Preeclampsia and COVID-19: results from the INTERCOVID prospective longitudinal study

Human ACE-2, MCP1 and micro-RNA 146 as Novel Markers for COVID- 19 Affection and Severity

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Coronavirus disease - 2019 (COVID-19) is a major pandemic that causes high morbidity and mortality rates.

AIM OF THIS STUDY

to detect the relations between many risk factors, ACE-2, MCP-1, Micro RNA 146 gene expression, and COVID-19 infection and disease severity.

METHODS

This study was carried out on 165 cases of COVID-19 and 138 controls. ACE2 and MCP1 levels were measured in COVID-19 cases and control by ELISA and micro-RNA-146 expression by PCR.

RESULTS

We found an increased blood level of ACE2 and MCP1 in COVID- 19 patients than in healthy persons and a significant down-regulation of micro-RNA 146 gene expression in cases than in controls. There was a significant correlation between increased blood level of ACE2, regulation of micro-RNA 146 gene expression and severity of lung affection, a significant correlation was found between increased blood level of MCP1 and thrombosis in COVID-19 patients. Neurological complications were significantly correlated with more viral load, more ACE2 blood level, and down regulation of micro RNA146 expression.

CONCLUSION

High viral load, increased blood level of ACE2, and down-regulation of micro-RNA 146 expression are associated with more severe lung injury and the presence of neurologic complications like convulsions and coma in COVID-19 Egyptian patients.

Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Obstetric Interventions at a Public Hospital

INTRODUCTION

In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, health systems quickly implemented changes in care delivery with a goal of balancing patient-focused obstetric care with the need to protect pregnant persons and health care providers from infection. Yet, there is no consensus within the scientific community on the impact these measures have on obstetric outcomes in vulnerable populations. We aimed to assess the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on rates of obstetric procedures and severe maternal morbidity (SMM) among births at an urban safety net institution.

METHODS

We used an interrupted time series design to calculate risk ratios (RRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) comparing monthly rates of labor induction, cesarean births (overall and among nulliparous, term, singleton, vertex births), operative vaginal births, and SMM among births occurring at a public hospital before (March 1, 2016, to February 29, 2020) and during (March 1, 2020, to May 31, 2021) the COVID-19 pandemic.

RESULTS

There were 10,714 and 2,736 births in the prepandemic and postpandemic periods, respectively. Overall, the rates of obstetric interventions and SMM were constant over the two time periods. There were no significant differences in rates of labor induction (42% during prepandemic period vs. 45% during pandemic period; RR, 1.12; 95% CI, 0.93-1.34), operative vaginal births (5% vs. 6%; RR, 1.24; 95% CI, 0.88-1.76), cesarean births (28% vs. 33%; RR, 1.10; 95% CI, 0.94-1.28), or nulliparous, term, singleton, vertex cesarean births (24% vs. 31%; RR, 1.27; 95% CI, 0.92-1.74). Rates of SMM (7% vs. 8%; RR, 1.19; 95% CI, 0.86-1.65) were also unchanged.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings indicate that the rapid implementation of measures to reduce viral transmission in the labor and delivery setting did not materially affect routine clinical management or rates of serious maternal complications.

Confirmation of preeclampsia-like syndrome induced by severe COVID-19: an observational study

BACKGROUND

Since the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, some studies have reported an increased preeclampsia incidence in pregnant women with SARS-CoV-2 infection. Several explanations for this association have been proposed, including a preeclampsia-like syndrome induced by severe COVID-19. This syndrome was described in a small case series and has not been confirmed in larger studies, and its effect on perinatal outcomes has not been studied.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to confirm the preeclampsia-like syndrome because of COVID-19 and to investigate its implications on pregnancy outcomes and prognosis.

STUDY DESIGN

This was a prospective, observational study conducted in a tertiary referral hospital. The inclusion criteria were pregnant women admitted to the intensive care unit for severe pneumonia because of COVID-19. They were classified into 3 groups based on clinical and laboratory findings: preeclampsia, preeclampsia-like syndrome, and women without preeclampsia features. The 3 cohorts were analyzed and compared at 3 different times: before, during, and after severe pneumonia. The main outcomes were incidence of adverse perinatal outcomes and signs and symptoms of PE, such as hypertension, proteinuria, thrombocytopenia, elevated liver enzymes, and increased angiogenic factors (soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase 1-to-placental growth factor ratio).

RESULTS

A total of 106 women were admitted to the intensive care unit because of severe pneumonia, and 68 women were included in the study. Of those, 53 (50.0%) did not meet the diagnostic criteria for preeclampsia and remained pregnant after pneumonia (non-preeclampsia); 7 (6.6%) met the diagnostic criteria for preeclampsia, had abnormal (>38) soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase 1-to-placental growth factor ratio (preeclampsia), and delivered during severe pneumonia, and 8 (7.5%) met the diagnostic criteria for preeclampsia, had normal (≤38) soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase 1-to-placental growth factor ratio (preeclampsia like), and did not deliver during pneumonia. Despite not having delivered, most preeclampsia-related features improved after severe pneumonia in women with preeclampsia-like syndrome. Women with preeclampsia had significantly poorer outcomes than women with preeclampsia-like syndrome or without preeclampsia.

CONCLUSION

More than 50% of women with severe COVID-19 and diagnostic criteria for preeclampsia may not be preeclampsia but a preeclampsia-like syndrome, which may affect up to 7.5% of women with severe COVID-19. Preeclampsia-like syndrome might have similar perinatal outcomes to those of normotensive women with severe pneumonia because of COVID-19. For these reasons, preeclampsia-like syndrome should be excluded by using soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase 1-to-placental growth factor ratio in future research and before making clinical decisions.

Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) Perinatal Outcomes Across the Pandemic at an Academic Medical Center in New York City

OBJECTIVE

To investigate perinatal complications associated with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection during pregnancy in the four major waves of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic in the Bronx, New York.

METHODS

This retrospective cohort study included all patients who delivered at a single academic medical center between March 1, 2020, and February 13, 2022. SARS-CoV-2 positivity was defined as a positive SARS-CoV-2 test result during pregnancy. Primary outcomes were preterm birth, low birth weight, stillbirth, cesarean delivery, and preeclampsia associated with SARS-CoV-2 infection. Secondary analyses examined outcomes by predominant variant at the time of infection. Group differences in categorical variables were tested using χ 2 tests.

RESULTS

Of the 8,983 patients who delivered, 638 (7.1%) tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 infection during pregnancy. Age, race, ethnicity, and major comorbidities did not differ significantly between the SARS-CoV-2-positive and SARS-CoV-2-negative cohorts ( P >.05). Primary outcomes did not differ between the SARS-CoV-2-positive and SARS-CoV-2-negative cohorts ( P >.05). There was a marked increase in positive SARS-CoV-2 test results in individuals who gave birth during the Omicron wave (140/449, 31.2%). However, among patients who tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 infection, the preterm birth rate during the Omicron wave (9.9%) was significantly lower than during the original wave (20.3%) and the Alpha (18.4%) wave ( P <.05). Vaccination rates were low before the Omicron wave and rose to 47.2% during the Omicron wave among individuals hospitalized with SARS-CoV-2 infection. Finally, second-trimester infection was significantly associated with worse perinatal outcomes compared with third-trimester infection ( P <.05).

