RNA interference-based therapy and its delivery systems

Direct Comparison of Chol-siRNA Polyplexes and Chol-DsiRNA Polyplexes Targeting STAT3 in a Syngeneic Murine Model of TNBC

RNA interference (RNAi) molecules have tremendous potential for cancer therapy but are limited by insufficient potency after intravenous (IV) administration. We previously found that polymer complexes (polyplexes) formed between 3′-cholesterol-modified siRNA (Chol-siRNA) or DsiRNA (Chol-DsiRNA) and the cationic diblock copolymer PLL[30]-PEG[5K] greatly increase RNAi potency against stably expressed LUC mRNA in primary syngeneic murine breast tumors after daily IV dosing. Chol-DsiRNA polyplexes, however, maintain LUC mRNA suppression for ~48 h longer after the final dose than Chol-siRNA polyplexes, which suggests that they are the better candidate formulation. Here, we directly compared the activities of Chol-siRNA polyplexes and Chol-DsiRNA polyplexes in primary murine 4T1 breast tumors against STAT3, a therapeutically relevant target gene that is overexpressed in many solid tumors, including breast cancer. We found that Chol-siSTAT3 polyplexes suppressed STAT3 mRNA in 4T1 tumors with similar potency (half-maximal ED₅₀ 0.3 mg/kg) and kinetics (over 96 h) as Chol-DsiSTAT3 polyplexes, but with slightly lower activity against total Stat3 protein (29% vs. 42% suppression) and tumor growth (11.5% vs. 8.6% rate-based T/C ratio) after repeated IV administration of equimolar, tumor-saturating doses every other day. Thus, both Chol-siRNA polyplexes and Chol-DsiRNA polyplexes may be suitable clinical candidates for the RNAi therapy of breast cancer and other solid tumors.

RNA interference (RNAi)-based plasmonic nanomaterials for cancer diagnosis and therapy

RNA interference (RNAi) is being extensively investigated as a potential therapeutic strategy for cancer treatment. However, RNAi-based therapeutics have not yet been used to treat cancer because of their instability and the difficulty of microRNA (miRNA) delivery. Plasmonic nanoparticle-based RNAi nanotherapeutics have been developed for accurate and sensitive diagnosis and a strong therapeutic effect on cancers by leveraging their ease-of-use and specific properties such as photothermal conversion. In this review, recent strategies and advances in plasmonic nanoparticle-based miRNA delivery are briefly presented to facilitate the detection and treatment of several cancers. The challenges and potential opportunities afforded by the RNAi-based theragnosis field are discussed. We expect that the RNAi-integrated plasmonic nanotherapeutics discussed in this review can provide insights for the early diagnosis and effective treatment of cancer.

Molecular imaging and treatment of PSMA-positive prostate cancer with 99mTc radiolabeled aptamer-siRNA chimeras

INTRODUCTION

Prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA) is highly expressed in prostate cancer (PCa). The aptamer (Apt) A10-3.2 can be used as a specific ligand for the early diagnosis and targeted treatment of PCa. siRNA-Apt has been used to therapeutically target PSMA-positive PCa. We aimed to synthesize a new type of molecular probe to facilitate the integration of diagnosis and treatment for PSMA-positive PCa.

METHODS

Chimeras were obtained by covalent linking PSMA Apt-A10-3.2 and the MDM2 siRNA. SHNH, a bifunctional chelating agent, was used to couple ^99mTc with chimeras to synthesize a new molecular probe. Labeling efficiency, radiochemical purity, and stability were confirmed using a γ-well counter and Whatman paper No.1. SPECT imaging and biodistribution studies were performed on BALB/c mice bearing 22Rv1 or PC-3 xenografts. Tumor inhibition and cytotoxicity of Chimeras were evaluated. LNCaP, 22RV1, and PC-3 PCa cell lines were used for in vitro and in vivo experiments.

RESULTS

[^99mTc]Tc-chimeras showed high labeling efficiency (61.47% ± 2.85%, n = 3), radiochemical purity (>95%), and stability. Biodistribution studies and SPECT imaging with ^99mTc-chimeras in mice bearing 22Rv1 xenografts demonstrated a high T/M ratio (4.63 ± 0.68, n = 3) and a high T/B ratio (3.61 ± 0.7, n = 3) at 2 h post-injection. ^99mTc-chimeras showed rapid renal clearance. Compared with the PBS group, tumor growth in the chimera group was significantly inhibited (P < 0.01, n = 4), but there was no significant difference in body weight (p > 0.05, n = 4). H&E staining showed no obvious liver or kidney damage.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study proved that [^99mTc]Tc-Aptamer-siRNA chimeras could be used to diagnose and treat PSMA-positive PCa in vivo.

Gene Therapies for Monogenic Autism Spectrum Disorders

Novel genome editing and transient gene therapies have been developed the past ten years, resulting in the first in-human clinical trials for monogenic disorders. Syndromic autism spectrum disorders can be caused by mutations in a single gene. Given the monogenic aspect and severity of syndromic ASD, it is an ideal candidate for gene therapies. Here, we selected 11 monogenic ASD syndromes, validated by animal models, and reviewed current gene therapies for each syndrome. Given the wide variety and novelty of some forms of gene therapy, the best possible option must be decided based on the gene and mutation.

Critical Evaluation of Different Lysosomal Labeling Methods Used to Analyze RNA Nanocarrier Trafficking in Cells

The use of nucleic acids to regulate gene expression is a rapidly developing field with immense clinical potential. Nanomaterials are frequently used to deliver nucleic acids into cells as they can overcome the poor cellular uptake and endo/lysosomal degradation of bare nucleic acids. For these nanocarriers to be effective, they must escape endo/lysosomal compartments to deliver their nucleic acid cargo into the cytosol (for ribonucleic acid (RNA)) or nucleus (for deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)). This process is poorly understood and remains an area of active research toward the goal of developing effective delivery strategies. Fluorescent endo/lysosomal markers are among the most widely employed tools used to evaluate the endosomal escape of nucleic acid nanocarriers. However, the endo/lysosomal labeling method may alter the extent of and route of nanocarrier uptake by cells. The impact of these markers on cellular function and cell-nanocarrier interactions has not been probed in a systematic manner. To investigate this, we compared the effects of several common lysosomal labeling methods, namely, LysoTracker Red (LT Red), transient lysosomal-associated membrane protein 1-mutant green fluorescent protein (LAMP1-mGFP) transfection (Transient GFP), and stable lentiviral LAMP1-mGFP transfection (Stable GFP), on cellular metabolic activity, nanocarrier uptake, nanocarrier/lysosomal label colocalization, and gene silencing potency in U87 glioblastoma and MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells using polyethyleneimine (PEI)/ribonucleic acid (RNA) polyplexes as a model nanocarrier. In both U87s and MDA-MB-231s, Transient GFP and LT Red labeling reduced metabolic activity relative to untransfected (Parental) cells, while Stable GFP labeling increased metabolic activity. Congruently, flow cytometry indicates Stable GFP cells have greater polyplex uptake than LT Red-labeled cells in both cell lines. Despite these similar trends in uptake, polyplex intracellular trafficking differs in the two cell lines, as confocal imaging revealed greater polyplex/lysosome colocalization in Stable GFP U87 cells than LT Red-labeled U87 cells, while the trend was reversed in MBA-MB-231s. The level of RNA-mediated gene silencing achieved in Parental versus Stable GFP U87 and MDA-MB-231 cells agreed with the observed levels of polyplex/lysosome colocalization, supporting the established concept that endosomal escape is the rate-limiting step for RNA interference. These findings indicate that lysosomal labels can profoundly alter cellular function and cell-nanocarrier interactions, presenting critical new considerations for researchers investigating nanoparticle trafficking.

