101
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Picchio MC, Martin ES, Cesari R, Calin GA, Yendamuri S, Kuroki T, Pentimalli F, Sarti M, Yoder K, Kaiser LR, Fishel R, Croce CM. Alterations of the tumor suppressor gene Parkin in non-small cell lung cancer. Clin Cancer Res 2004; 10:2720-4. [PMID: 15102676 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-03-0086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Parkin, a gene mutated in autosomal recessive juvenile Parkinsonism and mapped to the common fragile site FRA6E on human chromosome 6q25-q27, is associated with a frequent loss of heterozygosity and altered expression in breast and ovarian carcinomas. In addition, homozygous deletions of exon 2 creating deleterious truncations of the Parkin transcript were observed in the lung adenocarcinoma cell lines Calu-3 and H-1573, suggesting that the loss of this locus and the resulting changes in its expression are involved in the development of these tumors. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN We examined 20 paired normal and non-small cell lung cancer samples for the presence of Parkin alterations in the coding sequence and changes in gene expression. We also restored gene expression in the Parkin-deficient lung carcinoma cell line H460 by use of a recombinant lentivirus containing the wild-type Parkin cDNA. RESULTS Loss of heterozygosity analysis identified a common region of loss in the Parkin/FRA6E locus with the highest frequency for the intragenic marker D6S1599 (45%), and semi-quantitative reverse transcription-PCR revealed reduced expression in 3 of 9 (33%) lung tumors. Although we did not observe any in vitro changes in cell proliferation or cell cycle, ectopic Parkin expression had the ability to reduce in vivo tumorigenicity in nude mice. CONCLUSION These data suggest that Parkin is a tumor suppressor gene whose inactivation may play an important role in non-small cell lung cancer tumorigenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Cristina Picchio
- Kimmel Cancer Center, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19107, USA
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102
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Abstract
Alternative splicing has an important role in expanding protein diversity. We have identified complementary DNA species from adult rat and fetal human brain encoding seven new splice variants of parkin, a gene mutated in autosomal recessive juvenile parkinsonism (ARJP). Alternative splicing affects almost all previously characterized exons, plus 3 new exons of 72, 156, and 180 nucleotides. This creates the potential to express hundreds of different isoforms. The encoded parkin isoforms have different amino acid composition, post-translational modifications, and, most important, molecular architectures. They diverge for the presence or absence of the ubiquitin-like domain, one or two C3HC4 ring fingers, the in-between ring fingers (IBR) domain, and a thiol proteases active site, which has not been previously characterized. Distinct expression patterns occur in primary cultures of neuronal and glial cells. Extensive splicing of parkin produces regional and structural diversity and may have important implications for the pathogenetic mechanisms underlying ARJP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Velia Dagata
- Institute of Neurological Sciences, Italian National Research Council, 95123 Catania, Italy
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103
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Bertoli-Avella AM, Giroud-Benitez JL, Akyol A, Barbosa E, Schaap O, van der Linde HC, Martignoni E, Lopiano L, Lamberti P, Fincati E, Antonini A, Stocchi F, Montagna P, Squitieri F, Marini P, Abbruzzese G, Fabbrini G, Marconi R, Dalla Libera A, Trianni G, Guidi M, De Gaetano A, Boff Maegawa G, De Leo A, Gallai V, de Rosa G, Vanacore N, Meco G, van Duijn CM, Oostra BA, Heutink P, Bonifati V. Novel parkin
mutations detected in patients with early-onset Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord 2004; 20:424-431. [PMID: 15584030 DOI: 10.1002/mds.20343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
A multiethnic series of patients with early-onset Parkinson's disease (EOP) was studied to assess the frequency and nature of parkin/PARK2 gene mutations and to investigate phenotype-genotype relationships. Forty-six EOP probands with an onset age of < 45 years, and 14 affected relatives were ascertained from Italy, Brazil, Cuba, and Turkey. The genetic screening included direct sequencing and exon dosage using a new, cost-effective, real-time polymerase chain reaction method. Mutations were found in 33% of the indexes overall, and in 53% of those with family history compatible with autosomal recessive inheritance. Fifteen parkin alterations (10 exon deletions and five point mutations) were identified, including four novel mutations: Arg402Cys, Cys418Arg, IVS11-3C > G, and exon 8-9-10 deletion. Homozygous mutations, two heterozygous mutations, and a single heterozygous mutation were found in 8, 6, and 1 patient, respectively. Heterozygous exon deletions represented 28% of the mutant alleles. The patients with parkin mutations showed significantly earlier onset, longer disease duration, more frequently symmetric onset, and slower disease progression than the patients without mutations, in agreement with previous studies. This study confirms the frequent involvement of parkin and the importance of genetic testing in the diagnostic work-up of EOP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aida M Bertoli-Avella
- Genetic-Epidemiologic Unit, Department of Clinical Genetics and Department of Epidemiology & Biostatistics, Erasmus MC Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | | | - Ali Akyol
- Department of Neurology, Adnan Menderes University, Aydin, Turkey
| | - Egberto Barbosa
- Department of Neurology, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Onno Schaap
- Genetic-Epidemiologic Unit, Department of Clinical Genetics and Department of Epidemiology & Biostatistics, Erasmus MC Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Herma C van der Linde
- Genetic-Epidemiologic Unit, Department of Clinical Genetics and Department of Epidemiology & Biostatistics, Erasmus MC Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Emilia Martignoni
- Neurological Institute IRCCS Mondino, Pavia and A. Avogadro University, Novara, Italy
| | | | - Paolo Lamberti
- Department of Neurology, University of Bari, Bari, Italy
| | | | - Angelo Antonini
- Parkinson Institute, Istituti Clinici di Perfezionamento, Milan, Italy
| | - Fabrizio Stocchi
- Department of Neurological Sciences, University La Sapienza, Rome, Italy
| | | | | | - Paolo Marini
- Department of Neurology, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Giovanni Abbruzzese
- Department of Neurosciences, Ophthalmology and Genetics, University of Genova, Genova, Italy
| | - Giovanni Fabbrini
- Department of Neurological Sciences, University La Sapienza, Rome, Italy
| | | | | | | | - Marco Guidi
- Neurology Division, INRCA Institute, Ancona, Italy
| | | | | | | | - Virgilio Gallai
- Department of Neurology, University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy
| | | | - Nicola Vanacore
- National Centre of Epidemiology, National Institute for Health, Rome, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Meco
- Department of Neurological Sciences, University La Sapienza, Rome, Italy
| | - Cornelia M van Duijn
- Genetic-Epidemiologic Unit, Department of Clinical Genetics and Department of Epidemiology & Biostatistics, Erasmus MC Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Ben A Oostra
- Genetic-Epidemiologic Unit, Department of Clinical Genetics and Department of Epidemiology & Biostatistics, Erasmus MC Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Peter Heutink
- Section Medical Genomics, Department of Human Genetics and Department of Biological Psychology, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Vincenzo Bonifati
- Genetic-Epidemiologic Unit, Department of Clinical Genetics and Department of Epidemiology & Biostatistics, Erasmus MC Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- Department of Neurological Sciences, University La Sapienza, Rome, Italy
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104
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Pigullo S, De Luca A, Barone P, Marchese R, Bellone E, Colosimo A, Scaglione C, Martinelli P, Di Maria E, Pizzuti A, Abbruzzese G, Dallapiccola B, Ajmar F, Mandich P. Mutational analysis of parkin gene by denaturing high-performance liquid chromatography (DHPLC) in essential tremor. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2004; 10:357-62. [PMID: 15261877 DOI: 10.1016/j.parkreldis.2004.04.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2003] [Revised: 04/22/2004] [Accepted: 04/22/2004] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To evaluate the relationship between point mutations within the parkin gene and essential tremor (ET). BACKGROUND Essential tremor, the most common movement disorder, has long been recognised as an autosomal dominant disease. To date the genes involved in ET pathogenesis are still unknown. Several authors reported the association of ET with Parkinson's disease (PD). PATIENTS AND METHODS One hundred and ten unrelated ET patients were analysed for point mutations within the parkin gene. Experimental conditions for DHPLC mutational analysis of the coding region of the parkin gene were set up. RESULTS Neither obvious disruptive mutations, nor mutations previously described in patients with Parkinson's disease were identified in the cohort of patients analysed. DHPLC analysis detected two already reported polymorphisms [c.1138G>C (V380L) and c.1180G>A (D394N)], and four novel rare variants (frequency <1%) [c.645C>A (H215Q); c.847C>T (H279H); c.1393G>A (V465M) and c.2695A>G] located within exonic regions. Four new polymorphisms [c.413-20T>C; c.872-35G>A; c.872-68C>G; c.1286-117A>G], and one rare variant (c.934-3C>T) were also found within intronic regions. CONCLUSION Causative sequence variants in the parkin gene have not been identified in this cohort of Italian ET patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simona Pigullo