CONCLUSION

There was a general trend toward improvement in preterm birth rates across the pandemic among pregnant patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection. The Omicron variant was more infectious, but the preterm birth rate during the Omicron wave was low compared with that during the original wave and the Alpha wave.

Morbidity and mortality of newborn from preeclampsia mother with SARS-CoV-2 infection

BACKGROUND

Preeclampsia is a major cause of maternal and infant mortality in Indonesia. Several studies have investigated the association between SARS-CoV-2 infection and adverse maternal, fetal, and neonatal outcomes. The studies found that SARS-CoV-2 infection during pregnancy is associated with an increased risk of maternal morbidity and mortality related to hypertensive disorders, including preeclampsia. However, the studies did not provide specific information on the morbidity and mortality of newborns from mothers diagnosed with preeclampsia with conjunction SARS-CoV-2 infection.

METHODS

This hospital-based case-control study was conducted on 28 mother-infant pairs using a systematic sampling method from February 2021 to December 2021. Data were analyzed using SPSS software (version 26), and statistical tests including chi-square analysis, Fisher's exact test, Mann-Whitney U-test and independent t-test were performed to identify factors associated with study variables in a 95% confidence interval (CI).

RESULTS

We conducted a prospective study involving the enrollment of 28 pregnant women with confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection through RT-PCR tests. Within this cohort, a subset of 4 mothers (14.8%) were diagnosed with preeclampsia. Four preeclamptic patients (100%) experienced fatal outcomes. Furthermore, among the infants born to preeclamptic mothers with SARS-CoV-2 infections, two (50%) newborns not survive. One infant passed away shortly after birth at 30 weeks of gestation, while the other had intrauterine demise at 28 weeks of gestation.

CONCLUSIONS

SARS-CoV-2 infection during pregnancy is associated with an increased risk of maternal morbidity and mortality related preeclampsia.

COVID-19 Vaccines during Pregnancy and Breastfeeding: A Systematic Review

Background: Pregnant and breastfeeding women received unclear recommendations regarding COVID-19 vaccination at the beginning of the pandemic, as they were not included in the initial clinical trials. This systematic review aims to provide an update regarding COVID-19 vaccines during pregnancy and breastfeeding. Methods: The systematic review was carried out through a literature search in Medline/Pubmed. Studies were selected if they included information regarding COVID-19 vaccination during pregnancy and breastfeeding. The PRISMA guidelines for systematic reviews were followed. Results: A total of 33 studies were included. The main adverse effect is pain at the injection site, as in the general population. Adverse effects are more frequent after the second dose, being slightly more frequent after the Moderna vaccine. COVID-19 vaccination reduces the risk of severe COVID-19 in pregnant women. Additionally, COVID-19 vaccination induces artificial active immunogenicity in the mother and natural passive immunogenicity in the child. Breastmilk straddles both immediate antibody-mediated and long-lived cellular-mediated immune protection. Regarding neonatal benefits, vaccination is associated with a larger and more stable Immunoglobulin G response, while COVID-19 Infection is associated with a rapid and long-lasting Immunoglobulin A response. Conclusions: COVID-19 vaccines are not only suggested but strongly recommended for pregnant and breastfeeding populations to protect mothers and newborns.

Comparison of Maternal-Fetal Outcomes among Unvaccinated and Vaccinated Pregnant Women with COVID-19

Background: This study sought to elucidate whether COVID-19 vaccination, during gestation or before conception, entails a decreased incidence of severe COVID-19 disease during pregnancy. Methods: This retrospective cohort study included all pregnant women that were followed up at a tertiary University Hospital with SARS-CoV-2 infection diagnosed between 1 March 2020 and 30 July 2022. The primary outcome of the study was to compare maternal and perinatal outcomes in unvaccinated and vaccinated pregnant patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection. Results: A total of 487 pregnant women with SARS-CoV-2 infection were included. SARS-CoV-2 infection during the third trimester of pregnancy was associated with an 89% lower probability of positive cord-blood SARS-CoV-2 IgG antibodies (OR 0.112; 95% CI 0.039-0.316), compared with infection during the first or the second trimester. Vaccinated pregnant women (201 (41.27%)) with COVID-19 had an 80% lower risk for developing pneumonia and requiring hospital admission due to COVID-19 than unvaccinated patients (aOR 0.209; 95% CI 0.044-0.985). Noticeably, pregnant patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection with at least two doses of the COVID-19 vaccine did not develop severe COVID-19. Conclusion: Vaccinated women with SARS-CoV-2 infection during pregnancy are associated with decreased hospital admission due to COVID-19 as well as reduced progression to severe COVID-19.

A global view of hypertensive disorders and diabetes mellitus during pregnancy

Two important maternal cardiometabolic disorders (CMDs), hypertensive disorders in pregnancy (HDP) (including pre-eclampsia) and gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM), result in a large disease burden for pregnant individuals worldwide. A global consensus has not been reached about the diagnostic criteria for HDP and GDM, making it challenging to assess differences in their disease burden between countries and areas. However, both diseases show an unevenly distributed disease burden for regions with a low income or middle income, or low-income and middle-income countries (LMICs), or regions with lower sociodemographic and human development indexes. In addition to many common clinical, demographic and behavioural risk factors, the development and clinical consequences of maternal CMDs are substantially influenced by the social determinants of health, such as systemic marginalization. Although progress has been occurring in the early screening and management of HDP and GDM, the accuracy and long-term effects of such screening and management programmes are still under investigation. In addition to pharmacological therapies and lifestyle modifications at the individual level, a multilevel approach in conjunction with multisector partnership should be adopted to tackle the public health issues and health inequity resulting from maternal CMDs. The current COVID-19 pandemic has disrupted health service delivery, with women with maternal CMDs being particularly vulnerable to this public health crisis.