siRNA delivery using intelligent chitosan-capped mesoporous silica nanoparticles for overcoming multidrug resistance in malignant carcinoma cells

Although siRNA is a promising technology for cancer gene therapy, effective cytoplasmic delivery has remained a significant challenge. In this paper, a potent siRNA transfer system with active targeting moieties toward cancer cells and a high loading capacity is introduced to inhibit drug resistance. Mesoporous silica nanoparticles are of great potential for developing targeted gene delivery. Amino-modified MSNs (NH₂-MSNs) were synthesized using a modified sol–gel method and characterized by FTIR, BET, TEM, SEM, X-ray diffraction, DLS, and ¹H-NMR. MDR1-siRNA was loaded within NH₂-MSNs, and the resulting negative surface was capped by functionalized chitosan as a protective layer. Targeting moieties such as TAT and folate were anchored to chitosan via PEG-spacers. The loading capacity of siRNA and the protective effect of chitosan for siRNA were determined by gel retardation assay. MTT assay, flow cytometry, real-time PCR, and western blot were performed to study the cytotoxicity, cellular uptake assay, targeting evaluation, and MDR1 knockdown efficiency. The synthesized NH₂-MSNs had a particle size of ≈ 100 nm and pore size of ≈ 5 nm. siRNA was loaded into NH₂-MSNs with a high loading capacity of 20% w/w. Chitosan coating on the surface of siRNA-NH₂-MSNs significantly improved the siRNA protection against enzyme activity compared to naked siRNA-NH₂-MSNs. MSNs and modified MSNs did not exhibit significant cytotoxicity at therapeutic concentrations in the EPG85.257-RDB and HeLa-RDB lines. The folate-conjugated nanoparticles showed a cellular uptake of around two times higher in folate receptor-rich HeLa-RDB than EPG85.257-RDB cells. The chitosan-coated siRNA-NH2-MSNs produced decreased MDR1 transcript and protein levels in HeLa-RDB by 0.20 and 0.48-fold, respectively. The results demonstrated that functionalized chitosan-coated siRNA-MSNs could be a promising carrier for targeted cancer therapy. Folate-targeted nanoparticles were specifically harvested by folate receptor-rich HeLa-RDB and produced a chemosensitized phenotype of the multidrug-resistant cancer cells.

TNFα siRNA delivery by nanoparticles and photochemical internalization for psoriasis topical therapy

Psoriasis is a chronic inflammatory skin disease that presents increased expression of tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα), a proinflammatory cytokine. The discovery of RNA interference (RNAi), mediated by short interfering RNA (siRNA), made it possible for the expression of some genes to be eliminated. However, for its application, it is necessary to use carriers that can protect siRNA and release it in the target cells. Herein, we developed a delivery system for siRNA based on hybrid polymer-lipid nanoparticles (PLNs) and combined this system with photochemical internalization (PCI), photoactivating the photosensitizer TPPS2a, to optimize the endosomal escape of TNFα siRNA in the cytoplasm, aiming to use the system as a topical formulation to treat psoriasis. The PLNs composed of 2.0% of Compritol® 888 ATO (lipid), 1.5% of poloxamer 188 and 0.1% of the cationic polymer poly(allylamine hydrochloride) showed an average nanoparticle size of 142 nm, a zeta potential of +25 mV, and the ability to efficiently coencapsulate TPPS2a and complexed siRNA. In addition, these materials did not present cellular toxicity and showed high cellular uptake. In vitro delivery studies using porcine skin model revealed that the PLNs delivered siRNA and TPPS2a into the skin. The efficacy was verified using an in vivo psoriasis animal (hairless mouse) model induced by imiquimod (IMQ) cream. The results revealed that PLN-TPPS2a-TNFα siRNA combined with PCI resulted in a decrease in the levels of TNFα, showing the efficiency of the treatment to silence this cytokine in psoriatic lesions, which was accompanied by a reduction in the redness and scaling of the mouse skin. The results showed the potential of the developed PLNs in combined silencing gene therapy and PCI for topical treatment of psoriasis.

Non-Viral Gene Delivery Systems for Treatment of Myocardial Infarction: Targeting Strategies and Cardiac Cell Modulation

Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) are the leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Conventional therapies involving surgery or pharmacological strategies have shown limited therapeutic effects due to a lack of cardiac tissue repair. Gene therapy has opened an avenue for the treatment of cardiac diseases through manipulating the underlying gene mechanics. Several gene therapies for cardiac diseases have been assessed in clinical trials, while the clinical translation greatly depends on the delivery technologies. Non-viral vectors are attracting much attention due to their safety and facile production compared to viral vectors. In this review, we discuss the recent progress of non-viral gene therapies for the treatment of cardiovascular diseases, with a particular focus on myocardial infarction (MI). Through a summary of delivery strategies with which to target cardiac tissue and different cardiac cells for MI treatment, this review aims to inspire new insights into the design/exploitation of non-viral delivery systems for gene cargos to promote cardiac repair/regeneration.

Nanoparticle mediated RNA delivery for wound healing

Wound healing is a complicated physiological process that comprises various steps, including hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling. The wound healing process is significantly affected by coexisting disease states such as diabetes, immunosuppression, or vascular disease. It can also be impacted by age, repeated injury, or hypertrophic scarring. These comorbidities can affect the rate of wound closure, the quality of wound closure, and tissues' function at the affected sites. There are limited options to improve the rate or quality of wound healing, creating a significant unmet need. Advances in nucleic acid research and the human genome project have developed potential novel approaches to address these outstanding requirements. In particular, the use of microRNA, short hairpin RNA, and silencing RNA is unique in their abilities as key regulators within the physiologic machinery of the cell. Although this innovative therapeutic approach using ribonucleic acid (RNA) is an attractive approach, the application as a therapeutic remains a challenge due to site-specific delivery, off-target effects, and RNA degradation obstacles. An ideal delivery system is essential for successful gene delivery. An ideal delivery system should result in high bioactivity, inhibit rapid dilution, controlled release, allow specific activation timings facilitating physiological stability, and minimize multiple dosages. Currently, these goals can be achieved by inorganic nanoparticle (NP) (e.g., cerium oxide, gold, silica, etc.) based delivery systems. This review focuses on providing insight into the preeminent research carried out on various RNAs and their delivery through NPs for effective wound healing. This article is categorized under: Nanotechnology Approaches to Biology > Nanoscale Systems in Biology Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Emerging Technologies Biology-Inspired Nanomaterials > Nucleic Acid-Based Structures.

Mechanisms of Drug Resistance and Use of Nanoparticle Delivery to Overcome Resistance in Breast Cancers

Breast cancer is the leading cancer type diagnosed among women in the world. Unfortunately, drug resistance to current breast cancer chemotherapeutics remains the main challenge for a higher survival rate. The recent progress in the nanoparticle platforms and distinct features of nanoparticles that enhance the efficacy of therapeutic agents, such as improved delivery efficacy, increased intracellular cytotoxicity, and reduced side effects, hold great promise to overcome the observed drug resistance. Currently, multifaceted investigations are probing the resistance mechanisms associated with clinical drugs, and identifying new breast cancer-associated molecular targets that may lead to improved therapeutic approaches with the nanoparticle platforms. Nanoparticle platforms including siRNA, antibody-specific targeting and the role of nanoparticles in cellular processes and their effect on breast cancer were discussed in this article.