- Department of Neurosciences, Ophthalmology and Genetics, Section of Medical Genetics, University of Genoa c/o DIMI, Viale Benedetto XV 6, 16132 Genoa, Italy
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105
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Clark LN, Afridi S, Mejia-Santana H, Harris J, Louis ED, Cote LJ, Andrews H, Singleton A, Wavrant De-Vrieze F, Hardy J, Mayeux R, Fahn S, Waters C, Ford B, Frucht S, Ottman R, Marder K. Analysis of an early-onset Parkinson's disease cohort for DJ-1 mutations. Mov Disord 2004; 19:796-800. [PMID: 15254937 DOI: 10.1002/mds.20131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The frequency and relative contribution of DJ-1 mutations in early-onset Parkinson's disease (EOPD) is currently unknown. We analyzed a cohort of 89 EOPD patients (mean age at onset of PD +/- SD, 41.5 +/- 7.2 years), ascertained independent of family history, who participated in a study of the genetic epidemiology of PD. This study includes sequence analysis of the DJ-1 gene in addition to assaying the 14,082-bp deletion spanning exons 1 to 5, previously identified in a Dutch kindred, in 89 EOPD cases. A heterozygous missense mutation in exon 5 (A104T) was identified in an EOPD case of Asian ethnicity; this sequence variant was absent in 308 control chromosomes. We identified additional sequence variation in the DJ-1 gene, including a polymorphism in the coding region in exon 5 (R98Q), three polymorphisms in the 5' untranslated region (exon 1A/1B), and two polymorphisms in intronic regions (IVS1 and IVS5). Mutations in the DJ-1 gene are rare in EOPD in both sporadic and familial cases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorraine N Clark
- Taub Institute for Research on Alzheimer's Disease and the Aging Brain, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA
- Department of Pathology, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA
| | - Shehla Afridi
- Taub Institute for Research on Alzheimer's Disease and the Aging Brain, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA
| | | | - Juliette Harris
- Department of Neurology, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA
| | - Elan D Louis
- Taub Institute for Research on Alzheimer's Disease and the Aging Brain, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA
- Gertrude H. Sergievsky Center, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA
- Department of Neurology, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA
| | - Lucien J Cote
- Gertrude H. Sergievsky Center, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA
- Department of Neurology, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA
| | - Howard Andrews
- Gertrude H. Sergievsky Center, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA
- Department of Epidemiology, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA
| | - Andrew Singleton
- Molecular Genetics Section, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Fabienne Wavrant De-Vrieze
- Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - John Hardy
- Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Richard Mayeux
- Taub Institute for Research on Alzheimer's Disease and the Aging Brain, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA
- Gertrude H. Sergievsky Center, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA
- Department of Neurology, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA
| | - Stanley Fahn
- Department of Neurology, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA
| | - Cheryl Waters
- Department of Neurology, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA
| | - Blair Ford
- Department of Neurology, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA
| | - Steven Frucht
- Department of Neurology, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA
| | - Ruth Ottman
- Gertrude H. Sergievsky Center, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA
- Department of Epidemiology, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA
- The Epidemiology of Brain Disorders Department, New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, New York, USA
| | - Karen Marder
- Taub Institute for Research on Alzheimer's Disease and the Aging Brain, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA
- Gertrude H. Sergievsky Center, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA
- Department of Neurology, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA
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106
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Abstract
We provide a pragmatic guide for clinicians, and detail the recent developments in the genetics of Parkinson's disease that have shaped our current understanding and management of this disease and other parkinsonian disorders. These developments have been rapid, and in total over 20 genes have been identified, three of which were discovered in the past year. Although there are undoubtedly more genes to be found, the major challenge for the future is to determine how they function and whether they interact. These genes help us to understand the heterogeneity of parkinsonism, and also inform on the molecular and clinical features of individual parkinsonisms. However, their discovery also requires us to raise issues about genetic testing and genetic counselling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel G Healy
- Department of Molecular Neuroscience, Institute of Neurology, and National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery, London, UK
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107
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Wiley J, Lynch T, Lincoln S, Skipper L, Hulihan M, Gosal D, Bisceglio G, Kachergus J, Hardy J, Farrer MJ. Parkinson's disease in Ireland: clinical presentation and genetic heterogeneity in patients with parkin mutations. Mov Disord 2004; 19:677-81. [PMID: 15197707 DOI: 10.1002/mds.10703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Early-onset autosomal recessive parkinsonism is associated with parkin gene mutations. Different parkin mutations occur in many ethnic backgrounds; however, the phenotype may vary. We studied 102 young-onset (age at onset <60 years) Parkinson's disease (PD) patients. From 102 patients, 40 with early-onset PD (<45 years at symptomatic onset) were selected for clinical assessment and parkin gene molecular analysis for duplications/deletions and point mutations. We identified parkin mutations in 7 of 40 early-onset patients; including novel compound heterozygotes and potential splice site changes. The mean age at onset in the 7 parkin mutation-positive patients was 33 +/- 9 years (age range, 18-42 years), marginally lower than that of the 33 parkin-negative early-onset patients, 38 +/- 7 years (age range, 17-45 years). A family history of PD was present in 4 of 7 patients with parkin mutations, compared with 6 of 33 early-onset parkin-negative patients. Overall, parkin mutations were found in 4 of 10 patients with a positive family history and 3 of 30 patients without a family history of PD. Patients with parkin mutations had more dystonia, dyskinesia, and sleep benefit compared with parkin-negative patients. We subsequently identified a single point mutation among the 62 young-onset (age at onset 45 to <60 years). Mutations in the parkin gene may account for approximately 17% of early-onset (age at onset <45 years) parkinsonism in Ireland, in agreement with previous European studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph Wiley
- University College Dublin Conway Institute of Biomolecular and Biomedical Research, Department of Neurology, Mater Misericordiae Hospital, Ireland
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108
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Valente EM, Salvi S, Ialongo T, Marongiu R, Elia AE, Caputo V, Romito L, Albanese A, Dallapiccola B, Bentivoglio AR. PINK1 mutations are associated with sporadic early-onset parkinsonism. Ann Neurol 2004; 56:336-41. [PMID: 15349860 DOI: 10.1002/ana.20256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 358] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
We have recently reported homozygous mutations in the PINK1 gene in three consanguineous families with early-onset parkinsonism (EOP) linked to the PARK6 locus. To further evaluate the pathogenic role of PINK1 in EOP and to draw genotype-phenotype correlates, we performed PINK1 mutation analysis in a cohort of Italian EOP patients, mostly sporadic, with onset younger than 50 years of age. Seven of 100 patients carried missense mutations in PINK1. Two patients had two PINK1 mutations, whereas in five patients only one mutation was identified. Age at onset was in the fourth-fifth decade (range, 37-47 years). The clinical picture was characterized by a typical parkinsonian phenotype with asymmetric onset and rare occurrence of atypical features. Slow progression and excellent response to levodopa were observed in all subject. Two of 200 healthy control individuals also carried one heterozygous missense mutation. The identification of a higher number of patients (5%) than controls (1%) carrying a single heterozygous mutation, along with previous positron emission tomography studies demonstrating a preclinical nigrostriatal dysfunction in PARK6 carriers, supports the hypothesis that haploinsufficiency of PINK1, as well as of other EOP genes, may represent a susceptibility factor toward parkinsonism. However, the pathogenetic significance of heterozygous PINK1 mutations still remains to be clarified.