The Impact of Coronavirus Disease 2019 on Maternal and Fetal Wellbeing in New Mexico

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has been shown to affect the vasculature, including placental changes. Insults to the placenta, especially in the first and second trimester, can affect placental functionality with a resultant impact on fetal growth and wellbeing. Thus, we explored the relationship between antenatally acquired maternal COVID-19 infection and neonatal birth characteristics. A retrospective chart review was completed using the University of New Mexico electronic medical record system. ICD-10 codes were used to identify individuals that had a positive pregnancy test and positive COVID-19 screening test between 1 March 2020 to 24 March 2021. Chi-square and nonparametric Wilcoxon analyses were used, with p < 0.05 considered significant. A total of 487 dyad charts was analyzed, with 76 (16%) individuals identified as being COVID-19-positive (CovPos) during pregnancy. CovPos mothers were significantly more likely to deliver via a cesarean section compared to CovNeg mothers (33% vs. 20%, p < 0.01). There was a significant difference in gestational age at delivery, with infants born to CovPos individuals born at an earlier gestational age than those born to CovNeg individuals (37.6 vs. 38.5 weeks; p < 0.01). Our findings showed differences in maternal and infant characteristics following COVID-19 infection during pregnancy. Additional investigations are required to further delineate these relationships with a focus on potential long-term impacts on the neonate.

sFlt-1/PlGF Ratio Is Not a Good Predictor of Severe COVID-19 nor of Adverse Outcome in Pregnant Women with SARS-CoV-2 Infection-A Case-Control Study

BACKGROUND

Elevated serum levels of sFlt-1 were found in non-pregnant severe COVID-19 patients. The aim was to investigate sFlt-1/PlGF ratio as a predictor of severe disease and adverse outcome in pregnant women with COVID-19.

METHODS

A single-center case-control study was conducted in pregnant women with SARS-CoV-2 infection. SARS-CoV-2-negative pregnant women served as controls. Serum sFlt-1/PlGF ratio was assessed. The primary outcome was severe COVID-19 and the secondary outcome comprised adverse outcomes including severe COVID-19, intensive care unit admission, maternal multiple organ failure, preterm delivery, fetal demise, preeclampsia or hypertension diagnosed after COVID-19, maternal death.

RESULTS

138 women with SARS-CoV-2 infection and 140 controls were included. sFlt-1/PlGF ratio was higher in infected patients (11.2 vs. 24; p < 0.01) and in women with severe disease (50.8 vs. 16.2; p < 0.01). However, it was similar in women with adverse and non-adverse outcome (29.8 vs. 20; p = 0.2). The AUC of sFlt-1/PlGF ratio was 0.66 (95% CI 0.56-0.76) for the prediction of severe COVID-19, and 0.72 (95% CI 0.63-0.79) for the prediction of adverse outcome.

CONCLUSIONS

sFlt-1 and sFlt-1/PlGF ratio are related to SARS-CoV-2 infection and the severity of COVID-19 during pregnancy. However, sFlt-1/PlGF ratio is not a good predictor of severe COVID-19 or adverse outcome.

COVID-19 associated liver injury: A general review with special consideration of pregnancy and obstetric outcomes

Liver injury is an increasingly recognized extra-pulmonary manifestation of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection. Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) associated liver injury (COVALI) is a clinical syndrome encompassing all patients with biochemical liver injury identified in the setting of SARS-CoV-2 infection. Despite profound clinical implications, its pathophysiology is poorly understood. Unfortunately, most information on COVALI is derived from the general population and may not be applicable to individuals under-represented in research, including pregnant individuals. This manuscript reviews: Clinical features of COVALI, leading theories of COVALI, and existing literature on COVALI during pregnancy, a topic not widely explored in the literature. Ultimately, we synthesized data from the general and perinatal populations that demonstrates COVALI to be a hepatocellular transaminitis that is likely induced by systemic inflammation and that is strongly associated with disease severity and poorer clinical outcome, and offered perspective on approaching transaminitis in the potentially COVID-19 positive patient in the obstetric setting.

SARS-CoV-2 infection induces activation of ferroptosis in human placenta

Ferroptosis, a regulated non-apoptotic form of cell death, has been implicated in the response to varied types of infectious agents including virus. In this study, we sought to determine whether SARS-CoV-2 infection can induce activation of ferroptosis in the human placenta. We collected placentas from 23 pregnant females with laboratory-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 following delivery and then used RNA in situ hybridization assay for detection of viral positive-sense strand (PSS) to confirm that these placentas have been infected. We also used immunohistochemistry assay to assess expression levels of acyl-CoA synthetase long-chain family member 4 (ACSL4), an essential executioner of ferroptosis in the same specimens. Our results showed that ACSL4 expression was significantly increased in the group with positive positive-sense strand staining compared to their negative counterparts (p = 0.00022). Furthermore, we found that there was a positive trend for increased PSS staining along with increased ACSL4 expression. Our study supports that ferroptosis is activated in the response to SARS-CoV-2 infection in the human placenta, highlighting a molecular mechanism potentially linking this coronavirus infection and pathogenesis of adverse pregnancy outcomes.

Corona: Impfung und Schwangerschaftsverlauf

Eine SARS-CoV-2(„severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2“)-Infektion während der Schwangerschaft ist für die Mutter mit signifikanten Risiken verbunden. Auch Feten sind durch die Infektion gefährdet, da es zu Komplikationen wie Frühgeburtlichkeit und Wachstumsrestriktion bis hin zum intrauterinen Fruchttod kommen kann. Zwar werden Ig(Immunglobulin)G-Antikörper der Mutter auf den Feten übertragen, dennoch kann die Thrombosierung der Plazenta zu Komplikationen führen. Abhängig vom Krankheitsverlauf ist das Thromboserisiko für die Schwangere ebenfalls teilweise deutlich erhöht, weshalb in manchen Fällen eine Heparinisierung indiziert ist. Die Impfung gegen COVID(„coronavirus disease“)-19 bietet bei einer im Vergleich zu Nichtschwangeren ähnlichen Nebenwirkungsrate einen Schutz vor schweren Krankheitsverläufen und infektionsbedingten Schwangerschaftskomplikationen. Deshalb sollten alle Schwangeren über die Möglichkeit einer Impfung auch während der Schwangerschaft informiert werden, wobei die STIKO (Ständige Impfkommission am Robert Koch-Institut) die Vakzinierung während des zweiten Trimenons empfiehlt.

Risk of preeclampsia in patients with symptomatic COVID-19 infection

Objectives

Recent studies suggest an association between COVID-19 infection during pregnancy and preeclampsia. Nonetheless, these studies are subject to numerous biases. We compared the onset of preeclampsia in a group with symptomatic COVID-19 during pregnancy to that in a group whose non-exposure to the virus was certain, in a center where pregnancy management was identical in both groups.

Study Design

This was a single-center study comparing exposed and unexposed patients. The exposed group included pregnant women with symptomatic COVID-19 infection (diagnosed by RT-PCR or CT scan), who gave birth between March and December, 2020. The unexposed group included pregnant women who gave birth between March and December, 2019. Only cases of preeclampsia that occurred after COVID-19 infection were considered. A multivariate analysis was performed to study the existence of an association between COVID-19 and preeclampsia. A sensitivity analysis was performed among nulliparous patients.

Results

The frequency of preeclampsia was 3.2% (3/93) in the exposed group, versus 2.2% (4/186) in the unexposed group (P = 0.58). Among the nulliparous patients, the frequency of preeclampsia was 4.9% (2/41) in the exposed group versus 0.9% (1/106) in the unexposed group (P = 0.13). The association between COVID-19 and preeclampsia was not significant after multivariate analysis (OR 3.12, 95% CI 0.39-24.6).