Clinical Advances of siRNA-Based Nanotherapeutics for Cancer Treatment

Cancer is associated with single or multiple gene defects. Recently, much research has focused on incorporating genetic materials as one of the means to treat various types of carcinomas. RNA interference (RNAi) conveys an alternative genetic approach for cancer patients, especially when conventional medications fail. RNAi involves the inhibition of expression of specific messenger RNA that signals for uncontrollable cell growth and proliferation, most notably with carcinoma cells. This molecular technology is promising as genetic materials allow us to overcome issues associated with chemotherapeutic agents including organ damage associated with severe drug toxicities. Nonetheless, vast challenges impede successful gene therapy application, including low tumor localization, low stability and rapid clearance from the blood circulation. Owing to the limited treatment opportunities for the management of cancer, the development of effective siRNA carrier systems involving nanotherapeutics has been extensively explored. Over the past years, several siRNA nanotherapeutics have undergone a period of clinical investigation, with some demonstrating promising antitumor activities and safety profiles. Extensive observation of siRNA-nanoparticles is necessary to ensure commercial success. Therefore, this review mainly focuses on the progress of siRNAs-loaded nanoparticles that have undergone clinical trials for cancer treatment. The status of the siRNA nanotherapeutics is discussed, allowing comprehensive understanding of their gene-mediated therapeutics.

Bis-isatin derivatives: design, synthesis, and biological activity evaluation as potent dimeric DJ-1 inhibitors

The PARK7 gene (encode DJ-1 protein) was first discovered as an oncogene and later found to be a causative gene for autosomal recessive early onset Parkinson's disease. DJ-1 has been proposed as a potential therapeutic anticancer target due to its pivotal role in tumorigenesis and cancer progression. Based on the homodimer structure of DJ-1, a series of bis-isatin derivatives with different length linkers were designed, synthesized, and evaluated as dimeric inhibitors targeting DJ-1 homodimer. Among them, DM10 with alkylene chain of C10 displayed the most potent inhibitory activity against DJ-1 deglycase. We further demonstrated that DM10 bound covalently to the homodimer of DJ-1. In human cancer cell lines H1299, MDA-MB-231, BEL7402, and 786-O, DM10 (2.5-20 μM) inhibited the cell growth in a concentration-dependent manner showing better anticancer effects compared with the positive control drug STK793590. In nude mice bearing H1299 cell xenograft, intratumor injection of DM10 (15 mg/kg) produced significantly potent tumor growth inhibition when compared with that caused by STK793590 (30 mg/kg). Moreover, we found that DM10 could significantly enhance N-(4-hydroxyphenyl)retinamide-based apoptosis and erastin-based ferroptosis in H1299 cells. In conclusion, DM10 is identified as a potent inhibitor targeting DJ-1 homodimer with the potential as sensitizing agent for other anticancer drugs, which might provide synergistical therapeutic option for cancer treatment.

Non-viral nanoparticles for RNA interference: Principles of design and practical guidelines

Ribonucleic acid interference (RNAi) is an innovative treatment strategy for a myriad of indications. Non-viral synthetic nanoparticles (NPs) have drawn extensive attention as vectors for RNAi due to their potential advantages, including improved safety, high delivery efficiency and economic feasibility. However, the complex natural process of RNAi and the susceptible nature of oligonucleotides render the NPs subject to particular design principles and requirements for practical fabrication. Here, we summarize the requirements and obstacles for fabricating non-viral nano-vectors for efficient RNAi. To address the delivery challenges, we discuss practical guidelines for materials selection and NP synthesis in order to maximize RNA encapsulation efficiency and protection against degradation, and to facilitate the cytosolic release of oligonucleotides. The current status of clinical translation of RNAi-based therapies and further perspectives for reducing the potential side effects are also reviewed.

The reversal of chemotherapy-induced multidrug resistance by nanomedicine for cancer therapy

Multidrug resistance (MDR) of cancer is a persistent problem in chemotherapy. Scientists have considered the overexpressed efflux transporters responsible for MDR and chemotherapy failure. MDR extremely limits the therapeutic effect of chemotherapy in cancer treatment. Many strategies have been applied to solve this problem. Multifunctional nanoparticles may be one of the most promising approaches to reverse MDR of tumor. These nanoparticles can keep stability in the blood circulation and selectively accumulated in the tumor microenvironment (TME) either by passive or active targeting. The stimuli-sensitive or organelle-targeting nanoparticles can release the drug at the targeted-site without exposure to normal tissues. In order to better understand reversal of MDR, three main strategies are concluded in this review. First strategy is the synergistic effect of chemotherapeutic drugs and ABC transporter inhibitors. Through directly inhibiting overexpressed ABC transporters, chemotherapeutic drugs can enter into resistant cells without being efflux. Second strategy is based on nanoparticles circumventing over-expressed efflux transporters and directly targeting resistance-related organelles. Third approach is the combination of multiple therapy modes overcoming cancer resistance. At last, numerous researches demonstrated cancer stem-like cells (CSCs) had a deep relation with drug resistance. Here, we discuss two different drug delivery approaches of nanomedicine based on CSC therapy.

Preclinical Advances in Theranostics for the Different Molecular Subtypes of Breast Cancer

Breast cancer is the most common cancer in women worldwide. The heterogeneity of breast cancer and drug resistance to therapies make the diagnosis and treatment difficult. Molecular imaging methods with positron emission tomography (PET) and single-photon emission tomography (SPECT) provide useful tools to diagnose, predict, and monitor the response of therapy, contributing to precision medicine for breast cancer patients. Recently, many efforts have been made to find new targets for breast cancer therapy to overcome resistance to standard of care treatments, giving rise to new therapeutic agents to offer more options for patients with breast cancer. The combination of diagnostic and therapeutic strategies forms the foundation of theranostics. Some of these theranostic agents exhibit high potential to be translated to clinic. In this review, we highlight the most recent advances in theranostics of the different molecular subtypes of breast cancer in preclinical studies.

Preliminary preclinical study of Chol-DsiRNA polyplexes formed with PLL[30]-PEG[5K] for the RNAi-based therapy of breast cancer

RNA interference molecules have tremendous potential for cancer therapy but are limited by insufficient potency after i.v. administration. We previously found that Chol-DsiRNA polyplexes formed between cholesterol-modified dicer-substrate siRNA (Chol-DsiRNA) and the cationic diblock copolymer PLL[30]-PEG[5K] greatly increase the activity of Chol-DsiRNA against a stably expressed reporter mRNA in primary murine syngeneic breast tumors after daily i.v. dosing. Here, we provide a more thorough preliminary preclinical study of Chol-DsiRNA polyplexes against the therapeutically relevant target protein, STAT3. We found that Chol-DsiSTAT3 polyplexes greatly increase plasma exposure, distribution, potency, and therapeutic activity of Chol-DsiSTAT3 in primary murine syngeneic 4T1 breast tumors after i.v. administration. Furthermore, inactive Chol-DsiCTRL polyplexes are well tolerated by healthy female BALB/c mice after chronic i.v. administration at 50 mg Chol-DsiCTRL/kg over 28 days. Thus, Chol-DsiRNA polyplexes may be a good candidate for Phase I clinical trials to improve the treatment of breast cancer and other solid tumors.