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109
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Lockhart PJ, Bounds R, Hulihan M, Kachergus J, Lincoln S, Lin CH, Wu RM, Farrer MJ. Lack of mutations in DJ-1 in a cohort of Taiwanese ethnic Chinese with early-onset parkinsonism. Mov Disord 2004; 19:1065-9. [PMID: 15372597 DOI: 10.1002/mds.20082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Recently, mutations in DJ-1 (PARK7) were described as a novel cause of early-onset parkinsonism. We analysed the DJ-1 gene in a cohort of patients originating from Taiwan with early-onset Parkinson's disease; 41 subjects were clinically and genetically examined. These patients were evaluated previously for the presence of parkin mutations (PARK2) and were found to be negative. The entire DJ-1 open-reading frame was amplified from cDNA, analysed for size alterations indicative of mutations affecting splice motifs, and sequenced to identify coding variants. In addition, we developed quantitative polymerase chain reaction assays to examine the genomic copy number of DJ-1 exons. No potential splice site mutations, coding sequence alterations, or exon deletion/duplications were detected. Our results and previous studies suggest that alterations to DJ-1 are not a common cause of early-onset Parkinson's disease and other causes, genetic and/or environmental, remain to be identified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul J Lockhart
- Department of Neuroscience, Birdsall Building, Mayo Clinic Jacksonville, Florida 32224, USA.
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110
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Abstract
Juvenile parkinsonism (JP) describes patients in whom the clinical features of parkinsonism manifest before 21 years of age. Many reported cases that had a good response to levodopa have proved to have autosomal recessive juvenile parkinsonism (AR-JP) due to mutations in the parkin gene. With the exception of parkin mutations and dopa-responsive dystonia, most causes are associated with the presence of additional neurological signs, resulting from additional lesions outside of the basal ganglia. Lewy body pathology has only been reported in one case, suggesting that a juvenile form of idiopathic Parkinson's disease may be extremely rare.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominic C Paviour
- National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom
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111
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von Coelln R, Dawson VL, Dawson TM. Parkin-associated Parkinson's disease. Cell Tissue Res 2004; 318:175-84. [PMID: 15503153 DOI: 10.1007/s00441-004-0924-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2004] [Accepted: 05/19/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Mutations in the PARK2 gene coding for parkin cause autosomal recessive juvenile parkinsonism (AR-JP), a familial form of Parkinson's disease (PD). Parkin functions as an E3 ubiquitin ligase, and loss of this ubiquitin ligase activity appears to be the mechanism underlying pathogenesis of AR-JP. Recently, the spectrum of genetic, clinical, and pathological findings on AR-JP has been significantly expanded. Moreover, a considerable number of parkin interactors and/or substrates have been identified and characterized, and animal models of parkin deficiency have been generated. In this review, we provide an overview of the most relevant findings and discuss their implications for the pathogenesis of AR-JP and sporadic PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rainer von Coelln
- Institute for Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 733 N. Broadway, Suite 731, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
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112
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Recchia A, Debetto P, Negro A, Guidolin D, Skaper SD, Giusti P. Alpha-synuclein and Parkinson's disease. FASEB J 2004; 18:617-26. [PMID: 15054084 DOI: 10.1096/fj.03-0338rev] [Citation(s) in RCA: 206] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Alpha-synuclein (alpha-syn) is a small soluble protein expressed primarily at presynaptic terminals in the central nervous system. Interest in alpha-syn has increased dramatically after the discovery of a relationship between its dysfunction and several neurodegenerative diseases, including Parkinson's disease (PD). The physiological functions of alpha-syn remain to be fully defined, although recent data suggest a role in regulating membrane stability and neuronal plasticity. Various trigger factors, either environmental or genetic, can lead to a cascade of events involving misfolding or loss of normal function of alpha-syn. In dopaminergic neurons, this may promote a vicious cycle in which elevation in cytoplasmic dopamine, oxidative stress, alpha-syn dysfunction, and disruption of vesicle function lead to dopaminergic cell loss and PD. Alpha-syn dysfunction appears to be a common feature of all forms of PD. The mechanism by which alpha-syn induces neuronal cell toxicity may invoke multiple pathways, such as aggregation or interaction with other proteins and molecules, including synphilin-1, chaperone 14-3-3 protein, and dopamine itself. This complexity has hindered the development of models to study PD. The available animal models of PD, each present distinct advantages and limits. Findings to date suggest that alpha-syn-based models represent a paradigm, which is closest to the human pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra Recchia
- Department of Pharmacology and Anesthesiology, University of Padova, 35131 Padova, Italy
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113
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Takao M, Ghetti B, Yoshida H, Piccardo P, Narain Y, Murrell JR, Vidal R, Glazier BS, Jakes R, Tsutsui M, Spillantini MG, Crowther RA, Goedert M, Koto A. Early-onset dementia with Lewy bodies. Brain Pathol 2004; 14:137-47. [PMID: 15193026 PMCID: PMC8095855 DOI: 10.1111/j.1750-3639.2004.tb00046.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The clinical and neuropathological characteristics of an atypical form of dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) are described. The proband experienced difficulties in her school performance at 13 years of age. Neurological examination revealed cognitive dysfunction, dysarthria, parkinsonism and myoclonus. By age 14 years, the symptoms had worsened markedly and the proband died at age 15 years. On neuropathological examination, the brain was severely atrophic. Numerous intracytoplasmic and intraneuritic Lewy bodies, as well as Lewy neurites, were present throughout the cerebral cortex and subcortical nuclel; vacuolar changes were seen in the upper layers of the neocortex and severe neuronal loss and gliosis were evident in the cerebral cortex and substantia nigra. Lewy bodies and Lewy neurites were strongly immunoreactive for alpha-synuclein and ubiquitin. Lewy bodies were composed of filamentous and granular material and isolated filaments were decorated by alpha-synuclein antibodies. Immunohistochemistry for tau or beta-amyloid yielded negative results. The etiology of this atypical form of DLB is unknown, since there was no family history and since sequencing of the exonic regions of alpha-Synuclein, beta-Synuclein, Synphilin-1, Parkin, Ubiquitin C-terminal hydrolase L1 and Neurofilament-M failed to reveal a pathogenic mutation. This study provides further evidence of the clinical and pathological heterogeneity of DLB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masaki Takao
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Ind
- Department of Neurology, Keio University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Bernardino Ghetti
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Ind
| | | | - Pedro Piccardo
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Ind
| | - Yolanda Narain