Conclusion

Symptomatic COVID-19 infection during pregnancy does not appear to increase the risk of preeclampsia strongly, although the size of our sample prevents us from reaching a conclusion about a low or moderate risk. It therefore does not appear necessary to reinforce preeclampsia screening in patients with symptomatic COVID-19 infection during pregnancy.

Clinical decision analysis of elective delivery vs expectant management for pregnant individuals with COVID-19-related acute respiratory distress syndrome

BACKGROUND

Pregnant individuals are vulnerable to COVID-19-related acute respiratory distress syndrome. There is a lack of high-quality evidence on whether elective delivery or expectant management leads to better maternal and neonatal outcomes.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to determine whether elective delivery or expectant management are associated with higher quality-adjusted life expectancy for pregnant individuals with COVID-19-related acute respiratory distress syndrome and their neonates.

STUDY DESIGN

We performed a clinical decision analysis using a patient-level model in which we simulatedpregnant individuals and their unborn children. We used a patient-level model with parallel open-cohort structure, daily cycle length, continuous discounting, lifetime horizon, sensitivity analyses for key parameter values, and 1000 iterations for quantification of uncertainty. We simulated pregnant individuals at 32 weeks of gestation, invasively ventilated because of COVID-19-related acute respiratory distress syndrome. In the elective delivery strategy, pregnant individuals received immediate cesarean delivery. In the expectant management strategy, pregnancies continued until spontaneous labor or obstetrical decision to deliver. For both pregnant individuals and neonates, model outputs were hospital or perinatal survival, life expectancy, and quality-adjusted life expectancy denominated in years, summarized by the mean and 95% credible interval. Maternal utilities incorporated neonatal outcomes in accordance with best practices in perinatal decision analysis.

RESULTS

Model outputs for pregnant individuals were similar when comparing elective delivery at 32 weeks' gestation with expectant management, including hospital survival (87.1% vs 87.4%), life-years (difference, -0.1; 95% credible interval, -1.4 to 1.1), and quality-adjusted life expectancy denominated in years (difference, -0.1; 95% credible interval, -1.3 to 1.1). For neonates, elective delivery at 32 weeks' gestation was estimated to lead to a higher perinatal survival (98.4% vs 93.2%; difference, 5.2%; 95% credible interval, 3.5-7), similar life-years (difference, 0.9; 95% credible interval, -0.9 to 2.8), and higher quality-adjusted life expectancy denominated in years (difference, 1.3; 95% credible interval, 0.4-2.2). For pregnant individuals, elective delivery was not superior to expectant management across a range of scenarios between 28 and 34 weeks of gestation. Elective delivery in cases where intrauterine death or maternal mortality were more likely resulted in higher neonatal quality-adjusted life expectancy, as did elective delivery at 30 weeks' gestation (difference, 1.1 years; 95% credible interval, 0.1 - 2.1) despite higher long-term complications (4.3% vs 0.5%; difference, 3.7%; 95% credible interval, 2.4-5.1), and in cases where intrauterine death or maternal acute respiratory distress syndrome mortality were more likely.

CONCLUSION

The decision to pursue elective delivery vs expectant management in pregnant individuals with COVID-19-related acute respiratory distress syndrome should be guided by gestational age, risk of intrauterine death, and maternal acute respiratory distress syndrome severity. For the pregnant individual, elective delivery is comparable but not superior to expectant management for gestational ages from 28 to 34 weeks. For neonates, elective delivery was superior if gestational age was ≥30 weeks and if the rate of intrauterine death or maternal mortality risk were high. We recommend basing the decision for elective delivery vs expectant management in a pregnant individual with COVID-19-related acute respiratory distress syndrome on gestational age and likelihood of intrauterine or maternal death.

COVID-19 in Pregnancy

Coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) infection during pregnancy is associated with severe complications and adverse effects for the mother, the fetus, and the neonate. The frequency of these outcomes varies according to the region, the gestational age, and the presence of comorbidities. Many COVID-19 interventions, including oxygen therapy, high-flow nasal cannula, and invasive mechanical ventilation, are challenging and require understanding physiologic adaptations of pregnancy. Vaccination is safe during pregnancy and lactation and constitutes the most important intervention to reduce severe disease and complications.

Cardiovascular Complications of COVID-19 among Pregnant Women and Their Fetuses: A Systematic Review

Background: COVID-19 is a viral infectious disease leading to a spectrum of clinical complications, especially cardiovascular. Evidence shows that this infection can potentially accompany a worse outcome in pregnant women. Cardiovascular complications in mothers and their fetuses are reported by previous studies. Objective: In this systematic review, we aim to investigate the cardiovascular complications of COVID-19 during pregnancy in the mothers and fetus, according to the published literature. Method: We systematically searched the online databases of PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar, using relevant keywords up to April 2022. We included all observational studies reporting cardiovascular complications among COVID-19-affected pregnant women and their fetuses. Results: We included 74 studies containing 47582 pregnant COVID-19 cases. Pre-eclampsia, hypertensive disorders, cardiomyopathy, heart failure, myocardial infarction, thrombosis formation, alterations in maternal–fetal Doppler patterns, and maternal and fetal arrhythmia were reported as cardiovascular complications. The highest incidences of pre-eclampsia/eclampsia among COVID-19 pregnant cases, reported by studies, were 69% and 62%, and the lowest were 0.5% and 3%. The highest and lowest incidences of fetal bradycardia were 20% and 3%, and regarding fetal tachycardia, 5.4% and 1%, respectively. Conclusion: SARS-CoV-2 infection during pregnancy can potentially be associated with cardiovascular complications in the mother, particularly pre-eclampsia and heart failure. Moreover, SARS-CoV-2 infection during pregnancy can potentially cause cardiovascular complications in the fetus, particularly arrhythmia.

Prediction and prevention of preeclampsia by physicians in Brazil: An original study

Background

Considering the worldwide importance of preeclampsia, especially in Brazil, the screening of pregnant women at greater risk of developing the disease and the application of preventive measures are essential. This study aimed to assess the medical performance in this context in Brazil.

Methods

A survey was developed to quantify the number of physicians who prescribe acetylsalicylic acid (ASA) and/or calcium for preeclampsia prevention. The survey was sent to all Brazilian obstetricians affiliated to the Brazilian Federation of OBGYN by email and WhatsApp. The survey remained opened for 6 months and included questions about the use of ASA and calcium, as well as about the use of a complementary test to predict preeclampsia.

Results

The sample consisted of 360 responding physicians and 100% coverage of responses from physicians from the five different regions of Brazil was obtained. The vast majority of respondents (94.72%) prescribe ASA to prevent preeclampsia, with 80.3% prescribing a dose of 100 mg/day. Calcium is prescribed by 83.9% of the respondents. The majority of the interviewed sample (58.6%) requests uterine artery Doppler imaging to predict preeclampsia and 31.7% do not request any additional test. When the analysis was performed by region, only the northern region differed from the other Brazilian regions regarding the use of ASA and calcium for preeclampsia prevention. While more than 90% of physicians in the other regions prescribe ASA, 40% in the northern region do not use it (p < 0.0001). Regarding calcium, 30% of physicians in northern Brazil do not use the drug for preeclampsia prevention, a percentage that also differs from the other regions where the medication is prescribed by 80 to 90% of physicians (p = 0.021).