Emerging role of RNA interference in immune cells engineering and its therapeutic synergism in immunotherapy

RNAi effectors (e.g. siRNA, shRNA and miRNA) can trigger the silencing of specific genes causing alteration of genomic functions becoming a new therapeutic area for the treatment of infectious diseases, neurodegenerative disorders and cancer. In cancer treatment, RNAi effectors showed potential immunomodulatory actions by down-regulating immuno-suppressive proteins, such as PD-1 and CTLA-4, which restrict immune cell function and present challenges in cancer immunotherapy. Therefore, compared with extracellular targeting by antibodies, RNAi-mediated cell-intrinsic disruption of inhibitory pathways in immune cells could promote an increased anti-tumour immune response. Along with non-viral vectors, DNA-based RNAi strategies might be a more promising method for immunomodulation to silence multiple inhibitory pathways in T cells than immune checkpoint blockade antibodies. Thus, in this review, we discuss diverse RNAi implementation strategies, with recent viral and non-viral mediated RNAi synergism to immunotherapy that augments the anti-tumour immunity. Finally, we provide the current progress of RNAi in clinical pipeline.

Recent advances in peptide-targeted micelleplexes: Current developments and future perspectives

The decoding of the human genome revolutionized the understanding of how genetics influence the interplay between health and disease, in a multidisciplinary perspective. Thus, the development of exogenous nucleic acids-based therapies has increased to overcome hereditary or acquired genetic-associated diseases. Gene drug delivery using non-viral systems, for instance micelleplexes, have been recognized as promising options for gene-target therapies. Micelleplexes are core-shell structures, at a nanometric scale, designed using amphiphilic block copolymers. These can self-assemble in an aqueous medium, leading to the formation of a hydrophilic and positively charged corona - that can transport nucleic acids, - and a hydrophobic core - which can transport poor water-soluble drugs. However, the performance of these types of carriers usually is hindered by several in vivo barriers. Fortunately, due to a significant amount of research, strategies to overcome these shortcomings emerged. With a wide range of structural features, good stability against proteolytic degradation, affordable characteristic, easy synthesis, low immunogenicity, among other advantages, peptides have increasingly gained popularity as target ligands for non-viral carriers. Hence, this review addresses the use of peptides with micelleplexes illustrating, through the analysis of in vitro and in vivo studies, the potential and future perspectives of this combination.

Engineered exosomes delivering specific tumor-suppressive RNAi attenuate oral cancer progression

Exosomes are involved in a wide range of biological processes in human cells. Considerable evidence suggests that engineered exosomes (eExosomes) containing therapeutic agents can attenuate the oncogenic activity of human cancer cells. Despite its biomedical relevance, no information has been available for oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC), and therefore the development of specific OSCC-targeting eExosomes (octExosomes) is urgently needed. We demonstrated that exosomes from normal fibroblasts transfected with Epstein-Barr Virus Induced-3 (EBI3) cDNA were electroporated with siRNA of lymphocyte cytoplasmic protein 1 (LCP1), as octExosomes, and a series of experiments were performed to evaluate the loading specificity/effectiveness and their anti-oral cancer cell activities after administration of octExosomes. These experiments revealed that octExosomes were stable, effective for transferring siLCP1 into OSCC cells and LCP1 was downregulated in OSCC cells with octExosomes as compared with their counterparts, leading to a significant tumor-suppressive effect in vitro and in vivo. Here we report the development of a new valuable tool for inhibiting tumor cells. By engineering exosomes, siLCP1 was transferred to specifically suppress oncogenic activity of OSCC cells. Inhibition of other types of human malignant cells merits further study.

Innovative 2'-O-Imino-2-propanoate-Protecting Group for Effective Solid-Phase Synthesis and 2'-O-Deprotection of RNA Sequences

The implementation of protecting groups for the 2'-hydroxyl function of ribonucleosides is still challenging, particularly when RNA sequences must be of the highest purity for therapeutic applications as nucleic acid-based drugs. A 2'-hydroxyl-protecting group should optimally (i) be easy to install; (ii) allow rapid and efficient incorporation of the 2'-O-protected ribonucleosides into RNA sequences to minimize, to the greatest extent possible, the formation of process-related impurities (e.g., shorter than full-length sequences) during solid-phase synthesis; and (iii) be completely cleaved from RNA sequences without the production of alkylating side products and/or formation of mutagenic nucleobase adducts. The reaction of 2'-O-aminoribonucleosides with ethyl pyruvate results in the formation of stable 2'-O-imino-2-methyl propanoic acid ethyl esters and, subsequently, of the fully protected ribonucleoside phosphoramidite monomers, which are required for the solid-phase synthesis of two chimeric RNA sequences (20-mers) containing the four canonical ribonucleosides. Upon treatment of the RNA sequences with a solution of sodium hydroxide, the 2'-O-imino-2-methyl propanoic acid ethyl ester-protecting groups are saponified to their sodium salts, which after ion exchange underwent quantitative intramolecular decarboxylation under neutral conditions at 65 °C to provide fully deprotected RNA sequences in marginally better yields than those obtained from commercial 2'-O-tert-butyldimethylsilyl ribonucleoside phosphoramidites under highly similar conditions.

Role of the runt-related transcription factor (RUNX) family in prostate cancer

Prostate cancer (PCa) is a very complex disease that is a major cause of death in men worldwide. Currently, PCa dependence on the androgen receptor (AR) has resulted in use of AR antagonists and antiandrogen therapies that reduce endogenous steroid hormone production. However, within two to three years of receiving first-line androgen deprivation therapy, the majority of patients diagnosed with PCa progress to castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). There is an urgent need for therapies that are more durable than antagonism of the AR axis. Studies of runt-related transcription factors (RUNX) and their heterodimerization partner, core-binding factor subunit b (CBFβ), are revealing that the RUNX family are drivers of CRPC. In this review, we describe what is presently understood about RUNX members in PCa, including what regulates and is regulated by RUNX proteins, and the role of RUNX proteins in the tumor microenvironment and AR signaling. We discuss the implications for therapeutically targeting RUNX, the potential for RUNX as PCa biomarkers, and the current pressing questions in the field.

Development of EphA2 siRNA-loaded lipid nanoparticles and combination with a small-molecule histone demethylase inhibitor in prostate cancer cells and tumor spheroids

BACKGROUND

siRNAs hold a great potential for cancer therapy, however, poor stability in body fluids and low cellular uptake limit their use in the clinic. To enhance the bioavailability of siRNAs in tumors, novel, safe, and effective carriers are needed.