- Centre for Brain Repair and Department of Neurology, Cambridge University, United Kingdom
| | - Jill R. Murrell
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Ind
| | - Ruben Vidal
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Ind
| | - Bradley S. Glazier
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Ind
| | - Ross Jakes
- MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Miho Tsutsui
- Centre for Brain Repair and Department of Neurology, Cambridge University, United Kingdom
| | | | | | - Michel Goedert
- MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Atsuo Koto
- Department of Neurology, Keio University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
- Faculty of Nursing and Medical Care, Keio University, Tokyo, Japan
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114
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Von Coelln R, Thomas B, Savitt JM, Lim KL, Sasaki M, Hess EJ, Dawson VL, Dawson TM. Loss of locus coeruleus neurons and reduced startle in parkin null mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2004; 101:10744-9. [PMID: 15249681 PMCID: PMC490005 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0401297101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 248] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is the most common neurodegenerative movement disorder and is characterized pathologically by degeneration of catecholaminergic neurons of the substantia nigra pars compacta and locus coeruleus, among other regions. Autosomal-recessive juvenile Parkinsonism (ARJP) is caused by mutations in the PARK2 gene coding for parkin and constitutes the most common familial form of PD. The majority of ARJP-associated parkin mutations are thought to be loss of function-mutations; however, the pathogenesis of ARJP remains poorly understood. Here, we report the generation of parkin null mice by targeted deletion of parkin exon 7. These mice show a loss of catecholaminergic neurons in the locus coeruleus and an accompanying loss of norepinephrine in discrete regions of the central nervous system. Moreover, there is a dramatic reduction of the norepinephrine-dependent startle response. The nigrostriatal dopaminergic system does not show any impairment. This mouse model will help gain a better understanding of parkin function and the mechanisms underlying parkin-associated PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rainer Von Coelln
- Institute for Cell Engineering, and Department of Neurology, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21287, USA
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115
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Abstract
Parkinson's disease is the most common serious movement disorder in the world, affecting about 1% of adults older than 60 years. The disease is attributed to selective loss of neurons in the substantia nigra, and its cause is enigmatic in most individuals. Symptoms of Parkinson's disease respond in varying degrees to drugs, and surgery offers hope for patients no longer adequately controlled in this manner. The high prevalence of the disease, and important advances in its management, mean that generalists need to have a working knowledge of this disorder. This Seminar covers the basics, from terminology to aspects of diagnosis, treatment, and pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali Samii
- Department of Neurology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA.
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116
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Chung KKK, Thomas B, Li X, Pletnikova O, Troncoso JC, Marsh L, Dawson VL, Dawson TM. S-nitrosylation of parkin regulates ubiquitination and compromises parkin's protective function. Science 2004; 304:1328-31. [PMID: 15105460 DOI: 10.1126/science.1093891] [Citation(s) in RCA: 592] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Parkin is an E3 ubiquitin ligase involved in the ubiquitination of proteins that are important in the survival of dopamine neurons in Parkinson's disease (PD). We show that parkin is S-nitrosylated in vitro, as well as in vivo in a mouse model of PD and in brains of patients with PD and diffuse Lewy body disease. Moreover, S-nitrosylation inhibits parkin's ubiquitin E3 ligase activity and its protective function. The inhibition of parkin's ubiquitin E3 ligase activity by S-nitrosylation could contribute to the degenerative process in these disorders by impairing the ubiquitination of parkin substrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenny K K Chung
- Institute for Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
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117
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Lincoln SJ, Maraganore DM, Lesnick TG, Bounds R, de Andrade M, Bower JH, Hardy JA, Farrer MJ. Parkin variants in North American Parkinson's disease: cases and controls. Mov Disord 2004; 18:1306-11. [PMID: 14639672 DOI: 10.1002/mds.10601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
We report on an evaluation of coding variants within the parkin gene to assess their frequency in a North American clinical series of 313 Parkinson's disease (PD) cases and 192 unrelated controls. We hypothesized that the carrier frequency of parkin coding mutations, exon deletions, or duplications may be greater in PD cases. However, point mutations and exonic deletions/duplications, reported previously as pathogenic in homozygous or compound heterozygous individuals, occurred in both cases and controls with similar frequencies (3.8% in cases, 3.1% in controls). Furthermore, only stratified subanalyses detected any genetic association between the V380L common coding polymorphism and PD. We discuss the implication of parkin mutations for Parkinson's disease from this population perspective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah J Lincoln
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic Jacksonville, Florida 32224, USA
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118
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West AB, Maidment NT. Genetics of parkin-linked disease. Hum Genet 2004; 114:327-36. [PMID: 14727181 DOI: 10.1007/s00439-003-1074-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2003] [Accepted: 12/07/2003] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Research into Parkinson's disease (PD), once considered the archetypical non-genetic neurodegenerative disorder, has been revolutionized by the identification of a number of genes, mutations of which underlie various familial forms of the disease. Whereas such mutations appear to exist in a relatively small number of individuals from a few families, the study of the function of these genes promises to reveal the fundamental disease pathogenesis, not only of familial forms of the disease, but also of the much more common sporadic PD. The observation that mutations in the second identified PD locus (parkin) are common in juvenile- and early-onset PD and increasing evidence supporting a direct role for parkin in late-onset disease make this gene a particularly compelling candidate for intensified investigation. The determination of the frequency and effect of parkin mutations in various subsets of PD will be crucial for understanding the way in which parkin is related to neurodegenerative mechanisms, and whether these subsets might be effectively identified and treated. In addition, many aspects of parkin-linked disease, originally thought to be well defined, have now been obscured both by genetic studies that preclude a simple model of disease transmission and by clinical and pathological studies that demonstrate broad variability in cases with parkin mutations. Future studies that address the issues in question should have a far-reaching impact in downstream biochemical studies and our understanding of parkin's role in PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew B West
- Neuropsychiatric Institute and Hospital, University of California at Los Angeles, 90024, USA.
