1051
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Porcelli AJ, Cruz D, Wenberg K, Patterson MD, Biswal BB, Rypma B. The effects of acute stress on human prefrontal working memory systems. Physiol Behav 2008; 95:282-9. [PMID: 18692209 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2008.04.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2008] [Accepted: 04/24/2008] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
We examined the relationship between acute stress and prefrontal-cortex (PFC) based working memory (WM) systems using behavioral (Experiment 1) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI; Experiment 2) paradigms. Subjects performed a delayed-response item-recognition task, with alternating blocks of high and low WM demand trials. During scanning, participants performed this task under three stress conditions: cold stress (induced by cold-water hand-immersion), a room temperature water control (induced by tepid-water hand-immersion), and no-water control (no hand-immersion). Performance was affected by WM demand, but not stress. Cold stress elicited greater salivary cortisol readings in behavioral subjects, and greater PFC signal change in fMRI subjects, than control conditions. These results suggest that, under stress, increases in PFC activity may be necessary to mediate cognitive processes that maintain behavioral organization.
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1052
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Towse JN, Cowan N, Horton NJ, Whytock S. Task experience and children's working memory performance: a perspective from recall timing. Dev Psychol 2008; 44:695-706. [PMID: 18473637 DOI: 10.1037/0012-1649.44.3.695] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Working memory is an important theoretical construct among children, and measures of its capacity predict a range of cognitive skills and abilities. Data from 9- and 11-year-old children illustrate how a chronometric analysis of recall can complement and elaborate recall accuracy in advancing our understanding of working memory. A reading span task was completed by 130 children, 75 of whom were tested on 2 occasions, with sequence length either increasing or decreasing during test administration. Substantial pauses occur during participants' recall sequences, and they represent consistent performance traits over time, while also varying with recall circumstances and task history. Recall pauses help to predict reading and number skills, alongside as well as separate from levels of recall accuracy. The task demands of working memory change as a function of task experience, with a combination of accuracy and response timing in novel task situations being the strongest predictor of cognitive attainment.
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Affiliation(s)
- John N Towse
- Department of Psychology, Fylde College, Lancaster University, Bailrigg, Lancaster, UK.
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1053
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Jaeggi SM, Buschkuehl M, Jonides J, Perrig WJ. Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2008; 105:6829-33. [PMID: 18443283 PMCID: PMC2383929 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0801268105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1124] [Impact Index Per Article: 70.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2008] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Fluid intelligence (Gf) refers to the ability to reason and to solve new problems independently of previously acquired knowledge. Gf is critical for a wide variety of cognitive tasks, and it is considered one of the most important factors in learning. Moreover, Gf is closely related to professional and educational success, especially in complex and demanding environments. Although performance on tests of Gf can be improved through direct practice on the tests themselves, there is no evidence that training on any other regimen yields increased Gf in adults. Furthermore, there is a long history of research into cognitive training showing that, although performance on trained tasks can increase dramatically, transfer of this learning to other tasks remains poor. Here, we present evidence for transfer from training on a demanding working memory task to measures of Gf. This transfer results even though the trained task is entirely different from the intelligence test itself. Furthermore, we demonstrate that the extent of gain in intelligence critically depends on the amount of training: the more training, the more improvement in Gf. That is, the training effect is dosage-dependent. Thus, in contrast to many previous studies, we conclude that it is possible to improve Gf without practicing the testing tasks themselves, opening a wide range of applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susanne M. Jaeggi
- *Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, East Hall, 530 Church Street, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-1043; and
- Department of Psychology, University of Bern, Muesmattstrasse 45, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Martin Buschkuehl
- *Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, East Hall, 530 Church Street, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-1043; and
- Department of Psychology, University of Bern, Muesmattstrasse 45, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
| | - John Jonides
- *Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, East Hall, 530 Church Street, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-1043; and
| | - Walter J. Perrig
- Department of Psychology, University of Bern, Muesmattstrasse 45, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
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1054
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1055
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Schmader T, Johns M, Forbes C. An integrated process model of stereotype threat effects on performance. Psychol Rev 2008. [PMID: 18426293 DOI: 10.1037/0033–295x.115.2.336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Research showing that activation of negative stereotypes can impair the performance of stigmatized individuals on a wide variety of tasks has proliferated. However, a complete understanding of the processes underlying these stereotype threat effects on behavior is still lacking. The authors examine stereotype threat in the context of research on stress arousal, vigilance, working memory, and self-regulation to develop a process model of how negative stereotypes impair performance on cognitive and social tasks that require controlled processing, as well as sensorimotor tasks that require automatic processing. The authors argue that stereotype threat disrupts performance via 3 distinct, yet interrelated, mechanisms: (a) a physiological stress response that directly impairs prefrontal processing, (b) a tendency to actively monitor performance, and (c) efforts to suppress negative thoughts and emotions in the service of self-regulation. These mechanisms combine to consume executive resources needed to perform well on cognitive and social tasks. The active monitoring mechanism disrupts performance on sensorimotor tasks directly. Empirical evidence for these assertions is reviewed, and implications for interventions designed to alleviate stereotype threat are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toni Schmader
- Department of Psychology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA.
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1056
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Thush C, Wiers RW, Ames SL, Grenard JL, Sussman S, Stacy AW. Interactions between implicit and explicit cognition and working memory capacity in the prediction of alcohol use in at-risk adolescents. Drug Alcohol Depend 2008; 94:116-24. [PMID: 18155856 PMCID: PMC3413632 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2007.10.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 219] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2007] [Revised: 10/23/2007] [Accepted: 10/23/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Dual process models of addiction suggest that the influence of alcohol-related cognition might be dependent on the level of executive functioning. This study investigated if the interaction between implicit and explicit alcohol-related cognitions and working memory capacity predicted alcohol use after 1 month in at-risk youth. Implicit and explicit alcohol-related cognitions were assessed in 88 Dutch at-risk adolescents ranging in age from 14 to 20 (51 males) with an adapted version of the Implicit Association Test (IAT) and an expectancy questionnaire. Working memory capacity was assessed using the computer-based version of the Self-Ordered Pointing Task (SOPT). Alcohol use and alcohol-related problems were measured at baseline and after 1 month with self-report questionnaires. The hierarchical regression analysis showed that both the interaction between implicit positive-arousal cognitions and working memory capacity and the interaction between explicit positive-arousal cognitions and working memory capacity predicted unique variance in alcohol use after 1 month. Implicit positive-arousal cognitions predicted alcohol use after 1 month more strongly in students with lower levels of working memory capacity, whereas explicit positive-arousal cognitions predicted 1-month follow-up alcohol use more strongly in students with higher levels of working memory capacity. This could imply that different intervention methods could be effective for different subgroups of at-risk youth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolien Thush
- Clinical Psychological Science, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands.