RESULTS

Here, we developed cationic solid lipid nanoparticles (cSLNs) to carry siRNAs targeting EphA2 receptor tyrosine kinase (siEphA2), which is overexpressed in many solid tumors including prostate cancer. Using DDAB cationic lipid instead of DOTMA reduced nanoparticle size and enhanced both cellular uptake and gene silencing in prostate cancer cells. DDAB-cSLN showed better cellular uptake efficiency with similar silencing compared to commercial transfection reagent (Dharmafect 2). After verifying the efficacy of siEphA2-loaded nanoparticles, we further evaluated a potential combination with a histone lysine demethylase inhibitor, JIB-04. Silencing EphA2 by siEphA2-loaded DDAB-cSLN did not affect the viability (2D or 3D culture), migration, nor clonogenicity of PC-3 cells alone. However, upon co-administration with JIB-04, there was a decrease in cellular responses. Furthermore, JIB-04 decreased EphA2 expression, and thus, silencing by siEphA2-loaded nanoparticles was further increased with co-treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

We have successfully developed a novel siRNA-loaded lipid nanoparticle for targeting EphA2. Moreover, preliminary results of the effects of JIB-04, alone and in combination with siEphA2, on prostate cancer cells and prostate cancer tumor spheroids were presented for the first time. Our delivery system provides high transfection efficiency and shows great promise for targeting other genes and cancer types in further in vitro and in vivo studies.

Virus-associated ribozymes and nano carriers against COVID-19

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is a zoo tonic, highly pathogenic virus. The new type of coronavirus with contagious nature spread from Wuhan (China) to the whole world in a very short time and caused the new coronavirus disease (COVID-19). COVID-19 has turned into a global public health crisis due to spreading by close person-to-person contact with high transmission capacity. Thus, research about the treatment of the damages caused by the virus or prevention from infection increases everyday. Besides, there is still no approved and definitive, standardized treatment for COVID-19. However, this disaster experienced by human beings has made us realize the significance of having a system ready for use to prevent humanity from viral attacks without wasting time. As is known, nanocarriers can be targeted to the desired cells in vitro and in vivo. The nano-carrier system targeting a specific protein, containing the enzyme inhibiting the action of the virus can be developed. The system can be used by simple modifications when we encounter another virus epidemic in the future. In this review, we present a potential treatment method consisting of a nanoparticle-ribozyme conjugate, targeting ACE-2 receptors by reviewing the virus-associated ribozymes, their structures, types and working mechanisms.

PEGylation of Dendronized Gold Nanoparticles Affects Their Interaction with Thrombin and siRNA

The use of nonviral carriers based on nanomaterials is a promising strategy for modern gene therapy aimed at protecting the genetic material against degradation and enabling its efficient cellular uptake. To improve the effectiveness of nanocarriers in vivo, they are often modified with poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) to reduce their toxicity, limit nonspecific binding by proteins in the bloodstream, and extend blood half-life. Thus, the selection of an appropriate degree of surface PEGylation is crucial to preserve the interaction of nanoparticles with the genetic material and to ensure its efficient transport to the site of action. Our research focuses on the use of innovative gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) coated with cationic carbosilane dendrons as carriers of siRNA. In this study, using dynamic light scattering and zeta potential measurements, circular dichroism, and gel electrophoresis, we investigated dendronized AuNPs modified to varying degrees with PEG in terms of their interactions with siRNA and thrombin to select the most promising PEGylated carrier for further research.

MicroRNA in multiple sclerosis

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune disease that affects the central nervous system (CNS). Despite a complex pathogenesis, it appears that an imbalanced immune system plays an important role in the disease process. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are comprised of short non-coding single-stranded molecules mainly involved in regulating gene expression through the inhibition of transcription and translation. miRNAs are key regulatory molecules in the nucleus and participate in the proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis of various cells throughout the body. Recent studies, however, have found that miRNAs are also involved in MS pathogenesis, mainly affecting glial cells and peripheral immune cells. Fortunately, miRNAs are highly stable and have high specificity in peripheral body fluids. Accordingly, these molecules have become new diagnostic and therapeutic targets. The present review discusses the role of miRNAs in the pathogenesis of MS. We highlight the potential of miRNAs as new biomarkers of MS and potential therapeutic agents.

Construction and Evaluation of Short Hairpin RNAs for Knockdown of Metadherin mRNA

BACKGROUND

Short hairpin RNA (shRNA) has proven to be a powerful tool to study genes' function through RNA interference mechanism. Three different methods have been used in previous studies to produce shRNA expression vectors including oligonucleotide-based cloning, polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based cloning, and primer extension PCR approaches. The aim of this study was designing a reliable and simple method according to the primer extension strategy for constructing four shRNA vectors in order to target different regions of Metadherin (MTDH) mRNA in human leukemic cell line Jurkat.

METHODS

Oligonucleotides for construction of four shRNA vectors were designed, synthesized and fused to U6 promoter. Each U6-shRNA cassette was cloned into a pGFP-V-RS vector. MTDH shRNAs were transfected into the Jurkat cell line by using the electroporation method. The ability of shRNAs to knock down MTDH mRNA was analyzed through qRT-PCR. Apoptosis assay was used to evaluate the effect of down regulation of MTDH expression on cell integrity.

RESULTS

A significant reduction (about 80%) in the expression levels of MTDH mRNA and an increase in the percentages of apoptotic cells (about 20%) were observed in the test group in comparison with control.

CONCLUSION

MTDH shRNA constructs effectively inhibited gene expression. However, simplicity and inexpensiveness of the method were additional advantages for its application.

Smart metal organic frameworks: focus on cancer treatment

Metal–organic frameworks (MOFs), as a prominent category of hybrid porous materials, have been broadly employed as controlled systems of drug delivery due to their inherent interesting properties.

Cyclodextrins based delivery systems for macro biomolecules

Macro biomolecules are of vital importance in regulating the biofunctions in organisms, in which proteins (including peptides when mentioned below) and nucleic acids (NAs) are the most important. Therefore, these proteins and NAs can be applied as "drugs" to regulate the biofunctions from abnormal to normal. Either for proteins and NAs, the most challenging thing is to avoid the biodegradation or physicochemical degradation before they reach the targeted location, and then functions as complete functional structures. Hence, appropriate delivery systems are very important which can protect them from these degradations. Cyclodextrins (CDs) based delivery systems achieved mega successes due to their outstanding pharmaceutical properties and there have been several reviews on CDs based small molecule drug delivery systems recently. But for biomolecules, which are getting more and more important for modern therapies, however, there are very few reviews to systematically summarize and analyze the CDs-based macro biomolecules delivery systems, especially for proteins. In this review, there were some of the notable examples were summarized for the macro biomolecules (proteins and NAs) delivery based on CDs. For proteins, this review included insulin, lysozyme, bovine serum albumin (BSA), green fluorescent protein (GFP) and IgG's, etc. deliveries in slow release, stimulating responsive release or targeting release manners. For NAs, this review summarized cationic CD-polymers and CD-cluster monomers as NAs carriers, notably, including the multicomponents targeting CD-based carriers and the virus-like RNA assembly method siRNA carriers.

Advances in Targeting Cancer-Associated Genes by Designed siRNA in Prostate Cancer

Short interfering RNAs (siRNAs) have provided novel insights into the field of cancer treatment in light of their ability to specifically target and silence cancer-associated genes. In recent years, numerous studies focus on determining genes that actively participate in tumor formation, invasion, and metastasis in order to establish new targets for cancer treatment. In spite of great advances in designing various siRNAs with diverse targets, efficient delivery of siRNAs to cancer cells is still the main challenge in siRNA-mediated cancer treatment. Recent advancements in the field of nanotechnology and nanomedicine hold great promise to meet this challenge. This review focuses on recent findings in cancer-associated genes and the application of siRNAs to successfully silence them in prostate cancer, as well as recent progress for effectual delivery of siRNAs to cancer cells.