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119
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Denison SR, Wang F, Becker NA, Schüle B, Kock N, Phillips LA, Klein C, Smith DI. Alterations in the common fragile site gene Parkin in ovarian and other cancers. Oncogene 2004; 22:8370-8. [PMID: 14614460 DOI: 10.1038/sj.onc.1207072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 173] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The cloning and characterization of the common fragile site (CFS) FRA6E (6q26) identified Parkin, the gene involved in the pathogenesis of many cases of juvenile, early-onset and, rarely, late-onset Parkinson's disease, as the third large gene to be localized within a large CFS. Initial analyses of Parkin indicated that in addition to playing a role in Parkinson's disease, it might also be involved in the development and/or progression of ovarian cancer. These analyses also indicated striking similarities among the large CFS-locus genes: fragile histidine triad gene (FHIT; 3p14.2), WW domain-containing oxidoreductase gene (WWOX; 16q23), and Parkin (6q26). Analyses of FHIT and WWOX in a variety of different cancer types have identified the presence of alternative transcripts with whole exon deletions. Interestingly, various whole exon duplications and deletions have been identified for Parkin in juvenile and early-onset Parkinson's patients. Therefore, we performed mutational/exon rearrangement analysis of Parkin in ovarian cancer cell lines and primary tumors. Four (66.7%) cell lines and four (18.2%) primary tumors were identified as being heterozygous for the duplication or deletion of a Parkin exon. Additionally, three of 23 (13.0%) nonovarian tumor-derived cell lines were also identified as having a duplication or deletion of one or more Parkin exons. Analysis of Parkin protein expression with antibodies revealed that most of the ovarian cancer cell lines and primary tumors had diminished or absent Parkin expression. While functional analyses have not yet been performed for Parkin, these data suggest that like FHIT and WWOX, Parkin may represent a tumor suppressor gene.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stacy R Denison
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, Division of Experimental Pathology, Mayo Clinic Cancer Center, Mayo Foundation, 200 First Street SW, Rochester, MN 55905, USA
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120
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Pawlyk AC, Giasson BI, Sampathu DM, Perez FA, Lim KL, Dawson VL, Dawson TM, Palmiter RD, Trojanowski JQ, Lee VMY. Novel monoclonal antibodies demonstrate biochemical variation of brain parkin with age. J Biol Chem 2003; 278:48120-8. [PMID: 12972409 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m306889200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 126] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Autosomal recessive juvenile parkinsonism is a movement disorder associated with the degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in substantia nigra pars compacta. The loss of functional parkin caused by parkin gene mutations is the most common single cause of juvenile parkinsonism. Parkin has been shown to aid in protecting cells from endoplasmic reticulum and oxidative stressors presumably due to ubiquitin ligase activity of parkin that targets proteins for proteasomal degradation. However, studies on parkin have been impeded because of limited reagents specific for this protein. Here we report the generation and characterization of a panel of parkin-specific monoclonal antibodies. Biochemical analyses indicate that parkin is present only in the high salt-extractable fraction of mouse brain, whereas it is present in both the high salt-extractable and RIPA-resistant, SDS-extractable fraction in young human brain. Parkin is present at decreased levels in the high salt-extractable fraction and at increased levels in the SDS-extractable fraction from aged human brain. This shift in the extractability of parkin upon aging is seen in humans but not in mice, demonstrating species-specific differences in the biochemical characteristics of murine versus human parkin. Finally, by using these highly specific anti-parkin monoclonal antibodies, it was not possible to detect parkin in alpha-synuclein-containing lesions in alpha-synucleinopathies, thereby challenging prior inferences about the role of parkin in movement disorders other than autosomal recessive juvenile parkinsonism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron C Pawlyk
- Center for Neurodegenerative Disease Research, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, USA
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121
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Winklhofer KF, Henn IH, Kay-Jackson PC, Heller U, Tatzelt J. Inactivation of parkin by oxidative stress and C-terminal truncations: a protective role of molecular chaperones. J Biol Chem 2003; 278:47199-208. [PMID: 12972428 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m306769200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Loss of parkin function is linked to autosomal recessive juvenile parkinsonism. Here we show that proteotoxic stress and short C-terminal truncations induce misfolding of parkin. As a consequence, wild-type parkin was depleted from a high molecular weight complex and inactivated by aggregation. Similarly, the pathogenic parkin mutant W453Stop, characterized by a C-terminal deletion of 13 amino acids, spontaneously adopted a misfolded conformation. Mutational analysis indicated that C-terminal truncations exceeding 3 amino acids abolished formation of detergent-soluble parkin. In the cytosol scattered aggregates of misfolded parkin contained the molecular chaperone Hsp70. Moreover, increased expression of chaperones prevented aggregation of wild-type parkin and promoted folding of the W453Stop mutant. Analyzing parkin folding in vitro indicated that parkin is aggregation-prone and that its folding is dependent on chaperones. Our study demonstrates that C-terminal truncations impede parkin folding and reveal a new mechanism for inactivation of parkin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Konstanze F Winklhofer
- Department of Cellular Biochemistry, Max-Planck-Institute for Biochemistry, D-82152 Martinsried, Germany.
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122
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Abstract
Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and motor neuron disease share a propensity to occur with increasing age and as either a sporadic or a familial disorder. A number of behavioral and environmental risk factors have been proposed for each disorder, but most associations lack consistency and specificity. Over the last decade the remarkable frequency of these disorders has become apparent, and the identification of mutations in genes has provided the means to understand their pathogenesis. Better and more accurate means to characterize and diagnose these diseases has greatly facilitated analytic epidemiology. The analysis of behavioral and genetic factors that may lower disease risk has led to clinical trials that are either in progress or being planned with the aim of preventing these disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Mayeux
- The Gertrude H. Sergievsky Center, Columbia University, 630 West 168th Street, New York, NY 10032, USA.