| | - Reinout W. Wiers
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Maastricht University, Maastricht, the Netherlands,Radboud University, Nijmegen, the Netherlands and the Dutch Addiction Research Institute (IVO), Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Susan L. Ames
- Institute for Health Promotion and Disease Prevention Research, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, USA
| | - Jerry L. Grenard
- Institute for Health Promotion and Disease Prevention Research, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, USA
| | - Steve Sussman
- Institute for Health Promotion and Disease Prevention Research, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, USA
| | - Alan W. Stacy
- Institute for Health Promotion and Disease Prevention Research, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, USA
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1057
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Abstract
Research showing that activation of negative stereotypes can impair the performance of stigmatized individuals on a wide variety of tasks has proliferated. However, a complete understanding of the processes underlying these stereotype threat effects on behavior is still lacking. The authors examine stereotype threat in the context of research on stress arousal, vigilance, working memory, and self-regulation to develop a process model of how negative stereotypes impair performance on cognitive and social tasks that require controlled processing, as well as sensorimotor tasks that require automatic processing. The authors argue that stereotype threat disrupts performance via 3 distinct, yet interrelated, mechanisms: (a) a physiological stress response that directly impairs prefrontal processing, (b) a tendency to actively monitor performance, and (c) efforts to suppress negative thoughts and emotions in the service of self-regulation. These mechanisms combine to consume executive resources needed to perform well on cognitive and social tasks. The active monitoring mechanism disrupts performance on sensorimotor tasks directly. Empirical evidence for these assertions is reviewed, and implications for interventions designed to alleviate stereotype threat are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toni Schmader
- Department of Psychology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA.
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1058
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Working memory and the attentional blink: blink size is predicted by individual differences in operation span. Psychon Bull Rev 2008; 14:1051-7. [PMID: 18229474 DOI: 10.3758/bf03193090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The attentional blink (AB) is often attributed to resource limitations, but the nature of these resources is commonly underspecified. Recent observations rule out access to short-term memory or storage capacity as limiting factors, but operation bottlenecks are still an option. We considered the operation span of working memory (WM) as a possible factor and investigated the relationship between individual WM operation span (as measured by OSPAN), fluid intelligence (as measures by Raven's SPM), and the size of the AB. WM operation span was negatively correlated with the AB, whereas fluid intelligence was associated with higher overall accuracy but not with AB magnitude. These results support the idea that individual processing limitations (with regard to either attentional allocation policies or the speed of global cortical integration processes) play a key role in the AB.
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1059
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Colom R, Jung RE, Haier RJ. General intelligence and memory span: evidence for a common neuroanatomic framework. Cogn Neuropsychol 2008; 24:867-78. [PMID: 18161499 DOI: 10.1080/02643290701781557] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
General intelligence (g) is highly correlated with working-memory capacity (WMC). It has been argued that these central psychological constructs should share common neural systems. The present study examines this hypothesis using structural magnetic resonance imaging to determine any overlap in brain areas where regional grey matter volumes are correlated to measures of general intelligence and to memory span. In normal volunteers (N = 48) the results (p < .05, corrected for multiple comparisons) indicate that a common anatomic framework for these constructs implicates mainly frontal grey matter regions belonging to Brodmann area (BA) 10 (right superior frontal gyrus and left middle frontal gyrus) and, to a lesser degree, the right inferior parietal lobule (BA 40). These findings support the nuclear role of a discrete parieto-frontal network.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberto Colom
- Facultad de Psicología, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain.
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1060
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Tranel D, Manzel K, Anderson SW. Is the prefrontal cortex important for fluid intelligence? A neuropsychological study using Matrix Reasoning. Clin Neuropsychol 2008; 22:242-61. [PMID: 17853146 PMCID: PMC2562905 DOI: 10.1080/13854040701218410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Patients with prefrontal damage and severe defects in decision making and emotional regulation often have a remarkable absence of intellectual impairment, as measured by conventional IQ tests such as the WAIS/WAIS-R. This enigma might be explained by shortcomings in the tests, which tend to emphasize measures of "crystallized" (e.g., vocabulary, fund of information) more than "fluid" (e.g., novel problem solving) intelligence. The WAIS-III added the Matrix Reasoning subtest to enhance measurement of fluid reasoning. In a set of four studies, we investigated Matrix Reasoning performances in 80 patients with damage to various sectors of the prefrontal cortex, and contrasted these with the performances of 80 demographically matched patients with damage outside the frontal lobes. The results failed to support the hypothesis that prefrontal damage would disproportionately impair fluid intelligence, and every prefrontal subgroup we studied (dorsolateral, ventromedial, dorsolateral + ventromedial) had Matrix Reasoning scores (as well as IQ scores more generally) that were indistinguishable from those of the brain-damaged comparison groups. Our findings do not support a connection between fluid intelligence and the frontal lobes, although a viable alternative interpretation is that the Matrix Reasoning subtest lacks construct validity as a measure of fluid intelligence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Tranel
- Department of Neurology, University of Iowa Hospitals and Clinics, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, USA.
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1061
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Levy BJ, Anderson MC. Individual differences in the suppression of unwanted memories: the executive deficit hypothesis. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2008; 127:623-35. [PMID: 18242571 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2007.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 154] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2007] [Revised: 11/29/2007] [Accepted: 12/03/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
Abstract
When confronted with reminders to an unpleasant memory, people often try to prevent the unwanted memory from coming to mind. In this article, we review behavioral and neurocognitive evidence concerning the consequences of exerting such control over memory retrieval. This work indicates that suppressing retrieval is accomplished by control mechanisms that inhibit the unwanted memories, making them harder to recall later, even when desired. This process engages executive control mechanisms mediated by the lateral prefrontal cortex to terminate recollection-related activity in the hippocampus. Together, these findings specify a neurocognitive model of how memory control operates, suggesting that executive control may be an important means of down-regulating intrusive memories over time. We conclude by proposing that individual differences in the regulation of intrusive memories in the aftermath of trauma may be mediated by pre-existing differences in executive control ability. In support of this executive deficit hypothesis, we review the recent work indicating links between executive control ability and memory suppression.