Conclusions

The vast majority of Brazilian physicians prescribe low-dose aspirin and calcium carbonate to prevent preeclampsia in high-risk pregnant women. In addition to the identification of clinical risk factors, most doctors use Doppler of the uterine arteries as a predictive method. In the northern region of Brazil, physicians use aspirin and calcium less frequently for preventing preeclampsia compared to the rest of the country.

Imbalanced Angiogenesis in Pregnancies Complicated by SARS-CoV-2 Infection

COVID-19 and preeclampsia (preE) share the ANG-II mediated endothelial dysfunction, resulting from a significant dysregulation of RAS and an imbalanced proportion of anti-angiogenic and pro-angiogenic soluble plasmatic factors. Of note, an increased incidence of preE has been reported among COVID-19-infected mothers compared to the general pregnant population. The two most promising angiogenic markers are the soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase receptor-1 (sFlt-1), the major antiangiogenic factor, and the placental growth factor (PlGF), a powerful angiogenic factor. Since these markers have proven useful in the prediction, diagnosis, and severity of preE, this study aimed to evaluate their maternal serum levels in pregnancies complicated by SARS-CoV-2 infection and to assess their potential use to guide the management of these women. A retrospective analysis of SARS-CoV-2-positive pregnant women was performed. The serum levels of sFlt-1 and PlGF were collected at the diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2 infection at the hospital, before the beginning of steroid/hydroxychloroquine and/or antithrombotic therapy. The sFlt-1/PlGF ratio was stratified using cut-off values clinically utilized in the diagnosis and prediction of preE (low < 38, intermediate 38−85/110* and high >85/110*, * if before or after the 34th week of gestation). A total of 57 women were included, of whom 20 (35%) had signs and symptoms of COVID-19 at hospital presentation and 37 (65%) were asymptomatic. None were vaccinated. The mean gestational age at diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2 infection was 32 weeks in symptomatic patients and 37 weeks and 5 days in asymptomatic ones (p = 0.089). sFlt-1 serum levels were higher in SARS-CoV-2 positive asymptomatic patients compared to women with COVID-19 related symptoms (4899 ± 4357 pg/mL vs. 3187 ± 2426 pg/mL, p = 0.005). sFlt-1/PlGF at admission was <38 in 18 of the 20 symptomatic women (90%) compared to 22 (59%) of the asymptomatic patients (p = 0.018). Of note, two of the three women admitted to the intensive care unit had a very low ratio (<2). In turn, rates of patients with sFlt-1/PlGF at admission > 85/110 were not significantly different between the two groups: 11% in asymptomatic patients (4/37) vs. none of the symptomatic patients (p = 0.286), and all of them presented a placental dysfunction, like preE (n = 1) and FGR (n = 3). Of note, there were no stillbirths or maternal or neonatal deaths among symptomatic patients; also, no cases of preE, FGR, or small for gestational age neonates were diagnosed. In conclusion, our data suggest that SARS-CoV-2 infection during pregnancy could influence the angiogenic balance. A significant pathological alteration of the sFlt-1/PlGF ratio cannot be identified during the symptomatic phase; however, if left untreated, SARS-CoV-2 infection could potentially trigger placental dysfunction.

Clinical outcomes in pregnant women with coronavirus disease 2019 in a perinatal medical centre in Japan: a retrospective study of the first 1 year of the pandemic

In this retrospective study, we analysed clinical and demographic data from the medical records of 31 pregnant women with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) who were treated at our hospital between April 2020 and April 2021. The most common symptom was a fever; ∼10% of patients were asymptomatic. One patient with rapidly worsening pneumonia needed a Caesarean Section at 30 weeks and was admitted for intensive care. Twelve patients received perinatal care in our hospital (10 live births, one stillbirth, and one artificial abortion). Six patients delivered vaginally; the others delivered via caesarean section. Two patients had complications, including severe hypertensive disorders and preeclampsia. All patients recovered from COVID-19. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 was not detected in the placenta, umbilical cord, cord blood, amniotic fluid, vaginal fluid, or breast milk in any patient. There were no neonatal adverse outcomes. The possibility of transmitting the coronavirus to pregnancy-related samples was low.IMPACT STATEMENTWhat is already known on the subject? COVID-19 has been affecting different countries in diverse ways, and the incidence, mortality, and morbidity rates of patients with COVID-19 vary widely by country or region and race. These differences in results may reflect racial differences and differences in national health care systems. Moreover, the information about the perinatal outcomes of pregnant women with COVID-19 and their newborns from Japan is limited.What do the results of this study add to what is known? We described the perinatal outcomes of 31 Japanese pregnant women with COVID-19 who were managed safely in a perinatal medical centre in Tokyo Japan, during the first 1 year of the pandemic.What are the implications of these findings for clinical practice and/or further research? Severe pneumonia and perinatal complications may occur, although no maternal and neonatal deaths were observed for COVID-19-positive pregnant women in our facility. Therefore, it is important to prevent this infection during pregnancy with the provision of effective medical care.

The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on gestational carriers

Reproductive medicine has been significantly impacted by the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic, and this includes the gestational carrier (GC) process. The objectives of this commentary are to evaluate the impact of COVID-19 on the GC process, as well to communicate Shady Grove Fertility's considerations of and response to COVID-19 on the GC process to the larger assisted reproductive technology (ART) community. We also gathered conclusions drawn from available data on the impact of COVID-19 infection on maternal and neonatal morbidity and mortality as well as on counseling patients on vaccination. We compiled proposals to mitigate risk and to maximize safe evaluation and treatment for GCs during the ongoing pandemic. Over 2 years after the onset of the pandemic, the multiple resurgences of cases in the USA have necessitated nimble strategies to provide ongoing and safe reproductive care and have posed unique challenges to the GC process. With the prospect of the virus continuing to spread globally well into the future, as healthcare professionals of the ART community, we will need to ensure effective collaboration and communication as we provide care during the ongoing pandemic.

Frequency of positive antiphospholipid antibodies in pregnant women with SARS-CoV-2 infection and impact on pregnancy outcome: A single-center prospective study on 151 pregnancies

Background

At the beginning of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, there was a lack of information about the infection’s impact on pregnancy and capability to induce de novo autoantibodies. It soon became clear that thrombosis was a manifestation of COVID-19, therefore the possible contribution of de novo antiphospholipid antibodies (aPL) raised research interest. We aimed at screening SARS-CoV-2 positive pregnant patients for aPL.

Methods

The study included consecutive pregnant women who were hospitalized in our Obstetric Department between March 2020 and July 2021 for either a symptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection or for other reasons (obstetric complications, labour, delivery) and found positive at the admission nasopharyngeal swab. All these women underwent the search for aPL by means of Lupus Anticoagulant (LA), IgG/IgM anti-cardiolipin (aCL), IgG/IgM anti-beta2glycoprotein I (aB2GPI). Data about comorbidities, obstetric and neonatal complications were collected.