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123
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Goldberg MS, Fleming SM, Palacino JJ, Cepeda C, Lam HA, Bhatnagar A, Meloni EG, Wu N, Ackerson LC, Klapstein GJ, Gajendiran M, Roth BL, Chesselet MF, Maidment NT, Levine MS, Shen J. Parkin-deficient mice exhibit nigrostriatal deficits but not loss of dopaminergic neurons. J Biol Chem 2003; 278:43628-35. [PMID: 12930822 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m308947200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 642] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Loss-of-function mutations in parkin are the major cause of early-onset familial Parkinson's disease. To investigate the pathogenic mechanism by which loss of parkin function causes Parkinson's disease, we generated a mouse model bearing a germline disruption in parkin. Parkin-/- mice are viable and exhibit grossly normal brain morphology. Quantitative in vivo microdialysis revealed an increase in extracellular dopamine concentration in the striatum of parkin-/- mice. Intracellular recordings of medium-sized striatal spiny neurons showed that greater currents are required to induce synaptic responses, suggesting a reduction in synaptic excitability in the absence of parkin. Furthermore, parkin-/- mice exhibit deficits in behavioral paradigms sensitive to dysfunction of the nigrostriatal pathway. The number of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra of parkin-/- mice, however, is normal up to the age of 24 months, in contrast to the substantial loss of nigral neurons characteristic of Parkinson's disease. Steady-state levels of CDCrel-1, synphilin-1, and alpha-synuclein, which were identified previously as substrates of the E3 ubiquitin ligase activity of parkin, are unaltered in parkin-/- brains. Together these findings provide the first evidence for a novel role of parkin in dopamine regulation and nigrostriatal function, and a non-essential role of parkin in the survival of nigral neurons in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew S Goldberg
- Center for Neurologic Diseases, Harvard Medical School, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA
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124
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Abstract
The ubiquitin-proteasome system targets numerous cellular proteins for degradation. In addition, modifications by ubiquitin-like proteins as well as proteins containing ubiquitin-interacting and -associated motifs modulate many others. This tightly controlled process involves multiple specific and general enzymes of the system as well as many modifying and ancillary proteins. Thus, it is not surprising that ubiquitin-mediated degradation/processing/modification regulates a broad array of basic cellular processes. Moreover, aberrations in the system have been implicated, either as a primary cause or secondary consequence, in the pathogenesis of both inherited and acquired neurodegenerative diseases. Recent findings indicate that the system is involved in the pathogenesis of Parkinson's, Alzheimer's, Huntington's, and Prion diseases as well as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. This raises hopes for a better understanding of the pathogenetic mechanisms involved in these diseases and for the development of novel, mechanism-based therapeutic modalities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron Ciechanover
- Department of Biochemistry and The Rappaport Family Institute for Research in the Medical Sciences, The Bruce Rappaport Faculty of Medicine, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 31096, Israel.
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125
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Postuma RB, Furukawa Y, Rogaeva E, St. George-Hyslop PH, Farrer MJ, Lang AE. Dopa-responsive dystonia presenting with prominent isolated bilateral resting leg tremor: Evidence for a role ofparkin? Mov Disord 2003. [DOI: 10.1002/mds.10478] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
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126
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Sanger T. Curr Opin Neurol 2003; 16:529-535. [DOI: 10.1097/00019052-200308000-00014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
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127
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Illarioshkin SN, Periquet M, Rawal N, Lücking CB, Zagorovskaya TB, Slominsky PA, Miloserdova OV, Markova ED, Limborska SA, Ivanova-Smolenskaya IA, Brice A. Mutation analysis of the parkin gene in Russian families with autosomal recessive juvenile parkinsonism. Mov Disord 2003; 18:914-9. [PMID: 12889082 DOI: 10.1002/mds.10467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Autosomal recessive juvenile parkinsonism (AR-JP) is a form of hereditary parkinsonism characterized by variable clinical presentations and caused by mutations in a novel gene, parkin, on chromosome 6q25.2-27. Until now, no Russian cases of parkin-associated AR-JP have been reported on. We recruited 16 patients from 11 Russian families with dopa-responsive movement disorders according to the following criteria: 1) family history compatible with autosomal recessive inheritance; 2) onset of symptoms at </=30 years of age; and 3) the lack of mutations in the GTP cyclohydrolase I gene (in sporadic cases). Mutation screening of the parkin gene was carried out by a semiquantitative PCR assay and direct sequencing of the coding region. Six different parkin mutations (both deletions and point mutations) were identified in the index cases from four families, including a novel point mutation in the donor splice site (IVS1+1G-->A). The majority of our parkin-associated cases were characterized by early-onset dopa-responsive parkinsonism with benign course and slow progression (5 patients from two families have been followed for as long as 18-36 years), and 1 patient had a phenotype of dopa-responsive dystonia. This first description of Russian patients with AR-JP and molecularly proven parkin mutations confirms the widespread occurrence of this polymorphic hereditary extrapyramidal disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergei N Illarioshkin
- Department of Neurogenetics, Institute of Neurology, Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, Moscow, Russia.
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128
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Lohmann E, Periquet M, Bonifati V, Wood NW, De Michele G, Bonnet AM, Fraix V, Broussolle E, Horstink MWIM, Vidailhet M, Verpillat P, Gasser T, Nicholl D, Teive H, Raskin S, Rascol O, Destée A, Ruberg M, Gasparini F, Meco G, Agid Y, Durr A, Brice A. How much phenotypic variation can be attributed to parkin genotype? Ann Neurol 2003; 54:176-85. [PMID: 12891670 DOI: 10.1002/ana.10613] [Citation(s) in RCA: 231] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
To establish phenotype-genotype correlations in early-onset parkinsonism, we have compared the phenotype of a large series of 146 patients with and 250 patients without parkin mutations. Although no single sign distinguished the groups, patients with mutations had significantly earlier and more symmetrical onset, dystonia more often at onset and hyperreflexia, slower progression of the disease, and a tendency toward a greater response to levodopa despite lower doses. After forward stepwise multiple logistic regression analysis, dystonia at onset and brisk reflexes were not longer significantly different but were correlated with age at onset rather than the presence of the parkin mutation. Age at onset in carriers of parkin mutations varied as did the rate of progression of the disease: the younger the age at onset the slower the evolution. The genotype influenced the phenotype: carriers of at least one missense mutation had a higher United Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale motor score than those carrying two truncating mutations. The localization of the mutations was also important because missense mutations in functional domains of parkin resulted in earlier onset. Patients with a single heterozygous mutation had significantly later and more asymmetrical onset and more frequent levodopa-induced fluctuations and dystonia than patients with two mutations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ebba Lohmann
- INSERM U289, Hôpital de la Salpêtrière, Paris, France
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129
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130
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Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is the most common neurodegenerative movement disorder. The major motor disabilities of PD are associated with the extensive loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta. The physiological changes and biochemical pathways involved in the selective demise of these neurons are still unclear. Recent studies have demonstrated that alterations or reductions in ubiquitin-mediated proteasome function can be causal of at least some forms of parkinsonism, and multiple lines of evidence suggest that this mechanism of protein degradation may play an important role in the etiology of PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benoit I Giasson
- Center for Neurodegenerative Disease Research, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
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131
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Abstract
In recent years, it has become increasingly clear that many neurodegenerative diseases involve aggregation and deposition of misfolded proteins such as amyloid beta, tau, alpha-synuclein and polyglutamine containing proteins. This abnormal deposition of misfolded proteins produce malfunctioning of a distinctive set of neurons. It may also induce oxidative and endoplasmic reticulum stress and proteosomal and mitochondrial dysfunction that ultimately leads to neuronal death. While hereditary forms of disorders are caused by genetic mutations, many sporadic cases are likely to be due to genetic and environmental factors. These disorders are progressive in nature. Therefore, treatment is difficult. However, for some diseases, a growing number of treatment options such as drugs, antioxidants, cell transplantation, surgery, rehabilitation procedures and preimplantation diagnosis is available. It should be noted that many of these treatments produce unacceptable risks or adverse effects and they are of only minimal benefit for patients. In future, an understanding of the causes of protein aggregation and genetic and environmental susceptibility factors of a specific individual (or specific individual determinants) may provide a better opportunity for an effective therapeutic intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barkur S Shastry
- Department of Biological Sciences, Oakland University, Rochester, MI 48309, USA.