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1062
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Goffaux P, Phillips NA, Sinai M, Pushkar D. Neurophysiological Measures of Task-Set Switching: Effects of Working Memory and Aging. J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci 2008; 63:P57-66. [DOI: 10.1093/geronb/63.2.p57] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
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1063
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Brocki KC, Randall KD, Bohlin G, Kerns KA. Working memory in school-aged children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder combined type: are deficits modality specific and are they independent of impaired inhibitory control? J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 2008; 30:749-59. [PMID: 18608645 DOI: 10.1080/13803390701754720] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
This study examines differences between children with attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder combined type (ADHD-C) and normal controls on verbal and visuospatial working-memory (WM) tasks. The extent to which WM deficits in children with ADHD-C are independent of impaired inhibitory control was also examined. Two groups of 7- to 12-year-old boys participated in this study. The first group included 31 boys diagnosed with ADHD-C, and the second group included 34 boys without ADHD. Various verbal and visuospatial WM tasks and two inhibitory control tasks--prepotent response inhibition and interference control--were used. Overall, our results suggest impaired verbal and visuospatial WM processes in children with ADHD-C, as well as a lower level of performance on prepotent response inhibition. WM deficits in ADHD have previously been suggested to be particularly salient in the spatial domain; our results instead showed the largest effect for a verbal WM task thought to put heavy load on the executive or attentional control component of the WM system. An interpretation of this finding is that it is variation in terms of difficulty level or load on the executive WM processes, rather than variation in modality (verbal versus visuospatial), that is important in demonstrating WM deficits in ADHD-C. Finally, findings from logistic regression analyses showed that deficits in WM and inhibitory control seem to be semi-independent in children with ADHD-C, at least with regard to the elementary school age.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karin C Brocki
- Department of Psychology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden.
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1064
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Van Dongen HPA, Mott CG, Huang JK, Mollicone DJ, McKenzie FD, Dinges DF. Optimization of biomathematical model predictions for cognitive performance impairment in individuals: accounting for unknown traits and uncertain states in homeostatic and circadian processes. Sleep 2008; 30:1129-43. [PMID: 17910385 PMCID: PMC1978411 DOI: 10.1093/sleep/30.9.1129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Current biomathematical models of fatigue and performance do not accurately predict cognitive performance for individuals with a priori unknown degrees of trait vulnerability to sleep loss, do not predict performance reliably when initial conditions are uncertain, and do not yield statistically valid estimates of prediction accuracy. These limitations diminish their usefulness for predicting the performance of individuals in operational environments. To overcome these 3 limitations, a novel modeling approach was developed, based on the expansion of a statistical technique called Bayesian forecasting. The expanded Bayesian forecasting procedure was implemented in the two-process model of sleep regulation, which has been used to predict performance on the basis of the combination of a sleep homeostatic process and a circadian process. Employing the two-process model with the Bayesian forecasting procedure to predict performance for individual subjects in the face of unknown traits and uncertain states entailed subject-specific optimization of 3 trait parameters (homeostatic build-up rate, circadian amplitude, and basal performance level) and 2 initial state parameters (initial homeostatic state and circadian phase angle). Prior information about the distribution of the trait parameters in the population at large was extracted from psychomotor vigilance test (PVT) performance measurements in 10 subjects who had participated in a laboratory experiment with 88 h of total sleep deprivation. The PVT performance data of 3 additional subjects in this experiment were set aside beforehand for use in prospective computer simulations. The simulations involved updating the subject-specific model parameters every time the next performance measurement became available, and then predicting performance 24 h ahead. Comparison of the predictions to the subjects' actual data revealed that as more data became available for the individuals at hand, the performance predictions became increasingly more accurate and had progressively smaller 95% confidence intervals, as the model parameters converged efficiently to those that best characterized each individual. Even when more challenging simulations were run (mimicking a change in the initial homeostatic state; simulating the data to be sparse), the predictions were still considerably more accurate than would have been achieved by the two-process model alone. Although the work described here is still limited to periods of consolidated wakefulness with stable circadian rhythms, the results obtained thus far indicate that the Bayesian forecasting procedure can successfully overcome some of the major outstanding challenges for biomathematical prediction of cognitive performance in operational settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hans P A Van Dongen
- Sleep and Performance Research Center, Washington State University, Spokane, WA 99210-1495, USA.
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1065
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Individual differences in working memory capacity and divided attention in dichotic listening. Psychon Bull Rev 2008; 14:699-703. [PMID: 17972736 DOI: 10.3758/bf03196824] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The controlled attention theory of working memory suggests that individuals with greater working memory capacity (WMC) are better able to control or focus their attention than individuals with lesser WMC. This relationship has been observed in a number of selective attention paradigms including a dichotic listening task (Conway, Cowan, & Bunting, 2001) in which participants were required to shadow words presented to one ear and ignore words presented to the other ear. Conway et al. found that when the participant's name was presented to the ignored ear, 65% of participants with low WMC reported hearing their name, compared to only 20% of participants with high WMC, suggesting greater selective attention on the part of high WMC participants. In the present study, individual differences in divided attention were examined in a dichotic listening task, in which participants shadowed one message and listened for their own name in the other message. Here we find that 66.7% of high WMC and 34.5% of low WMC participants detected their name. These results suggest that as WMC capacity increases, so does the ability to control the focus of attention, with high WMC participants being able to flexibly "zoom in" or "zoom out" depending on task demands.
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1066
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Payer DE, Lieberman MD, Monterosso JR, Xu J, Fong TW, London ED. Differences in cortical activity between methamphetamine-dependent and healthy individuals performing a facial affect matching task. Drug Alcohol Depend 2008; 93:93-102. [PMID: 17964741 PMCID: PMC2270785 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2007.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2007] [Revised: 09/05/2007] [Accepted: 09/05/2007] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
As individuals who abuse methamphetamine (MA) often exhibit socially maladaptive behaviors such as violence and aggression, it is possible that they respond abnormally to social cues. To investigate this issue, we exposed 12 MA-dependent participants (abstinent 5-16 days) and 12 healthy comparison participants to fearful and angry faces while they performed an affect matching task during functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Although the groups did not differ in task performance, the healthy participants showed more task-related activity than the MA-dependent participants in a set of cortical regions consisting of the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (VLPFC), temporoparietal junction (TPJ), anterior and posterior temporal cortex, and fusiform gyrus in the right hemisphere, and the cuneus in the left hemisphere. In contrast, the MA-dependent participants showed more task-related activity than the healthy participants in the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC). As expected, the task elicited activation of the amygdala in both groups; however, contrary to expectation, we found no difference between groups in this activation. Dorsal ACC hyperactivity, along with high self-ratings of hostility and interpersonal sensitivity in the MA-dependent group, suggest a hyper-sensitivity to socially threatening cues in the MA-dependent participants, while lower VLPFC activation could point to a deficit in integrating socio-emotional information and/or regulating this limbic hyperactivity. Additional activation differences in neural circuitry related to social cognition (TPJ, anterior, and posterior temporal cortex) suggest further socio-emotional deficits. Together, the results point to cortical abnormalities that could underlie the socially inappropriate behaviors often shown by individuals who abuse MA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Doris E. Payer
- Neuroscience Interdepartmental Program, University of California, Los Angeles, USA
| | | | - John R. Monterosso
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles, USA.,Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences, University of California, Los Angeles, USA
| | - Jiansong Xu
- Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences, University of California, Los Angeles, USA
| | - Timothy W. Fong
- Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences, University of California, Los Angeles, USA
| | - Edythe D. London
- Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences, University of California, Los Angeles, USA.,Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, University of California, Los Angeles, USA.,Brain Research Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, USA.,Biomedical Engineering Interdepartmental Faculty, University of California, Los Angeles, USA
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1067
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Analogical reasoning in working memory: resources shared among relational integration, interference resolution, and maintenance. Mem Cognit 2008; 35:1445-55. [PMID: 18035640 DOI: 10.3758/bf03193614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
We report a series of experiments using a pictorial analogy task designed to manipulate relational integration, interference resolution, and active maintenance simultaneously. The difficulty of the problems was varied in terms of the number of relations to be integrated, the need for interference resolution, and the duration of maintenance required to correctly solve the analogy. The participants showed decreases in performance when integrating multiple relations, as compared with a single relation, and when interference resolution was required in solving the analogy. When the participants were required to integrate multiple relations while simultaneously engaged in interference resolution, performance was worse, as compared with problems that incorporated either of these features alone. Maintenance of information across delays in the range of 1-4.5 sec led to greater decrements in visual memory, as compared with analogical reasoning. Misleading information caused interference when it had been necessarily attended to and maintained in working memory and, hence, had to be actively suppressed. However, sources of conflict within information that had not been attended to or encoded into working memory did not interfere with the ongoing controlled information processing required for relational integration. The findings provide evidence that relational integration and interference resolution depend on shared cognitive resources in working memory during analogical reasoning.
