutations in the gene encoding bone morphogenetic protein receptor II (BMPR2), which has recently been found to cause familial primary pulmonary hypertension. RESULTS We linked five separately identified subfamilies that included 394 known members spanning seven generations, which were traced back to a founding couple in the mid-1800s. Familial primary pulmonary hypertension has been diagnosed in 18 family members, 12 of whom were first thought to have sporadic disease. The conditions of 7 of the 18 were initially misdiagnosed as other cardiopulmonary diseases. Six members affected with familial primary pulmonary hypertension and 6 of 10 at risk for carriage have been undergone genotype analysis, and they have the same mutation in BMPR2, a transversion of thymine to guanine at position 354 in exon 3. CONCLUSIONS Many cases of apparently sporadic primary pulmonary hypertension may be familial. Failure to detect familial primary pulmonary hypertension results from incomplete expression within families, skipped generations, and incomplete family pedigrees. The recent discovery of mutations in BMPR2 should make it possible to identify those with susceptibility to disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- J H Newman
- Center for Lung Research, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN, USA.
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1000
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Trembath RC, Thomson JR, Machado RD, Morgan NV, Atkinson C, Winship I, Simonneau G, Galie N, Loyd JE, Humbert M, Nichols WC, Morrell NW, Berg J, Manes A, McGaughran J, Pauciulo M, Wheeler L. Clinical and molecular genetic features of pulmonary hypertension in patients with hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia. N Engl J Med 2001; 345:325-34. [PMID: 11484689 DOI: 10.1056/nejm200108023450503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 445] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Most patients with familial primary pulmonary hypertension have defects in the gene for bone morphogenetic protein receptor II (BMPR2), a member of the transforming growth factor beta (TGF-beta) superfamily of receptors. Because patients with hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia may have lung disease that is indistinguishable from primary pulmonary hypertension, we investigated the genetic basis of lung disease in these patients. METHODS We evaluated members of five kindreds plus one individual patient with hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia and identified 10 cases of pulmonary hypertension. In the two largest families, we used microsatellite markers to test for linkage to genes encoding TGF-beta-receptor proteins, including endoglin and activin-receptor-like kinase 1 (ALK1), and BMPR2. In subjects with hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia and pulmonary hypertension, we also scanned ALK1 and BMPR2 for mutations. RESULTS We identified suggestive linkage of pulmonary hypertension with hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia on chromosome 12q13, a region that includes ALK1. We identified amino acid changes in activin-receptor-like kinase 1 that were inherited in subjects who had a disorder with clinical and histologic features indistinguishable from those of primary pulmonary hypertension. Immunohistochemical analysis in four subjects and one control showed pulmonary vascular endothelial expression of activin-receptor-like kinase 1 in normal and diseased pulmonary arteries. CONCLUSIONS Pulmonary hypertension in association with hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia can involve mutations in ALK1. These mutations are associated with diverse effects, including the vascular dilatation characteristic of hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia and the occlusion of small pulmonary arteries that is typical of primary pulmonary hypertension.
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MESH Headings
- Activin Receptors
- Adult
- Bone Morphogenetic Protein Receptors, Type II
- Child
- Child, Preschool
- Chromosome Mapping
- Chromosomes, Human, Pair 12
- Female
- Humans
- Hypertension, Pulmonary/complications
- Hypertension, Pulmonary/genetics
- Hypertension, Pulmonary/pathology
- Lung/pathology
- Male
- Microsatellite Repeats
- Middle Aged
- Mutation
- Mutation, Missense
- Pedigree
- Protein Serine-Threonine Kinases/genetics
- Signal Transduction
- Telangiectasia, Hereditary Hemorrhagic/complications
- Telangiectasia, Hereditary Hemorrhagic/genetics
- Transforming Growth Factor beta/genetics
- Transforming Growth Factor beta/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- R C Trembath
- Department of Medicine, University of Leicester, United Kingdom.
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