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132
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Lim KL, Dawson VL, Dawson TM. The cast of molecular characters in Parkinson's disease: felons, conspirators, and suspects. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2003; 991:80-92. [PMID: 12846976 DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2003.tb07465.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's Disease (PD) is a common neurodegenerative disorder characterized by the progressive loss of dopamine neurons and the accumulation of Lewy bodies and neurites. Recent advances indicate that PD is due in some individuals to genetic mutations in alpha-synuclein, parkin, and ubiquitin C-terminal hydrolase L1 (UCHL1). All three PD-linked gene products are related directly or indirectly to the functioning of the cellular ubiquitin proteasomal system (UPS), suggesting that UPS dysfunction may be important in PD pathogenesis. Indeed, emerging evidence indicates that derangements of the UPS may be one of the underlying mechanisms of PD pathogenesis. The function of parkin as an ubiquitin protein ligase positions it as an important player in both familial and idiopathic PD. We recently demonstrated that parkin mediates a nondegradative form of ubiquitination on synphilin-1 that could contribute to synphilin-1's aggregation in PD. Our results implicate parkin involvement in the formation of Lewy bodies associated with sporadic PD. This review discusses the role of the UPS, as well as the modus operandi of the three PD candidate felons (alpha-synuclein, parkin, and UCHL1) along with their conspirators in bringing about dopaminergic cell death in PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kah Leong Lim
- Neurodegeneration Research Laboratory, National Neuroscience Institute, 11 Jalan Tan Tock Seng, Singapore 308433
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133
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Periquet M, Latouche M, Lohmann E, Rawal N, De Michele G, Ricard S, Teive H, Fraix V, Vidailhet M, Nicholl D, Barone P, Wood NW, Raskin S, Deleuze JF, Agid Y, Dürr A, Brice A. Parkin mutations are frequent in patients with isolated early-onset parkinsonism. Brain 2003; 126:1271-8. [PMID: 12764050 DOI: 10.1093/brain/awg136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 213] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkin gene mutations are reported to be a major cause of early-onset parkinsonism (age at onset < or = 45 years) in families with autosomal recessive inheritance and in isolated juvenile-onset parkinsonism (age at onset <20 years). However, the precise frequency of parkin mutations in isolated cases is not known. In order to evaluate the frequency of parkin mutations in patients with isolated early-onset parkinsonism according to their age at onset, we studied 146 patients of various geographical origin with an age at onset < or = 45 years. All were screened for mutations in the parkin gene using semi-quantitative polymerase chain reaction combined with sequencing of the entire coding region. We identified parkin mutations in 20 patients including three new exon rearrangements and two new missense mutations. These results, taken in conjunction with those of our previous study (Lücking et al., 2000) show that parkin mutations account for at least 15% (38 out of 246) of our early-onset cases without family history, but that the proportion decreases significantly with increasing age at onset. There were no clinical group differences between parkin cases and other patients with early-onset parkinsonism. However, a single case presenting with cerebellar ataxia several years before typical parkinsonism extends the spectrum of parkin related-disease.
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134
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Khan NL, Graham E, Critchley P, Schrag AE, Wood NW, Lees AJ, Bhatia KP, Quinn N. Parkin disease: a phenotypic study of a large case series. Brain 2003; 126:1279-92. [PMID: 12764051 DOI: 10.1093/brain/awg142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 248] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Mutations in the parkin gene, PARK2, are a common cause of parkinsonism in familial as well as isolated cases with an age of onset <40 years and should be considered in the diagnostic work up of young-onset parkinsonism. We report a detailed clinical evaluation of a personal series of 24 patients with mutations in the parkin gene. The clinical presentation of most cases was broadly comparable to that of previous descriptions of autosomal recessive early-onset or juvenile parkinsonism and young-onset Parkinson's disease and also had similarities with phenotypes of dopa-responsive dystonia. However, our only case with consanguineous parents had an age of onset of 54 years. We report three new phenotypes at presentation: cervical dystonia; autonomic dysfunction and peripheral neuropathy; and pure exercise-induced dystonia. We emphasize a number of clinical features that can be seen in parkin disease: focal dystonia; early instability; freezing; festination or retropulsion; concurrent autonomic failure; dramatic response to anticholinergics; early or atypical L-dopa-induced dyskinesias; exquisite sensitivity to small doses of L-dopa; and recurrent psychosis, even taking L-dopa alone. We also report behavioural disorder prior to the onset of parkinsonism. Some relatives carrying a single parkin mutation without extrapyramidal symptoms or signs also had psychiatric symptoms that might be related to their carrier status.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naheed L Khan
- Department of Molecular Pathogenesis, Royal Free Hospital and University College Medical School, London, UK
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135
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Abstract
Mutations in the Parkin gene are associated with Parkinson s disease (PD). The gene product has been shown to be an E3 protein-ubiquitin ligase, catalyzing the addition of ubiquitin to target proteins prior to their destruction via the proteasome. This activity is thus key in regulating the turnover of substrate proteins. A predictive hypothesis for how this results in PD is that the misregulation of proteasomal degradation of Parkin s substrates is deleterious to neurons. Several different laboratories have identified alternate candidate proteins. In this review, the likelihood of each of the proposed substrates for parkin being robust will be evaluated. The distribution and abundance of the proteins will be examined for clues as to which are the pathologically important substrates for parkin. The possibility that loss of regulation of turnover of one or more of these substrates contributes to the selective neurodegeneration seen in PD is also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark R Cookson
- Laboratory of Neurogenetics National Institute on Agins, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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136
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West AB, Gonzalez-de-Chavez F, Wilkes K, O'Farrell C, Farrer MJ. Parkin is not regulated by the unfolded protein response in human neuroblastoma cells. Neurosci Lett 2003; 341:139-42. [PMID: 12686385 DOI: 10.1016/s0304-3940(03)00188-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Mutations in the parkin gene cause the majority of cases of familial-linked Parkinson's disease, and mounting evidence suggests that parkin may play a role in idiopathic disease. Previous reports suggest that parkin may respond to and relieve, via E3-ligase activity, cellular stress at the endoplasmic reticulum caused by the accumulation of unfolded proteins. However, parkin's relationship to the mammalian unfolded protein response is unclear. Here, we comprehensively evaluate endogenous parkin in SH-SY5Y neuroblastomas at the promoter, RNA, and protein levels in response to unfolded protein stress induced by tunicamycin. While we find strong up-regulation of genes linked to the unfolded protein stress pathway, we detect no significant changes in parkin. These data suggest a lack of association between parkin and the unfolded protein response in SH-SY5Y cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew B West
- Program for Molecular Neuroscience, Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic Jacksonville, 32224, Jacksonville, FL, USA
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137