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1068
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Leach J, Ansell L. Impairment in attentional processing in a field survival environment. APPLIED COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2008. [DOI: 10.1002/acp.1385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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1069
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1070
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Hayashi M, Kato M, Igarashi K, Kashima H. Superior fluid intelligence in children with Asperger's disorder. Brain Cogn 2007; 66:306-10. [PMID: 17980944 DOI: 10.1016/j.bandc.2007.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2007] [Revised: 09/19/2007] [Accepted: 09/25/2007] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Asperger's disorder is one of autistic spectrum disorders; sharing clinical features with autism, but without developmental delay in language acquisition. There have been some studies of intellectual functioning in autism so far, but very few in Asperger's disorder. In the present study, we investigated abstract reasoning ability, whose form of intelligence has been labeled fluid intelligence in the theory of Cattell [Cattell, R. B. (1963). Theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence: A critical experiment. Journal of Educational Psychology, 54, 1-22.], in children with Asperger's disorder. A test of fluid intelligence, the Raven's Standard Progressive Matrices Test, was administered to 17 children with Asperger's disorder and 17 age-, gender-, and FIQ-matched normal children. The results showed that children with Asperger's disorder outperformed on the test of fluid reasoning than typically developing children. We suggest that individuals with Asperger's disorder have higher fluid reasoning ability than normal individuals, highlighting superior fluid intelligence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mika Hayashi
- Department of Neuropsychiatry, Keio University School of Medicine, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, Japan.
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1071
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Abstract
Autistics are presumed to be characterized by cognitive impairment, and their cognitive strengths (e.g., in Block Design performance) are frequently interpreted as low-level by-products of high-level deficits, not as direct manifestations of intelligence. Recent attempts to identify the neuroanatomical and neurofunctional signature of autism have been positioned on this universal, but untested, assumption. We therefore assessed a broad sample of 38 autistic children on the preeminent test of fluid intelligence, Raven's Progressive Matrices. Their scores were, on average, 30 percentile points, and in some cases more than 70 percentile points, higher than their scores on the Wechsler scales of intelligence. Typically developing control children showed no such discrepancy, and a similar contrast was observed when a sample of autistic adults was compared with a sample of nonautistic adults. We conclude that intelligence has been underestimated in autistics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle Dawson
- Pervasive Developmental Disorders Specialized Clinic, Hôpital Rivière-des-Prairies, Montréal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Isabelle Soulières
- Pervasive Developmental Disorders Specialized Clinic, Hôpital Rivière-des-Prairies, Montréal, Quebec, Canada
- Université de Montréal, Montréal, Quebec, Canada
| | | | - Laurent Mottron
- Pervasive Developmental Disorders Specialized Clinic, Hôpital Rivière-des-Prairies, Montréal, Quebec, Canada
- Université de Montréal, Montréal, Quebec, Canada
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1072
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Kovelman I, Shalinsky MH, Berens MS, Petitto LA. Shining new light on the brain's "bilingual signature": a functional Near Infrared Spectroscopy investigation of semantic processing. Neuroimage 2007; 39:1457-71. [PMID: 18054251 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2007.10.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2007] [Revised: 10/09/2007] [Accepted: 10/16/2007] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Decades of research have shown that, from an early age, proficient bilinguals can speak each of their two languages separately (similar to monolinguals) or rapidly switch between them (dissimilar to monolinguals). Thus we ask, do monolingual and bilingual brains process language similarly or dissimilarly, and is this affected by the language context? Using an innovative brain imaging technology, functional Near Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS), we investigated how adult bilinguals process semantic information, both in speech and in print, in a monolingual language context (one language at a time) or in a bilingual language context (two languages in rapid alternation). While undergoing fNIRS recording, ten early exposed, highly proficient Spanish-English bilinguals completed a Semantic Judgment task in monolingual and bilingual contexts and were compared to ten English monolingual controls. Two hypotheses were tested: the Signature Hypothesis predicts that early, highly proficient bilinguals will recruit neural tissue to process language differently from monolinguals across all language contexts. The Switching Hypothesis predicts that bilinguals will recruit neural tissue to process language similarly to monolinguals, when using one language at a time. Supporting the Signature Hypothesis, in the monolingual context, bilinguals and monolinguals showed differences in both hemispheres in the recruitment of DLPFC (BA 46/9) and IFC (BA 47/11), but similar recruitment of Broca's area (BA 44/45). In particular, in the monolingual context, bilinguals showed greater signal intensity in channels maximally overlaying DLPFC and IFC regions as compared to monolinguals. In the bilingual context, bilinguals demonstrated a more robust recruitment of right DLPFC and right IFC. These findings reveal how extensive early bilingual exposure modifies language organization in the brain-thus imparting a possible "bilingual signature." They further shed fascinating new light on how the bilingual brain may reveal the biological extent of the neural architecture underlying all human language and the language processing potential not fully recruited in the monolingual brain.