Roles of Non-Coding RNAs on Anaplastic Thyroid Carcinomas

Anaplastic thyroid cancer (ATC) remains as one of the most aggressive human carcinomas with poor survival rates in patients with the cancer despite therapeutic interventions. Novel targeted and personalized therapies could solve the puzzle of poor survival rates of patients with ATC. In this review, we discuss the role of non-coding RNAs in the regulation of gene expression in ATC as well as how the changes in their expression could potentially reshape the characteristics of ATCs. A broad range of miRNA, such as miR-205, miR-19a, miR-17-3p and miR-17-5p, miR-618, miR-20a, miR-155, etc., have abnormal expressions in ATC tissues and cells when compared to those of non-neoplastic thyroid tissues and cells. Moreover, lncRNAs, such as H19, Human leukocyte antigen (HLA) complex P5 (HCP5), Urothelial carcinoma-associated 1 (UCA1), Nuclear paraspeckle assembly transcript 1 (NEAT1), etc., participate in transcription and post-transcriptional regulation of gene expression in ATC cells. Dysregulations of these non-coding RNAs were associated with development and progression of ATC by modulating the functions of oncogenes during tumour progression. Thus, restoration of the abnormal expression of these miRNAs and lncRNAs may serve as promising ways to treat the patients with ATC. In addition, siRNA mediated inhibition of several oncogenes may act as a potential option against ATC. Thus, non-coding RNAs can be useful as prognostic biomarkers and potential therapeutic targets for the better management of patients with ATC.

Are Viral Vectors Any Good for RNAi Antiviral Therapy?

RNA interference (RNAi) represents a novel approach for alternative antiviral therapy. However, issues related to RNA delivery and stability have presented serious obstacles for obtaining good therapeutic efficacy. Viral vectors are capable of efficient delivery of RNAi as short interfering RNA (siRNA), short hairpin RNA (shRNA) and micro-RNA (miRNA). Efficacy in gene silencing for therapeutic applications against viral diseases has been demonstrated in various animal models. Rotavirus (RV) miR-7 can inhibit rotavirus replication by targeting the RV nonstructural protein 5. Viral gene silencing by targeting the RNAi pathway showed efficient suppression of hepatitis B virus replication by adeno-associated virus (AAV)-based delivery of RNAi hepatitis B virus (HBV) cassettes. Hepatitis C virus replication has been targeted by short hairpin RNA molecules expressed from lentivirus vectors. Potentially, RNAi-based approaches could be suitable for antiviral drugs against COVID-19.

Bioengineered siRNA-Based Nanoplatforms Targeting Molecular Signaling Pathways for the Treatment of Triple Negative Breast Cancer: Preclinical and Clinical Advancements

Triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) is one of the most aggressive types of breast cancer. Owing to the absenteeism of hormonal receptors expressed at the cancerous breast cells, hormonal therapies and other medications targeting human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) are ineffective in TNBC patients, making traditional chemotherapeutic agents the only current appropriate regimen. Patients' predisposition to relapse and metastasis, chemotherapeutics' cytotoxicity and resistance and poor prognosis of TNBC necessitates researchers to investigate different novel-targeted therapeutics. The role of small interfering RNA (siRNA) in silencing the genes/proteins that are aberrantly overexpressed in carcinoma cells showed great potential as part of TNBC therapeutic regimen. However, targeting specificity, siRNA stability, and delivery efficiency cause challenges in the progression of this application clinically. Nanotechnology was highlighted as a promising approach for encapsulating and transporting siRNA with high efficiency-low toxicity profile. Advances in preclinical and clinical studies utilizing engineered siRNA-loaded nanotherapeutics for treatment of TNBC were discussed. Specific and selective targeting of diverse signaling molecules/pathways at the level of tumor proliferation and cell cycle, tumor invasion and metastasis, angiogenesis and tumor microenvironment, and chemotherapeutics' resistance demonstrated greater activity via integration of siRNA-complexed nanoparticles.

Addressing cancer signal transduction pathways with antisense and siRNA oligonucleotides

Signal transduction pathways play key roles in the initiation, progression and dissemination of cancer. Thus, signaling molecules are attractive targets for cancer therapeutics and enormous efforts have gone into the development of small molecule inhibitors of these pathways. However, regrettably, there has been only moderate progress to date, primarily in connection with the RAS signaling pathway. Oligonucleotide-based drugs potentially offer several advantages for addressing signaling pathways, including their exquisite selectivity and their ability to exploit both enzymatic and nonenzymatic targets. Nonetheless, there are problems inherent in the oligonucleotide approach, not the least being the challenge of effectively delivering these complex molecules to intracellular sites within tumors. This survey article will provide a selective review of recent studies where oligonucleotides were used to address cancer signaling and will discuss both positive aspects and limitations of those studies. This will be set in the context of an overview of various cancer signaling pathways and small molecule approaches to regulate those pathways. The survey will also evaluate the challenges and opportunities implicit in the oligonucleotide-based approach to cancer signaling and will point out several possibilities for future research.

An expedient process for reducing the formation of process-related impurities during solid-phase synthesis of potential nucleic acid-based drugs

With the intent of mitigating the formation of process-related impurities during solid-phase synthesis of DNA or RNA sequences, a hydroxylated controlled-pore glass support conjugated to three, five or seven hexaethylene glycol spacers was prepared and demonstrated to provide a more efficient and robust synthesis process. Indeed, the use of a support conjugated to five hexaethylene glycol spacers led to a 19% up to 42% reduction of process-related impurities contaminating synthetic nucleic acid sequences, when compared to that obtained from the same DNA/RNA sequences synthesized using a commercial long-chain alkylamine controlled-pore glass support under highly similar conditions.

Effects of PEG anchors in PEGylated siRNA lipoplexes on in vitro gene‑silencing effects and siRNA biodistribution in mice

Polyethylene glycol (PEG)‑modifications (PEGylations) of cationic liposome/small interfering RNA complexes (siRNA lipoplexes) can enhance their systemic stability. The present study determined the effects of PEG anchors in PEGylated siRNA lipoplexes on in vitro gene‑silencing effects and siRNA biodistribution after intravenous injection. Three types of dialkyl or trialkyl cationic lipids were used in the current study for the preparation of cationic liposomes. Additionally, various PEGylated siRNA lipoplexes that contained PEG‑1,2‑distearoyl‑sn‑-glycero‑-3‑phosphoethanolamine (DSPE), PEG‑1,2‑distearoyl‑rac‑glycero‑3‑-methylpolyoxyethylene (DSG), PEG‑cholesterol (PEG‑Chol) and PEG‑chondroitin sulfate conjugate (PEG‑CS) were prepared. The results revealed that PEGylation of siRNA lipoplexes with PEG‑DSPE strongly decreased gene‑silencing effects in cells. In contrast, those with PEG‑DSG, PEG‑Chol and PEG‑CS did not largely decrease gene-silencing effects. However, regardless of the PEG‑derivative type, PEGylation of siRNA lipoplexes decreased their agglutination with erythrocytes. Furthermore, intravenous injection of PEGylated siRNA lipoplexes markedly decreased the accumulation of siRNA in the lungs, regardless of the type of PEG‑derivative. However, non‑PEGylated siRNA lipoplexes accumulated mainly in the lungs regardless of the siRNA lipoplex cationic lipid type. The results indicated that PEGylation of siRNA lipoplexes with PEG‑DSG, PEG‑Chol and PEG‑CS may improve systemic stability without losing transfection activity by PEGylation.