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Oliveira SA, Scott WK, Martin ER, Nance MA, Watts RL, Hubble JP, Koller WC, Pahwa R, Stern MB, Hiner BC, Ondo WG, Allen FH, Scott BL, Goetz CG, Small GW, Mastaglia F, Stajich JM, Zhang F, Booze MW, Winn MP, Middleton LT, Haines JL, Pericak-Vance MA, Vance JM. Parkin mutations and susceptibility alleles in late-onset Parkinson's disease. Ann Neurol 2003; 53:624-9. [PMID: 12730996 DOI: 10.1002/ana.10524] [Citation(s) in RCA: 156] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Parkin, an E2-dependent ubiquitin protein ligase, carries pathogenic mutations in patients with autosomal recessive juvenile parkinsonism, but its role in the late-onset form of Parkinson's disease (PD) is not firmly established. Previously, we detected linkage of idiopathic PD to the region on chromosome 6 containing the Parkin gene (D6S305, logarithm of odds score, 5.47) in families with at least one subject with age at onset (AAO) younger than 40 years. Mutation analysis of the Parkin gene in the 174 multiplex families from the genomic screen and 133 additional PD families identified mutations in 18% of early-onset and 2% of late-onset families (5% of total families screened). The AAO of patients with Parkin mutations ranged from 12 to 71 years. Excluding exon 7 mutations, the mean AAO of patients with Parkin mutations was 31.5 years. However, mutations in exon 7, the first RING finger (Cys253Trp, Arg256Cys, Arg275Trp, and Asp280Asn) were observed primarily in heterozygous PD patients with a much later AAO (mean AAO, 49.2 years) but were not found in controls in this study or several previous reports (920 chromosomes). These findings suggest that mutations in Parkin contribute to the common form of PD and that heterozygous mutations, especially those lying in exon 7, act as susceptibility alleles for late-onset form of Parkinson disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sofia A Oliveira
- Department of Medicine and Center for Human Genetics, Institute for Genome Sciences and Policy, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA
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138
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Abstract
Genetic studies in families with mendelian inheritance of Parkinson's disease (PD) have reported the cloning of several disease-associated genes. These studies of rare familial forms of the disease have cast doubt on our understanding of the role of genetics in typical PD and have complicated the classification of the disorder. However, this genetic information might help us to construct a hypothesis for the pathogenetic processes that underlie PD. In this review we describe the molecular genetics of PD as currently understood to help explain the pathways that underlie neurodegeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Hardy
- Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
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139
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West AB, Lockhart PJ, O'Farell C, Farrer MJ. Identification of a novel gene linked to parkin via a bi-directional promoter. J Mol Biol 2003; 326:11-9. [PMID: 12547187 DOI: 10.1016/s0022-2836(02)01376-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Mutations of the parkin gene on chromosome 6q25-27 are the predominant genetic cause of early-onset and autosomal recessive juvenile parkinsonism. Parkin is a multi-domain protein with ubiquitin-protein E3 ligase activity that has a role in the proteasome-mediated degradation of target substrates. Although the parkin gene contains an expanded intron/exon structure and spans more than 1.3 Mb, we have identified a novel transcript that initiates 204 bp upstream of parkin and spans over 0.6 Mb, antisense to parkin. We have tentatively named this novel gene Parkin co-regulated gene, or PACRG. A 35 bp site of bi-directional transcription activation within the common promoter was mapped using dual-luciferase assays. This region appeared to be responsible for the majority of transcription regulation of both genes, and comparison of the mouse and human sequences revealed conserved transcription factor-binding sites. A 15 bp interval within the activation region, containing a non-canonical myc-binding site, bound nuclear protein derived from human substantia nigra. Database analysis identified highly conserved homologs of PACRG encoded by the mouse and Drosophila genomes, and Northern analysis demonstrated that PACRG and parkin were co-expressed in many tissues, including brain, heart and muscle. Western analysis revealed a protein of the predicted size, approximately 30 kDa, which was expressed in mouse and human brain. Although PACRG protein lacks known functional domains, in silico prediction suggests a potential link to the ubiquitin/proteasome system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew B West
- Program for Molecular Neuroscience, Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic Jacksonville, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA
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140
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Salehi A, Delcroix JD, Mobley WC. Traffic at the intersection of neurotrophic factor signaling and neurodegeneration. Trends Neurosci 2003; 26:73-80. [PMID: 12536130 DOI: 10.1016/s0166-2236(02)00038-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Advances in understanding the biology of neurotrophic factors and their signaling pathways have provided important insights into the normal growth, differentiation and maintenance of neurons. Stimulated by neuropathological observations and genetic discoveries, studies in cell and animal models of neurodegenerative disorders have begun to clarify pathogenetic mechanisms. We examine the intersection of these research themes and identify several potential mechanisms for linking failed neurotrophic factor signaling to neurodegeneration. Studies of nerve growth factor signaling in a mouse model of Down syndrome encourage the views that neuronal dysfunction and atrophy might be linked to failed neurotrophic support and that additional studies focused on this possibility would enhance our understanding of the mechanisms of neurodegenerative disorders and their treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmad Salehi
- Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Stanford University Medical Center, 1201Welch Rd, MSLS Building, Stanford, CA 94305-5489, USA.
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141
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Lansbury PT, Brice A. Genetics of Parkinson's disease and biochemical studies of implicated gene products. Curr Opin Cell Biol 2002; 14:653-60. [PMID: 12231362 DOI: 10.1016/s0955-0674(02)00377-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease was thought, until recently, to have little or no genetic component. This notion has changed with the identification of three genes, and the mapping of five others, that are linked to rare familial forms of the disease (FPD). The products of the identified genes, alpha-synuclein (PARK 1), parkin (PARK 2), and ubiquitin-C-hydrolase-L1 (PARK 5) are the subject of intense cell-biological and biochemical studies designed to elucidate the underlying mechanism of FPD pathogenesis. In addition, the complex genetics of idiopathic PD is beginning to be unraveled. Genetic information may prove to be useful in identifying new therapeutic targets and identifying the preclinical phase of PD, allowing treatment to begin sooner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter T Lansbury
- Center for Neurologic Diseases, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Department of Neurology, Harvard Medical School, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA.
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142
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Abstract
In idiopathic Parkinson's disease and familial parkinsonism, the limited number of overlapping clinical and pathological outcomes argue that a common underlying molecular pathway is perturbed. Genetic methods are a powerful approach to identify molecular components of disease. We summarize recent attempts to identify the genetic components of familial parkinsonism, without a priori assumptions about disease causation. Much effort has been expended on mapping in families with early-onset disease, in which parkinsonism appears inherited as a Mendelian trait. More recently, association methods have been employed in late-onset disease using affected sib-pairs and population isolates. These findings have been extrapolated to Parkinson's disease in the community with some success. We review the molecular synthesis now emerging from a genetic perspective.
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143
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Lansbury PT, Brice A. Genetics of Parkinson's disease and biochemical studies of implicated gene products. Curr Opin Genet Dev 2002; 12:299-306. [PMID: 12076673 DOI: 10.1016/s0959-437x(02)00302-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease was thought, until recently, to have little or no genetic component. This notion has changed with the identification of three genes, and the mapping of five others, that are linked to rare familial forms of the disease (FPD). The products of the identified genes, alpha-synuclein (PARK 1), parkin (PARK 2), and ubiquitin-C-hydrolase-L1 (PARK 5) are the subject of intense cell-biological and biochemical studies designed to elucidate the underlying mechanism of FPD pathogenesis. In addition, the complex genetics of idiopathic PD is beginning to be unraveled. Genetic information may prove to be useful in identifying new therapeutic targets and identifying the preclinical phase of PD, allowing treatment to begin sooner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter T Lansbury
- Center for Neurologic Diseases, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Department of Neurology, Harvard Medical School, 65 Landsdowne Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA.
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