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1073
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Raz A, Lamar M, Buhle JT, Kane MJ, Peterson BS. Selective biasing of a specific bistable-figure percept involves fMRI signal changes in frontostriatal circuits: a step toward unlocking the neural correlates of top-down control and self-regulation. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF CLINICAL HYPNOSIS 2007; 50:137-56. [PMID: 18030926 DOI: 10.1080/00029157.2007.10401611] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Attention, suggestion, context and expectation can all exert top-down influence on bottom-up processes (e.g., stimulus-driven mechanisms). Identifying the functional neuroanatomy that subserves top-down influences on sensory information processing can unlock the neural substrates of how suggestion can modulate behavior. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), we scanned 10 healthy participants (five men) viewing five bistable figures. Participants received a directional cue to perceive a particular spatial orientation a few seconds before the bistable figure appeared. After presentation, participants pressed a button to indicate their locking into the one desired orientation of the two possible interpretations. Participants additionally performed tests of impulse control and sustained attention. Our findings reveal the role of specific frontostriatal structures in selecting a particular orientation for bistable figures, including dorsolateral prefrontal regions and the putamen. Additional contrasts further bolstered the role of the frontostriatal system in the top-down processing of competing visual perceptions. Separate correlations of behavioral variables with fMRI activations support the idea that the frontostriatal system may mediate attentional control when selecting among competing visual perceptions. These results may generalize to other psychological functions. With special relevance to clinical neuroscience and applications involving attention, expectation and suggestion (e.g., hypnosis), our results address the importance of frontostriatal circuitry in behavioral modulation.
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1074
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Sources of variability in working memory in early childhood: A consideration of age, temperament, language, and brain electrical activity. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 2007. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cogdev.2007.08.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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1075
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Wolfe CD, Bell MA. The integration of cognition and emotion during infancy and early childhood: Regulatory processes associated with the development of working memory. Brain Cogn 2007; 65:3-13. [PMID: 17630061 DOI: 10.1016/j.bandc.2006.01.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2004] [Revised: 01/09/2006] [Accepted: 01/09/2006] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
This study was an attempt to integrate cognitive development (i.e., cognitive control) and emotional development (i.e., emotion regulation) in the first years of life. The construct of temperament was used to unify cognition and emotion because of its focus on attentional and regulatory behaviors. Children were seen at 8 months and 412-years of age in a study designed to examine the correlates of working memory development. Frontal brain electrical activity and temperament predicted working memory performance at 8 months. Similarly, frontal brain electrical activity, temperament, and language predicted working memory at age 412-years. Temperament in early childhood mediated the relation between infant temperament and early childhood working memory performance. These associated temperament characteristics highlight the value of early-learned regulatory and attentional behaviors and the impact of these early skills on later development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christy D Wolfe
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Louisville, Louisville KY 40292, USA
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1076
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Biological systems and the development of self-regulation: integrating behavior, genetics, and psychophysiology. J Dev Behav Pediatr 2007; 28:409-20. [PMID: 18049327 DOI: 10.1097/dbp.0b013e3181131fc7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Self-regulation is the ability to control inner states or responses with respect to thoughts, emotions, attention, and performance. As such, it is a critical aspect of development and fundamental to personality and behavioral adjustment. In this review, we focus on attentional, cognitive, and emotional control as we discuss the genetic mechanisms and brain mechanisms that contribute to individual differences in self-regulation. We conclude with a discussion of the implications for deviations in the development of this complex construct and suggestions for future research.
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1077
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Johnson CA, Xiao L, Palmer P, Sun P, Wang Q, Wei Y, Jia Y, Grenard JL, Stacy AW, Bechara A. Affective decision-making deficits, linked to a dysfunctional ventromedial prefrontal cortex, revealed in 10th grade Chinese adolescent binge drinkers. Neuropsychologia 2007; 46:714-26. [PMID: 17996909 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2007.09.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2007] [Revised: 09/04/2007] [Accepted: 09/24/2007] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The primary aim of this study was to test the hypothesis that adolescent binge drinkers, but not lighter drinkers, would show signs of impairment on tasks of affective decision-making as measured by the Iowa Gambling Test (IGT), when compared to adolescents who never drank. We tested 207 10th grade adolescents in Chengdu City, China, using two versions of the IGT, the original and a variant, in which the reward/punishment contingencies were reversed. This enables one to distinguish among different possibilities of impaired decision-making, such as insensitivity to long-term consequences, or hypersensitivity to reward. Furthermore, we tested working memory capacity using the Self-ordered Pointing Test (SOPT). Paper and pencil questionnaires were used to assess drinking behaviors and school academic performance. Results indicated that relative to never-drinkers, adolescent binge drinkers, but not other (ever, past 30-day) drinkers, showed significantly lower net scores on the original version of the IGT especially in the latter trials. Furthermore, the profiles of behavioral performance from the original and variant versions of the IGT were consistent with a decision-making impairment attributed to hypersensitivity to reward. In addition, working memory and school academic performance revealed no differences between drinkers (at all levels) and never-drinkers. Logistic regression analysis showed that after controlling for demographic variables, working memory, and school academic performance, the IGT significantly predicted binge-drinking. These findings suggest that a "myopia" for future consequences linked to hypersensitivity to reward is a key characteristic of adolescents with binge-drinking behavior, and that underlying neural mechanisms for this "myopia" for future consequences may serve as a predisposing factor that renders some adolescents more susceptible to future addictive behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Anderson Johnson
- Institute for Health Promotion and Disease Prevention Research, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 91803, United States.
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1078
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Neural correlates of working memory performance in adolescents and young adults with dyslexia. Neuropsychologia 2007; 46:640-8. [PMID: 17950764 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2007.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2007] [Revised: 09/04/2007] [Accepted: 09/06/2007] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Behavioral studies indicate deficits in phonological working memory (WM) and executive functioning in dyslexics. However, little is known about the underlying functional neuroanatomy. In the present study, neural correlates of WM in adolescents and young adults with dyslexia were investigated using event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and a parametric verbal WM task which required the manipulation of verbal material. Dyslexics were not significantly slower than controls; however, they were less accurate with the highest WM demand. The functional analysis excluded incorrectly performed and omitted trials, thus controlling for potential activation confounds. Compared with control subjects, both increased and decreased activation of the prefrontal cortex were found in the dyslexic group. Dyslexics showed significantly more activation than controls with increasing WM demand in the left superior frontal gyrus (BA 8), as well as in the inferior frontal gyrus including Broca's area (BA 44) and its right homologue. Less activation was found in the middle frontal gyrus (BA 6) and in the superior parietal cortex (BA 7). A positive correlation between activation of prefrontal regions and verbal WM performance (as measured by digit span backwards) was found only in the dyslexic group. Accuracy deficits at the highest cognitive demand during the verbal WM task and the digit span backwards suggest that manipulation rather than maintenance is selectively impaired in dyslexics. The fMRI data provide further evidence for functional differences in cortical regions associated with language processing and executive function in subjects with dyslexia.