Results

151 women were included. Sixteen (11%) were positive for aPL, mostly at low titre. Pneumonia was diagnosed in 20 women (5 with positive aPL) and 5 required ICU admission (2 with positive aPL). Obstetric complications occurred in 10/16 (63%) aPL positive and in 36/135 (27%) negative patients. The occurrence of HELLP syndrome and preeclampsia was significantly associated with positive aPL (p=0,004). One case of maternal thrombosis occurred in an aPL negative woman. aPL positivity was checked after at least 12 weeks in 7/16 women (44%): 3 had become negative; 2 were still positive (1 IgG aB2GPI + IgG aCL; 1 IgM aB2GPI); 1 remained positive for IgG aCL but became negative for aB2GPI; 1 became negative for LA but displayed a new positivity for IgG aCL at high titre.

Conclusions

The frequency of positive aPL in pregnant women with SARS-CoV-2 infection was low in our cohort and similar to the one described in the general obstetric population. aPL mostly presented as single positive, low titre, transient antibodies. The rate of obstetric complications was higher in aPL positive women as compared to negative ones, particularly hypertensive disorders. Causality cannot be excluded; however, other risk factors, including a full-blown picture of COVID-19, may have elicited the pathogenic potential of aPL and contributed themselves to the development of complications.

SARS-CoV-2 modulates virus receptor expression in placenta and can induce trophoblast fusion, inflammation and endothelial permeability

SARS-CoV-2 is a devastating virus that induces a range of immunopathological mechanisms including cytokine storm, apoptosis, inflammation and complement and coagulation pathway hyperactivation. However, how the infection impacts pregnant mothers is still being worked out due to evidence of vertical transmission of the SARS-CoV-2, and higher incidence of pre-eclampsia, preterm birth, caesarian section, and fetal mortality. In this study, we assessed the levels of the three main receptors of SARS-CoV-2 (ACE2, TMPRSS2 and CD147) in placentae derived from SARS-CoV-2 positive and negative mothers. Moreover, we measured the effects of Spike protein on placental cell lines, in addition to their susceptibility to infection. SARS-CoV-2 negative placentae showed elevated levels of CD147 and considerably low amount of TMPRSS2, making them non-permissive to infection. SARS-CoV-2 presence upregulated TMPRSS2 expression in syncytiotrophoblast and cytotrophoblast cells, thereby rendering them amenable to infection. The non-permissiveness of placental cells can be due to their less fusogenicity due to infection. We also found that Spike protein was capable of inducing pro-inflammatory cytokine production, syncytiotrophoblast apoptosis and increased vascular permeability. These events can elicit pre-eclampsia-like syndrome that marks a high percentage of pregnancies when mothers are infected with SARS-CoV-2. Our study raises important points relevant to SARS-CoV-2 mediated adverse pregnancy outcomes.

Pregnancy and neonatal outcomes of COVID-19: The PAN-COVID study

OBJECTIVE

To assess perinatal outcomes for pregnancies affected by suspected or confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection.

METHODS

Prospective, web-based registry. Pregnant women were invited to participate if they had suspected or confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection between 1st January 2020 and 31st March 2021 to assess the impact of infection on maternal and perinatal outcomes including miscarriage, stillbirth, fetal growth restriction, pre-term birth and transmission to the infant.

RESULTS

Between April 2020 and March 2021, the study recruited 8239 participants who had suspected or confirmed SARs-CoV-2 infection episodes in pregnancy between January 2020 and March 2021. Maternal death affected 14/8197 (0.2%) participants, 176/8187 (2.2%) of participants required ventilatory support. Pre-eclampsia affected 389/8189 (4.8%) participants, eclampsia was reported in 40/ 8024 (0.5%) of all participants. Stillbirth affected 35/8187 (0.4 %) participants. In participants delivering within 2 weeks of delivery 21/2686 (0.8 %) were affected by stillbirth compared with 8/4596 (0.2 %) delivering ≥ 2 weeks after infection (95 % CI 0.3-1.0). SGA affected 744/7696 (9.3 %) of livebirths, FGR affected 360/8175 (4.4 %) of all pregnancies. Pre-term birth occurred in 922/8066 (11.5%), the majority of these were indicated pre-term births, 220/7987 (2.8%) participants experienced spontaneous pre-term births. Early neonatal deaths affected 11/8050 livebirths. Of all neonates, 80/7993 (1.0%) tested positive for SARS-CoV-2.

CONCLUSIONS

Infection was associated with indicated pre-term birth, most commonly for fetal compromise. The overall proportions of women affected by SGA and FGR were not higher than expected, however there was the proportion affected by stillbirth in participants delivering within 2 weeks of infection was significantly higher than those delivering ≥ 2 weeks after infection. We suggest that clinicians' threshold for delivery should be low if there are concerns with fetal movements or fetal heart rate monitoring in the time around infection. The proportion affected by pre-eclampsia amongst participants was not higher than would be expected, although we report a higher than expected proportion affected by eclampsia. There appears to be no effect on birthweight or congenital malformations in women affected by SARS-CoV-2 infection in pregnancy and neonatal infection is uncommon. This study reflects a population with a range of infection severity for SARS-COV-2 in pregnancy, generalisable to whole obstetric populations.

Effects of prenatal exposure to maternal COVID-19 and perinatal care on neonatal outcome: results from the INTERCOVID Multinational Cohort Study

BACKGROUND

The effect of COVID-19 in pregnancy on maternal outcomes and its association with preeclampsia and gestational diabetes mellitus have been reported; however, a detailed understanding of the effects of maternal positivity, delivery mode, and perinatal practices on fetal and neonatal outcomes is urgently needed.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the impact of COVID-19 on fetal and neonatal outcomes and the role of mode of delivery, breastfeeding, and early neonatal care practices on the risk of mother-to-child transmission.

STUDY DESIGN

In this cohort study that took place from March 2020 to March 2021, involving 43 institutions in 18 countries, 2 unmatched, consecutive, unexposed women were concomitantly enrolled immediately after each infected woman was identified, at any stage of pregnancy or delivery, and at the same level of care to minimize bias. Women and neonates were followed up until hospital discharge. COVID-19 in pregnancy was determined by laboratory confirmation and/or radiological pulmonary findings or ≥2 predefined COVID-19 symptoms. The outcome measures were indices of neonatal and perinatal morbidity and mortality, neonatal positivity and its correlation with mode of delivery, breastfeeding, and hospital neonatal care practices.