Effects of syndecan-4 gene silencing by micro RNA interference in anoikis resistant endothelial cells: Syndecan-4 silencing and anoikis resistance

The cell's resistance to cell death by adhesion loss to extracellular matrix (anoikis), contributes to tumor progression and metastasis. Various adhesion molecules are involved in the anoikis resistance, including the syndecan-4 (SDC4), a heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG) present on the cell surface. Changes in the expression of SDC4 have been observed in tumor and transformed cells, indicating its involvement in cancer. In previous works, we demonstrated that acquisition of anoikis resistance resistance by blocking adhesion to the substrate up-regulates syndecan-4 expression in endothelial cells. This study investigates the role of SDC4 in the transformed phenotype of anoikis resistant endothelial cells. Anoikis-resistant endothelial cells (Adh1-EC) were transfected with micro RNA interference (miR RNAi) targeted against syndecan-4. The effect of SDC4 silencing was analyzed by real-time PCR, western blotting and immunofluorescence. Transfection with miRNA-SDC4 resulted in a sequence-specific decrease in syndecan-4 mRNA and protein levels. Furthermore, we observed a reduction in the number of heparan and chondroitin sulfate chains in the cell extract and culture medium. The SDC4 silencing led to downregulation of proliferative and invasive capacity and angiogenic abilities of anoikis-resistant endothelial cells. Compared with the parental cells (Adh1-EC), SDC4 silenced cells (SDC4 miR-Syn-4-1-Adh1-EC e miR-Syn-4-2-Adh1-EC) exhibited an increase in adhesion to collagen and laminin and also in the apoptosis rate. Moreover, transfection with miRNA-SDC4 caused a decrease in the number of cells in the S phase of the cell cycle. This is accompanied by an increase in the heparan sulfate synthesis after 12 h of simulation with fetal calf serum (FCS). SDC4 silencing cells are more dependent of growth factors present in the FCS to synthesize heparan sulfate than parental cells. Similar data were obtained for the wild-type cell line (EC). Our results indicated that downregulation of SDC4 expression reverses the transformed phenotype of anoikis resistant endothelial cells. These and other findings suggest that syndecan-4 is suitable for pharmacological intervention, making it an attractive target for cancer therapy.

Optimizing Perioperative Use of Opioids: A Multimodal Approach

Purpose of Review

The main purpose of this article is to review recent literature regarding multimodal analgesia medications, citing their recommended doses, efficacy, and side effects. The second part of this report will provide a description of drugs in different stages of development which have novel mechanisms with less side effects such as tolerance and addiction.

Recent Findings

Multimodal analgesia is a technique that facilitates perioperative pain management by employing two or more systemic analgesics along with regional anesthesia, when possible. Even though opioids and non-opioid analgesics remain the most common medication used for acute pain management after surgery, they have many undesirable side effects including the potential for misuse. Newer analgesics including peripheral acting opioids, nitric oxide inhibitors, calcitonin gene-related peptide receptor antagonists, interleukin-6 receptor antagonists and gene therapy are under intensive investigation.

Summary

A patient's first exposure to opioids is often in the perioperative setting, a vulnerable time when multimodal therapy can play a large role in decreasing opioid exposure. Additionally, the current shift towards faster recovery times, fewer post-operative complications and improved cost-effectiveness during the perioperative period has made multimodal analgesia a central pillar of Enhanced Recovery After Surgery (ERAS) protocols.

Triton X-100-Modified Adenosine Triphosphate-Responsive siRNA Delivery Agent for Antitumor Therapy

Modified polyethyleneimine (PEI) has been widely used as siRNA delivery agents. Here, a new Triton X-100-modified low-molecular-weight PEI siRNA delivery agent is developed together with the coupling of 4-carboxyphenylboronic acid (PBA) and dopamine grafted vitamin E (VEDA). Triton X-100, a nonionic detergent, greatly improves the cellular uptake of siRNA as well as the siRNA escape from endosome/lysosome because of its high transmembrane ability. In addition, the boronate bond between PBA and VEDA of the transfection agent can be triggered to release its entrapped siRNA because of the high level of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) in cancer cells. The transfection agent is successfully applied to deliver siRNAs targeting endogenous genes of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and kinesin-5 (Eg5) to cancer cells, showing good results on Eg5 and EGFR silencing ability and inhibition of cancer cell migration. Further in vivo study indicates that the Triton X-100-modified transfection agent is also efficient to deliver siRNA to cancer cells and shows significant tumor growth inhibition on mice tumor models. These results indicate that the Triton X-100-modified ATP-responsive transfection agent is a promising gene delivery vector for target gene silencing in vitro and in vivo.

Viral Vectors Applied for RNAi-Based Antiviral Therapy

RNA interference (RNAi) provides the means for alternative antiviral therapy. Delivery of RNAi in the form of short interfering RNA (siRNA), short hairpin RNA (shRNA) and micro-RNA (miRNA) have demonstrated efficacy in gene silencing for therapeutic applications against viral diseases. Bioinformatics has played an important role in the design of efficient RNAi sequences targeting various pathogenic viruses. However, stability and delivery of RNAi molecules have presented serious obstacles for reaching therapeutic efficacy. For this reason, RNA modifications and formulation of nanoparticles have proven useful for non-viral delivery of RNAi molecules. On the other hand, utilization of viral vectors and particularly self-replicating RNA virus vectors can be considered as an attractive alternative. In this review, examples of antiviral therapy applying RNAi-based approaches in various animal models will be described. Due to the current coronavirus pandemic, a special emphasis will be dedicated to targeting Coronavirus Disease-19 (COVID-19).

Protein Expression Knockdown in Cancer Cells Induced by a Gemini Cationic Lipid Nanovector with Histidine-Based Polar Heads

A histidine-based gemini cationic lipid, which had already demonstrated its efficiency as a plasmid DNA (pDNA) nanocarrier, has been used in this work to transfect a small interfering RNA (siRNA) into cancer cells. In combination with the helper lipid monoolein glycerol (MOG), the cationic lipid was used as an antiGFP-siRNA nanovector in a multidisciplinary study. Initially, a biophysical characterization by zeta potential (ζ) and agarose gel electrophoresis experiments was performed to determine the lipid effective charge and confirm siRNA compaction. The lipoplexes formed were arranged in Lα lamellar lyotropic liquid crystal phases with a cluster-type morphology, as cryo-transmission electron microscopy (cryo-TEM) and small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) studies revealed. Additionally, in vitro experiments confirmed the high gene knockdown efficiency of the lipid-based nanovehicle as detected by flow cytometry (FC) and epifluorescence microscopy, even better than that of Lipofectamine2000*, the transfecting reagent commonly used as a positive control. Cytotoxicity assays indicated that the nanovector is non-toxic to cells. Finally, using nano-liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (nanoLC-MS/MS), apolipoprotein A-I and A-II followed by serum albumin were identified as the proteins with higher affinity for the surface of the lipoplexes. This fact could be beyond the remarkable silencing activity of the histidine-based lipid nanocarrier herein presented.