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1079
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Towse JN, Hitch GJ, Horton N. Working memory as the interface between processing and retention: a developmental perspective. ADVANCES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND BEHAVIOR 2007; 35:219-51. [PMID: 17682327 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-009735-7.50011-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- John N Towse
- Department of Psychology, Lancaster University, Bailrigg, Lancaster, LA1 4YF, United Kingdom
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1080
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Bopp KL, Verhaeghen P. Age-Related Differences in Control Processes in Verbal and Visuospatial Working Memory: Storage, Transformation, Supervision, and Coordination. J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci 2007; 62:P239-46. [PMID: 17906164 DOI: 10.1093/geronb/62.5.p239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
We explored age differences in transformation, supervision, and coordination processes in verbal and visuospatial repetition-detection tasks. Older adults processed information more slowly and less accurately than did younger adults, especially in the visuospatial task. However, there were no process-specific age-related differences in the visuospatial domain. In the verbal domain, task conditions requiring supervision and coordination showed larger age effects than the baseline or transformation conditions. Taken together, the findings provide support for a process- and domain-specific account of age-related differences in cognitive control, which may be tied to an age-related deficit in the maintenance of two separate sets of representations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kara L Bopp
- Department of Psychology, Wofford College, Spartanburg, SC 29303, USA.
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1081
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Abstract
OBJECTIVE Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is associated with poor inhibition of prepotent responses and deficits in distractor inhibition, but relatively few studies have addressed inhibitory control of proactive interference (PI) in individuals with ADHD. Thus, the goal of the present study was to evaluate resistance to spatial and verbal PI in adults with ADHD. METHOD Adults with ADHD (n = 32) and adults without ADHD (n = 32) performed a spatial inhibition of return (IOR) task and a semantic IOR task. RESULTS Adults with and without ADHD showed effective spatial IOR. On the semantic IOR task, adults without ADHD showed semantic inhibition, whereas adults with ADHD showed semantic facilitation (positive priming) instead. CONCLUSION Adults with ADHD may have domain-specific deficits in resistance to proactive interference. Research has theoretical and clinical implications for adults with ADHD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Holly A White
- Department of Psychology, University of Memphis, TN 38152, USA.
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1082
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Jaeggi SM, Buschkuehl M, Etienne A, Ozdoba C, Perrig WJ, Nirkko AC. On how high performers keep cool brains in situations of cognitive overload. COGNITIVE AFFECTIVE & BEHAVIORAL NEUROSCIENCE 2007; 7:75-89. [PMID: 17672380 DOI: 10.3758/cabn.7.2.75] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
What happens in the brain when we reach or exceed our capacity limits? Are there individual differences for performance at capacity limits? We used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to investigate the impact of increases in processing demand on selected cortical areas when participants performed a parametrically varied and challenging dual task. Low-performing participants respond with large and load-dependent activation increases in many cortical areas when exposed to excessive task requirements, accompanied by decreasing performance. It seems that these participants recruit additional attentional and strategy-related resources with increasing difficulty, which are either not relevant or even detrimental to performance. In contrast, the brains of the high-performing participants "keep cool" in terms of activation changes, despite continuous correct performance, reflecting different and more efficient processing. These findings shed light on the differential implications of performance on activation patterns and underline the importance of the interindividual-differences approach in neuroimaging research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susanne M Jaeggi
- Department of Psychology, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland.
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1083
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1084
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Wilson SJ, Sayette MA, Fiez JA, Brough E. Carry-over effects of smoking cue exposure on working memory performance. Nicotine Tob Res 2007; 9:613-9. [PMID: 17454718 PMCID: PMC2626274 DOI: 10.1080/14622200701243144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The present study investigated the effects of drug cue exposure on working memory performance in cigarette smokers. Adult smokers (N = 23) deprived for 12 hr performed a working memory task during which they were exposed to three types of task-irrelevant stimuli: Pictures containing smoking related-content, pictures devoid of smoking content, and a fixation cross. Consistent with prior research, we found that drug cue exposure affected the processing of subsequent items (i.e., carry-over effects). Specifically, we found that working memory performance was worse on trials containing neutral pictures preceded by trials containing smoking cues compared with performance on trials containing neutral pictures preceded by trials not containing smoking-related stimuli. Previously observed effects of smoking cue exposure on cognitive processing were replicated but only after removing trials subject to carry-over effects. These results replicate and extend previous research demonstrating similar effects and highlight the significant methodological and conceptual implications of carry-over effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen J Wilson
- Department of Psychology, University of Pittsburgh, and Center for Neural Basis of Cognition, Pittsburgh, PA 15260, USA.
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1085
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Jung RE, Haier RJ. The Parieto-Frontal Integration Theory (P-FIT) of intelligence: converging neuroimaging evidence. Behav Brain Sci 2007; 30:135-54; discussion 154-87. [PMID: 17655784 DOI: 10.1017/s0140525x07001185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 856] [Impact Index Per Article: 50.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
"Is there a biology of intelligence which is characteristic of the normal human nervous system?" Here we review 37 modern neuroimaging studies in an attempt to address this question posed by Halstead (1947) as he and other icons of the last century endeavored to understand how brain and behavior are linked through the expression of intelligence and reason. Reviewing studies from functional (i.e., functional magnetic resonance imaging, positron emission tomography) and structural (i.e., magnetic resonance spectroscopy, diffusion tensor imaging, voxel-based morphometry) neuroimaging paradigms, we report a striking consensus suggesting that variations in a distributed network predict individual differences found on intelligence and reasoning tasks. We describe this network as the Parieto-Frontal Integration Theory (P-FIT). The P-FIT model includes, by Brodmann areas (BAs): the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (BAs 6, 9, 10, 45, 46, 47), the inferior (BAs 39, 40) and superior (BA 7) parietal lobule, the anterior cingulate (BA 32), and regions within the temporal (BAs 21, 37) and occipital (BAs 18, 19) lobes. White matter regions (i.e., arcuate fasciculus) are also implicated. The P-FIT is examined in light of findings from human lesion studies, including missile wounds, frontal lobotomy/leukotomy, temporal lobectomy, and lesions resulting in damage to the language network (e.g., aphasia), as well as findings from imaging research identifying brain regions under significant genetic control. Overall, we conclude that modern neuroimaging techniques are beginning to articulate a biology of intelligence. We propose that the P-FIT provides a parsimonious account for many of the empirical observations, to date, which relate individual differences in intelligence test scores to variations in brain structure and function. Moreover, the model provides a framework for testing new hypotheses in future experimental designs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rex E Jung
- Departments of Neurology and Psychology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87106, USA.