RESULTS

A total of 586 neonates born to women with COVID-19 diagnosis and 1535 neonates born to women without COVID-19 diagnosis were enrolled. Women with COVID-19 diagnosis had a higher rate of cesarean delivery (52.8% vs 38.5% for those without COVID-19 diagnosis, P<.01) and pregnancy-related complications, such as hypertensive disorders of pregnancy and fetal distress (all with P<.001), than women without COVID-19 diagnosis. Maternal diagnosis of COVID-19 carried an increased rate of preterm birth (P≤.001) and lower neonatal weight (P≤.001), length, and head circumference at birth. In mothers with COVID-19 diagnosis, the length of in utero exposure was significantly correlated to the risk of the neonate testing positive (odds ratio, 4.5; 95% confidence interval, 2.2-9.4 for length of in utero exposure >14 days). Among neonates born to mothers with COVID-19 diagnosis, birth via cesarean delivery was a risk factor for testing positive for COVID-19 (odds ratio, 2.4; 95% confidence interval, 1.2-4.7), even when severity of maternal conditions was considered and after multivariable logistic analysis. In the subgroup of neonates born to women with COVID-19 diagnosis, the outcomes worsened when the neonate also tested positive, with higher rates of neonatal intensive care unit admission, fever, gastrointestinal and respiratory symptoms, and death, even after adjusting for prematurity. Breastfeeding by mothers with COVID-19 diagnosis and hospital neonatal care practices, including immediate skin-to-skin contact and rooming-in, were not associated with an increased risk of newborn positivity.

CONCLUSION

In this multinational cohort study, COVID-19 in pregnancy was associated with increased maternal and neonatal complications. Cesarean delivery was significantly associated with newborn COVID-19 diagnosis. Vaginal delivery should be considered the safest mode of delivery if obstetrical and health conditions allow it. Mother-to-child skin-to-skin contact, rooming-in, and direct breastfeeding were not risk factors for newborn COVID-19 diagnosis, thus well-established best practices can be continued among women with COVID-19 diagnosis.

Preeclampsia and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 infection: a systematic review

OBJECTIVE

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is the cause of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) disease that has rapidly spread worldwide, causing hundreds of thousand deaths. Normal placentation is characterized by many processes strictly regulated during pregnancy. If placentation is impaired, it can lead to gestational disorders, such as preeclampsia that is a multisystem disorder that occurs in 2-8% of pregnancies worldwide.

METHODS

We performed a systematic search to understand the potential involvement of SARS-CoV-2 in preeclampsia onset using the databases, PubMed and Web of Science until 31 January 2022.

RESULTS

SARS-CoV-2 infection not only causes damage to the respiratory system but also can infect human placenta cells impairing pivotal processes necessary for normal placenta development. The inflammatory response trigged by COVID-19 disease is very similar to that one found in preeclampsia pregnancies suggesting a possible link between SARS-CoV-2 infection and preeclampsia onset during pregnancy.

CONCLUSION

Some studies showed that pregnancies affected by COVID-19 had higher incidence of preeclampsia compared with SARS-CoV-2-negative ones. However, increased blood pressure found in COVID-19 pregnancies does not allow to associate COVID-19 to preeclampsia as hypertension is a common factor to both conditions. At present, no diagnostic tools are available to discriminate real preeclampsia from preeclampsia-like syndrome in patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection. Thus, new specific diagnostic tools are necessary to assure an appropriate diagnosis of preeclampsia in these patients, especially in case of severe COVID-19 disease.

Clinical, Laboratory, and Imaging Findings of Pregnant Women with Possible Vertical Transmission of SARS-CoV-2-Case Series

The Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic significantly impacted the general population's health. At times, the infection has unfavorably influenced pregnancy evolution and the result of birth. However, vertical transmission of the virus is rare and generates controversial discussions. The study aimed to highlight the clinical, laboratory, and imaging findings of pregnant women with confirmed Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) with possible vertical transmission and identify possible factors that encourage vertical transmission. Between 1 April 2020 and 31 December 2021, 281 pregnant women diagnosed with COVID-19 gave birth in the Obstetrics and Gynecology Departments of the tertiary unit of County Emergency Clinical Hospital from Timisoara. Three newborns (1.06%) tested positive. The characteristic of these three cases was described as a short series. In two cases, the patients were asymptomatic. In one case, the patient developed a mild form of COVID-19 with a favorable evolution in all cases. We did not identify the presence of smoking history, vaccine before admission, atypical presentation, fever, or chest X-ray abnormalities. We note possible factors that encourage vertical transmission: Pregnancy-induced hypertension, thrombophilia, asymptomatic cough, an asymptomatic or mild form of the disease, a ruptured membrane, and cesarean. The laboratory results highlight the inconstant presence of some changes found in the list of potential predictors of the severity of the infection: Lymphopenia, high values of C-reactive protein, D-dimer, fibrinogen, platelets, Aspartate Aminotransferase, Lactate dehydrogenase, and ferritin. The study's conclusion of this small group suggests that there may have been an intrauterine infection in late pregnancy and described characteristics of the pregnant women. Possible risk factors that could encourage vertical transmission have been identified.

Case report: COVID-19 infection in a pregnant 33-year-old kidney transplant recipient

Patients facing severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infections with comorbidities, especially patients whose immune system is weakened have higher chances to face severe outcomes. One of the main reasons behind the suppression of the immune system is iatrogenic, in patients who have autoimmune diseases and/or had an organ transplant. Although there are studies that are examining immunocompromised and/or transplanted patients with COVID-19 infection, furthermore there is a limited number of studies available which are dealing with COVID-19 in pregnant women; however, it is unique and is worth reporting when these factors are coexisting. In this study, we present the case of a 33-year-old Caucasian pregnant woman, who had a kidney transplant in 2009 and contracted the SARS-CoV-2 virus on the 26th gestational week, in 2021. After her infection, superimposed preeclampsia was diagnosed and due to the worsening flowmetric parameters, she gave birth to a premature male newborn with cesarean section. Our kidney transplant patient’s case highlights how COVID-19 disease can lead to preeclampsia and artificial termination of gestation.

17-α Hydroxyprogesterone Caproate Immunology, a Special Focus on Preterm Labor, Preeclampsia, and COVID-19

17-α hydroxyprogesterone caproate (17-OHPC) could alter the immune response and inflammation, specifically affecting the risk of preterm labor and preeclampsia. However, the exact immune and inflammatory effects of 17-OHPC remain hard to be identified. The current literature on 17-OHPC immune effects is limited and more research is needed to identify these mechanistic pathways. Further, coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) infection in pregnancy involves heightened immune response, widespread inflammation and high rates of preterm labor and preeclampsia. Since the pathogenesis of preterm labor, preeclampsia and COVID-19 involves inflammation and altered immune response, it is important to explore the possible immune effects of 17-OHPC in pregnant women with COVID-19. This commentary article will explain the immune effects of 17-OHPC and their implications in preterm labor, preeclampsia and COVID-19.