Intranasal Delivery of Targeted Nanoparticles Loaded With miR-132 to Brain for the Treatment of Neurodegenerative Diseases

Effective treatments for neurodegenerative diseases need to be developed. MiR132 is abundantly expressed in the brain, and it modulates neuron morphology and plays a key role in maintaining neuron survival. Regulating miR132 can effectively improve the symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease. It can also reduce cell death after cerebral hemorrhage, improve the microenvironment of hematoma lesions and provide a certain protective effect from brain damage after cerebral ischemia. MiR132 has great potential in the treatment of cerebral ischemia and Alzheimer’s disease. To prevent the decline of miR132 of miR132 levels in the blood, we used mouse and rat models of Alzheimer’s disease with ischemic brain injury, and then delivered Wheat germ agglutinin (WGA)-NPs-miR132 intranasally to treat neurological damage after cerebral ischemia. Synaptic protein expression levels in Alzheimer’s mouse models increased significantly after administration. We propose that, nasal delivery of WGA-NPs-miR132 is an interesting novel therapeutic approach for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases.

Gene therapy and immunotherapy as promising strategies to combat Huntington's disease-associated neurodegeneration: emphasis on recent updates and future perspectives

INTRODUCTION

Modulation of gene expression using gene therapy as well as modulation of immune activation using immunotherapy has attracted considerable attention as rapidly emerging potential therapeutic intervention for the treatment of HD. Several preclinical and clinical trials for gene-based therapy and immunotherapy/antibody-based have been conducted.

AREAS COVERED

This review focused on the potential use of gene therapy and immuno-based therapies to treat HD, including the current status, the rationale for these approaches as well as preclinical and clinical data supporting it. Growing knowledge of HD pathogenesis has resulted in the discovery of new therapeutic targets, some of which are now in clinical trials. Focus has been allocated to RNA and DNA-based gene therapies for the reduction of mutant huntingtin (mHTT), using Immuno/antibody-based therapies.

EXPERT OPINION

While safety and efficacy of gene therapy and immunotherapy has been well demonstrated for HD, therefore much focus has now been shifted to disease-modifying therapies. This review defines the current status and future directions of gene therapy and immunotherapies. The review summarizes by what means HD genetic root cause modification and functional restoration of mHtt protein could be achieved by using targeted multimodality gene therapy and immunotherapy to target intracellular and extracellular mHtt.

Silver Nanoparticles Surface-Modified with Carbosilane Dendrons as Carriers of Anticancer siRNA

Gene therapy is a promising approach in cancer treatment; however, current methods have a number of limitations mainly due to the difficulty in delivering therapeutic nucleic acids to their sites of action. The application of non-viral carriers based on nanomaterials aims at protecting genetic material from degradation and enabling its effective intracellular transport. We proposed the use of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) surface-modified with carbosilane dendrons as carriers of anticancer siRNA (siBcl-xl). Using gel electrophoresis, zeta potential and hydrodynamic diameter measurements, as well as transmission electron microscopy, we characterized AgNP:siRNA complexes and demonstrated the stability of nucleic acid in complexes in the presence of RNase. Hemolytic properties of free silver nanoparticles and complexes, their effect on lymphocyte proliferation and cytotoxic activity on HeLa cells were also examined. Confocal microscopy proved the effective cellular uptake of complexes, indicating the possible use of this type of silver nanoparticles as carriers of genetic material in gene therapy.

Therapeutic Effects of Transplanted Exosomes Containing miR-29b to a Rat Model of Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer disease (AD) is a complex neurodegenerative disorder with no definite treatment. The expression of miR-29 family is significantly reduced in AD, suggesting a part for the family members in pathogenesis of the disease. The recent emergence of microRNA (miRNA)-based therapeutic approaches is emphasized on the efficiency of miRNA transfer to target cells. The endogenously made secretory vesicles could provide a biological vehicle for drug delivery. Characteristics such as small sizes, the ability to cross the blood-brain barrier, the specificity in binding to the right target cells, and most importantly the capacity to be engineered as drug carriers have made exosomes desirable vehicles to deliver genetic materials to the central nervous system. Here, we transfected rat bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells and HEK-293T cells (human embryonic kidney 293 cells) with recombinant expression vectors, carrying either mir-29a or mir-29b precursor sequences. A significant overexpression of miR-29 and downregulation of their targets genes, BACE1 (β-site amyloid precursor protein cleaving enzyme 1) and BIM [Bcl-2 interacting mediator of cell death (BCL2-like 11)], were confirmed in the transfected cells. Then, we confirmed the packaging of miR-29 in exosomes secreted from the transfected cells. Finally, we investigated a possible therapeutic effect of the engineered exosomes to reduce the pathological effects of amyloid-β (Aβ) peptide in a rat model of AD. Aβ-treated model rats showed some deficits in spatial learning and memory. However, in animals injected with miR-29-containing exosomes at CA1 (cornu ammonis area), the aforementioned impairments were prevented. In conclusion, our findings provide a new approach for the packaging of miR-29 in exosomes and that the engineered exosomes might have a therapeutic potential in AD.

The Delivery of RNA-Interference Therapies Based on Engineered Hydrogels for Bone Tissue Regeneration

RNA interference (RNAi) is an efficient post-transcriptional gene modulation strategy mediated by small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) and microRNAs (miRNAs). Since its discovery, RNAi has been utilized extensively to diagnose and treat diseases at both the cellular and molecular levels. However, the application of RNAi therapies in bone regeneration has not progressed to clinical trials. One of the major challenges for RNAi therapies is the lack of efficient and safe delivery vehicles that can actualize sustained release of RNA molecules at the target bone defect site and in surrounding cells. One promising approach to achieve these requirements is encapsulating RNAi molecules into hydrogels for delivery, which enables the nucleic acids to be delivered as RNA conjugates or within nanoparticles. Herein, we reviewed recent investigations into RNAi therapies for bone regeneration where RNA delivery was performed by hydrogels.

Poly(lysine) Dendrimers Form Complexes with siRNA and Provide Its Efficient Uptake by Myeloid Cells: Model Studies for Therapeutic Nucleic Acid Delivery

The disruption of the cellular pathways of protein biosynthesis through the mechanism of RNA interference has been recognized as a tool of great diagnostic and therapeutic significance. However, in order to fully exploit the potential of this phenomenon, efficient and safe carriers capable of overcoming extra- and intracellular barriers and delivering siRNA to the target cells are needed. Recently, attention has focused on the possibility of the application of multifunctional nanoparticles, dendrimers, as potential delivery devices for siRNA. The aim of the present work was to evaluate the formation of dendriplexes using novel poly(lysine) dendrimers (containing lysine and arginine or histidine residues in their structure), and to verify the hypothesis that the use of these polymers may allow an efficient method of siRNA transfer into the cells in vitro to be obtained. The fluorescence polarization studies, as well as zeta potential and hydrodynamic diameter measurements were used to characterize the dendrimer:siRNA complexes. The cytotoxicity of dendrimers and dendriplexes was evaluated with the resazurin-based assay. Using the flow cytometry technique, the efficiency of siRNA transport to the myeloid cells was determined. This approach allowed us to determine the properties and optimal molar ratios of dendrimer:siRNA complexes, as well as to demonstrate that poly(lysine) dendrimers may serve as efficient carriers of genetic material, being much more effective than the commercially available transfection agent Lipofectamine 2000. This outcome provides the basis for further research on the application of poly(lysine) dendrimers as carriers for nucleic acids in the field of gene therapy.