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1086
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Andrews PW, Aggen SH, Miller GF, Radi C, Dencoff JE, Neale MC. The Functional Design of Depression's Influence on Attention: A Preliminary Test of Alternative Control-Process Mechanisms. EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY 2007. [DOI: 10.1177/147470490700500308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Substantial evidence indicates that depression focuses attention on the problems that caused the episode, so much that it interferes with the ability to focus on other things. We hypothesized that depression evolved as a response to important, complex problems that could only be solved, if they could be solved at all, with an attentional state that was highly focused for sustained periods. Under this hypothesis, depression promotes analysis and problem-solving by focusing attention on the problem and reducing distractibility. This predicts that attentionally demanding problems will elicit depressed affect in subjects. We also propose two control-process mechanisms by which depression could focus attention and reduce distractibility. Under these mechanisms, depression exerts a force on attention like that of a spring when it is pulled or like a magnet on a steel ball. These mechanisms make different predictions about how depressed people respond emotionally to a task that pulls attention away from their problems. We tested these predictions in a sample of 115 undergraduate students. Consistent with our main prediction, initially non-depressed subjects experienced an increase in their depressed affect when exposed to an attentionally demanding task. Moreover, the overall pattern of results supported the magnet metaphor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul W. Andrews
- Virginia Institute for Psychiatric and Behavioral Genetics (VIPBG), Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, USA
| | | | | | - Christopher Radi
- Psychology Department, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, USA
| | - John E. Dencoff
- Psychology Department, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, USA
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1087
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Leiserson V, Pihl RO. Reward-Sensitivity, Inhibition of Reward-Seeking, and Dorsolateral Prefrontal Working Memory Function in Problem Gamblers not in Treatment. J Gambl Stud 2007; 23:435-55. [PMID: 17570042 DOI: 10.1007/s10899-007-9065-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2006] [Accepted: 04/12/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Given the central role of perseverative chasing in problem gambling, the present study sought to find evidence for three hypothesized components of perseveration in problem gamblers: reward-sensitivity dominance, deficient inhibition of reward-seeking behavior, and working memory deficits. This was the first attempt to examine working memory deficits in problem gamblers using a conditional association task, which is associated with posterior-dorsolateral prefrontal functioning. In a sample that was not in treatment, and representative in terms of comorbidity, problem gamblers performed significantly worse on the conditional association working memory tasks after controlling for general memory function, compared to demographically-matched controls. This is significant because deficits in the dorsolateral prefrontal region have been consistently associated with perseveration, which suggests that problem gamblers' perseverative chasing may be associated with a working memory deficit. Problem gamblers were not significantly higher than at-risk gamblers in terms of reward-sensitivity dominance (measured as a personality trait in terms of extraversion) suggesting that it may not be specifically associated with problem gambling. Sensation-seeking was also not associated with problem gambling in a sample that corrected for the methodological problems of previous studies which examined it. The need for gambling research to focus specifically on the perseverative inability to stop gambling is emphasized, and the present findings of specific working memory deficits in problem gamblers suggest the need for further examination of working memory as a potential risk factor for problem gambling. We propose that subsequent studies examine working memory in terms of the self-regulatory capacity for goal maintenance where attention must specifically be allocated to resist interference.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victor Leiserson
- Department of Psychology, McGill University, 1205 Doctor Penfield Avenue, Montreal, Quebec, Canada, H3A 1B1.
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1088
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Cokely ET, Kelley CM, Gilchrist AL. Sources of individual differences in working memory: contributions of strategy to capacity. Psychon Bull Rev 2007; 13:991-7. [PMID: 17484424 DOI: 10.3758/bf03213914] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Some research on attentional control in working memory has emphasized theoretical capacity differences. However, strategic behavior, which has been relatively unexplored, can also influence attentional control and its relationship to cognitive performance. In two experiments, we examined the relationship between attentional control (measured with operation span) and interference in a part-list cuing paradigm. Paradoxically, the results indicated that superior attentional control was related to increased interference. This relationship reflected the participants' use of more complex encoding strategies, rather than superior interference control at retrieval, and was eliminated following brief encoding strategy training. The results suggest that complex span measures sometimes predict individual differences in task strategies related to interference control and that these strategies may be amenable to training. The implications for working memory research and the roles of strategies in basic memory and attention paradigms are briefly discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward T Cokely
- Department of Psychology, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL 32306-4301, USA.
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1089
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Borella E, Carretti B, Cornoldi C, De Beni R. Working memory, control of interference and everyday experience of thought interference: when age makes the difference. Aging Clin Exp Res 2007; 19:200-6. [PMID: 17607087 DOI: 10.1007/bf03324690] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS A number of studies suggest that age differences in working memory may be attributed to age-related differences in inhibitory efficacy. Nevertheless, little is known about the impact of intrusive thoughts, which occurs in everyday situations on working memory performance. This study investigates the role of cognitive and everyday inhibition mechanisms in working memory performance. METHODS Young, young-old and old-old adults performed a working memory task and the White Bear Suppression Inventory (WBSI). RESULTS Results showed a decrease in working memory, and in inhibitory efficacy with age. In addition, old-old adults obtained higher scores in the three factors of the WBSI. Working memory performance was related to working memory control of interfering information in all age groups, and also to the tendency to suppress thoughts in old-old adults. The latter result was in the opposite direction with respect to observations collected with younger adults. CONCLUSIONS Taken together, our results suggest the crucial role of intrusive thoughts in the functional capacity of working memory in late adulthood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erika Borella
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padova, 35131 Padova, Italy.
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1090
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Fluid intelligence, memory span, and temperament difficulties predict academic performance of young adolescents. PERSONALITY AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 2007. [DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2006.10.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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1091
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Coolidge FL, Wynn T. The working memory account of Neandertal cognition—How phonological storage capacity may be related to recursion and the pragmatics of modern speech. J Hum Evol 2007; 52:707-10. [PMID: 17367843 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2007.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2006] [Revised: 01/17/2007] [Accepted: 01/17/2007] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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1092
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1093
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Dalgleish T, Williams JMG, Golden AMJ, Perkins N, Barrett LF, Barnard PJ, Yeung CA, Murphy V, Elward R, Tchanturia K, Watkins E. Reduced specificity of autobiographical memory and depression: the role of executive control. J Exp Psychol Gen 2007; 136:23-42. [PMID: 17324083 PMCID: PMC2225543 DOI: 10.1037/0096-3445.136.1.23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 264] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Abstract
It has been widely established that depressed mood states and clinical depression, as well as a range of other psychiatric disorders, are associated with a relative difficulty in accessing specific autobiographical information in response to emotion-related cue words on an Autobiographical Memory Test (AMT; J. M. G. Williams & K. Broadbent, 1986). In 8 studies the authors examined the extent to which this relationship is a function of impaired executive control associated with these mood states and clinical disorders. Studies 1–4 demonstrated that performance on the AMT is associated with performance on measures of executive control, independent of depressed mood. Furthermore, Study 1 showed that executive control (as measured by verbal fluency) mediated the relationship between both depressed mood and a clinical diagnosis of eating disorder and AMT performance. Using a stratified sample in Study 5, the authors confirmed the positive association between depressed mood and impaired performance on the AMT. Studies 6–8 involved experimental manipulations of the parameters of the AMT designed to further indicate that reduced executive control is to a significant extent driving the relationship between depressed mood and AMT performance. The potential role of executive control in accounting for other aspects of the AMT literature is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tim Dalgleish
- Emotion Research Group, Medical Research Council Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit, Cambridge, England.
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1094
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De Beni R, Borella E, Carretti B. Reading Comprehension in Aging: The Role of Working Memory and Metacomprehension. AGING NEUROPSYCHOLOGY AND COGNITION 2007; 14:189-212. [PMID: 17364380 DOI: 10.1080/13825580500229213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
This study examines age-related differences in reading comprehension analyzing the role of working memory and metacomprehension components in a sample of young (18-30 years), young-old (65-74 years), and old-old (75-85 years) participants. Text comprehension abilities were measured by a standardized test, including two texts: a narrative and an expository text. The elderly's reading comprehension performance, when compared to the norm, emerged to be adequate. More specifically, the young-old showed an equivalent level of comprehension as the young adults for the narrative text. However, a clear age-related decline was found in the case of the expository text. Hierarchical regression analyses showed that working memory capacity, as well as different metacomprehension components but not age, are the key aspects in explaining the different patterns of changes in the comprehension of narrative and expository texts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rossana De Beni
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padova, Padova, Italy.
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1095
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Implication des fonctions exécutives dans le décodage en lecture: étude comparative entre normolecteurs et faibles lecteurs de CE2. PSYCHOLOGIE FRANCAISE 2007. [DOI: 10.1016/j.psfr.2006.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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1096
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Unsworth N, Engle RW. The nature of individual differences in working memory capacity: active maintenance in primary memory and controlled search from secondary memory. Psychol Rev 2007; 114:104-32. [PMID: 17227183 DOI: 10.1037/0033-295x.114.1.104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 645] [Impact Index Per Article: 37.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Studies examining individual differences in working memory capacity have suggested that individuals with low working memory capacities demonstrate impaired performance on a variety of attention and memory tasks compared with individuals with high working memory capacities. This working memory limitation can be conceived of as arising from 2 components: a dynamic attention component (primary memory) and a probabilistic cue-dependent search component (secondary memory). This framework is used to examine previous individual differences studies of working memory capacity, and new evidence is examined on the basis of predictions of the framework to performance on immediate free recall. It is suggested that individual differences in working memory capacity are partially due to the ability to maintain information accessible in primary memory and the ability to search for information from secondary memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nash Unsworth
- School of Psychology, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA.
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1097
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Peters MJ, Jelicic M, Verbeek H, Merckelbach H. Poor working memory predicts false memories. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007. [DOI: 10.1080/09541440600760396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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1098
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Lui M, Tannock R. Working memory and inattentive behaviour in a community sample of children. BEHAVIORAL AND BRAIN FUNCTIONS : BBF 2007; 3:12. [PMID: 17319951 PMCID: PMC1820786 DOI: 10.1186/1744-9081-3-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2006] [Accepted: 02/23/2007] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Existing literature to date suggests a relationship between cognitive attention and working memory (WM), but the relationship between overt inattentive behaviour and WM is less clear. This study examined the relationship between WM and parent-rated inattentive behaviour in a community sample of 140 children aged 7-12 years. METHODS Children completed 2 clinical (laboratory-based) measures of WM (auditory-verbal and visual-spatial) and a measure of real-life WM, designed specifically for this study, while their parents completed questionnaires about their child's inattentive behaviour and other areas of functioning. RESULTS Findings indicated that poorer performance on WM tasks predicted inattentive behaviour. CONCLUSION These results are consistent with previous research linking WM deficits and poor attention in ADHD and normal populations. The present findings support a controlled attention model of WM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariko Lui
- Human Development and Applied Psychology, Ontario Institute for Studies in Education of the University of Toronto, 252 Bloor Street West, Toronto, Ontario M5S 1V6, Canada
- Program in Neurosciences and Mental Health, The Hospital for Sick Children, 555 University Avenue, Toronto, Ontario M5G 1X8, Canada
| | - Rosemary Tannock
- Human Development and Applied Psychology, Ontario Institute for Studies in Education of the University of Toronto, 252 Bloor Street West, Toronto, Ontario M5S 1V6, Canada
- Program in Neurosciences and Mental Health, The Hospital for Sick Children, 555 University Avenue, Toronto, Ontario M5G 1X8, Canada
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1099
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McCormick CM, Lewis E, Somley B, Kahan TA. Individual differences in cortisol levels and performance on a test of executive function in men and women. Physiol Behav 2007; 91:87-94. [PMID: 17337021 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2007.01.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2006] [Revised: 01/11/2007] [Accepted: 01/31/2007] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Despite evidence for a high concentration of corticosteroid receptors in prefrontal cortex, little research has examined the relationship between cortisol and prefrontal cortical function other than working memory. We investigated the association between salivary cortisol levels and performance on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) of executive function and on a test of mental rotation (to test specificity of the relationship between cortisol and cognitive performance) in men and women (n=116, ages 17-22). Higher cortisol levels at the beginning of the test session were associated with more errors in women on the WCST and fewer errors in men. However, men's cortisol levels were lower than women's at this point in time. Cortisol levels were not associated with mental rotation scores. Our results suggest that individual differences in cortisol levels among participants upon arrival to a test situation influence performance on a task involving the prefrontal cortex.
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Affiliation(s)
- C M McCormick
- Neuroscience Program, Bates College, Lewiston, ME 04240, USA.
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1100
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Abstract
Most psychological theories predict associations among processes that transpire within individuals. However, these theories are often tested by examining relationships at the between-persons (BP) rather than the within-persons (WP) level. The authors examined the WP and BP relationships between daily stress and daily variability in cognitive performance. Daily stress and cognitive performance were assessed on 6 occasions in 108 older adults and 68 young adults. WP variability in stress predicted WP variability in response times (RTs) on a 2-back working memory task in both younger and older adults. That is, RTs were slower on high-stress days compared with low-stress days. There was evidence of an amplified WP stress effect in the older adults on a serial attention task. There was no evidence of stress effects on simple versions of these tasks that placed minimal demands on working memory. These results are consistent with theories that postulate that stress-related cognitive interference competes for attentional resources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin J Sliwinski
- Department of Psychology and Center for Health and Behavior, Syracuse University, NY 13244, USA.
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