Fetal Deaths in SARS-CoV-2-Infected Pregnant Women: A Portuguese Case Series

Introduction

Stillbirth has been documented as an outcome of SARS-CoV-2 infection in pregnancy. Placental hypoperfusion and inflammation secondary to maternal immune response seem to play a role in the cascade of events that contribute to fetal death. The aim of our study is to report a perinatal outcome of SARS-CoV-2 infection in pregnancy adding information to the pool of data on COVID-19 pregnancy outcomes. Case Presentation. This is the first stillbirth case series occurring in pregnant women infected with SARS-CoV-2 in a Portuguese cohort. Between April 2020 and March 2021, we had 2680 births in our centre, of which 130 (4.95%) involved mothers infected with SARS-CoV-2. Of total births, there were 14 stillbirths (0.52%), accounting for the highest stillbirth rate we have had in the last 5 years. Among these 14 stillbirths, 5 (35.71%) occurred in SARS-CoV-2-infected mothers. We report the clinical features and placental histopathologic findings of 4 stillbirth cases that occurred in our hospital. Discussion. The stillbirth rate among SARS-CoV-2-infected pregnant women (5/130; 3.84%) was significantly increased compared to noninfected patients (9/2550; 0.35%). Most women (3/4) were asymptomatic for COVID-19, a surprising outcome, given the current literature. All cases had histologic exams showing placental signs of vascular malperfusion, although we acknowledge that 3/5 had obstetric conditions related to placental vascular impairment such as preeclampsia and HELLP syndrome.

Conclusion

Stillbirth can be a perinatal consequence of SARS-CoV-2 infection in pregnancy, even in asymptomatic patients. We urge more studies to explore the association between SARS-CoV-2 infection and the risk of stillbirth.

Animal Models of Preeclampsia: Mechanistic Insights and Promising Therapeutics

Preeclampsia (PE) is a common pregnancy-specific disorder that is a major cause of both maternal and fetal morbidity and mortality. Central to the pathogenesis of PE is the production of antiangiogenic and inflammatory factors by the hypoxic placenta, leading to the downstream manifestations of the disease, including hypertension and end-organ damage. Currently, effective treatments are limited for PE; however, the development of preclinical animal models has helped in the development and evaluation of new therapeutics. In this review, we will summarize some of the more commonly used models of PE and highlight their similarities to the human syndrome, as well as the therapeutics tested in each model.

Gestational SARS-CoV-2 infection is associated with placental expression of immune and trophoblast genes

INTRODUCTION

Maternal SARS-CoV-2 infection during pregnancy is associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes and can have effects on the placenta, even in the absence of severe disease or vertical transmission to the fetus. This study aimed to evaluate histopathologic and molecular effects in the placenta after SARS-CoV-2 infection during pregnancy.

METHODS

We performed a study of 45 pregnant participants from the Generation C prospective cohort study at the Mount Sinai Health System in New York City. We compared histologic features and the expression of 48 immune and trophoblast genes in placentas delivered from 15 SARS-CoV-2 IgG antibody positive and 30 IgG SARS-CoV-2 antibody negative mothers. Statistical analyses were performed using Fisher's exact tests, Spearman correlations and linear regression models.

RESULTS

The median gestational age at the time of SARS-CoV-2 IgG serology test was 35 weeks. Two of the IgG positive participants also had a positive RT-PCR nasal swab at delivery. 82.2% of the infants were delivered at term (≥37 weeks), and gestational age at delivery did not differ between the SARS-CoV-2 antibody positive and negative groups. No significant differences were detected between the groups in placental histopathology features. Differential expression analyses revealed decreased expression of two trophoblast genes (PSG3 and CGB3) and increased expression of three immune genes (CXCL10, TLR3 and DDX58) in placentas delivered from SARS-CoV-2 IgG positive participants.

DISCUSSION

SARS-CoV-2 infection during pregnancy is associated with gene expression changes of immune and trophoblast genes in the placenta at birth which could potentially contribute to long-term health effects in the offspring.

Severe maternal morbidity in pregnant patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection

BACKGROUND

Although the increased risk for severe illness and adverse pregnancy outcomes associated with SARS-CoV-2 infection during pregnancy is well described, the association of infection with severe maternal morbidity has not been well characterized.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to evaluate the risk for severe maternal morbidity associated with SARS-CoV-2 infection during pregnancy.

STUDY DESIGN

This was a multicenter retrospective cohort study of all pregnant patients who had a SARS-CoV-2 test done and who delivered in a New York health system between March 1, 2020 and March 1, 2021. Patients with missing test results were excluded. The primary outcome of severe maternal morbidity, derived from the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists and the Society for Maternal-Fetal Medicine example list of diagnoses and complications, was compared between the following 2 groups: patients who tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 during pregnancy and patients who tested negative. Secondary outcomes included subgroups of severe maternal morbidity. Multivariable logistic regression was used to adjust for potential confounders such as maternal demographics, neighborhood socioeconomic status, hospital location, and pregnancy-related complications. A subanalysis was performed to determine if the risk for severe obstetrical hemorrhage and hypertension-associated or neurologic morbidity differed based on the timing of SARS-CoV-2 infection between those who tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 at their delivery hospitalization (ie, active infection) and those who tested positive during pregnancy but negative at their delivery hospitalization (ie, resolved infection).

RESULTS

Of the 22,483 patients included, 1653 (7.4%) tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 infection. Patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection were more commonly Black, multiracial, Hispanic, non-English speaking, used Medicaid insurance, were multiparous, and from neighborhoods with a lower socioeconomic status. Patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection were at an increased risk for severe maternal morbidity when compared with those without infection (9.3 vs 6.5%; adjusted odds ratio, 1.52; 95% confidence interval, 1.21–1.88). Patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection were also at an increased risk for severe obstetrical hemorrhage (1.1% vs 0.5%; adjusted odds ratio, 1.78; 95% confidence interval, 1.04–2.88), pulmonary morbidity (2.0% vs 0.5%; adjusted odds ratio, 3.90; 95% confidence interval, 2.52–5.89), and intensive care unit admission (1.8% vs 0.5%; adjusted odds ratio, 3.29; 95% confidence interval, 2.09–5.04) when compared with those without infection. The risk for hypertension-associated or neurologic morbidity was similar between the 2 groups. The timing of SARS-CoV-2 infection (whether active or resolved at time of delivery) was not associated with the risk for severe obstetrical hemorrhage or hypertension-associated or neurologic morbidity when compared with those without infection.

CONCLUSION

SARS-CoV-2 infection during pregnancy was associated with an increased risk for severe maternal morbidity, severe obstetrical hemorrhage, pulmonary morbidity, and intensive care unit admission. These data highlight the need for obstetrical unit preparedness in caring for patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection, continued public health efforts aimed at minimizing the risk for infection, and support in including this select population in investigational therapy and vaccine trials.

Shared risk factors for COVID-19 and preeclampsia in the first trimester: An observational study

INTRODUCTION

The association between preeclampsia and coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is under study. Previous publications have hypothesized the existence of shared risk factors for both conditions or a deficient trophoblastic invasion as possible explanations for this association. The primary aim of this study was to examine baseline risk factors measured in the first-trimester combined screening for preeclampsia in pregnant women with COVID-19 compared with the general population. A secondary aim of this study was to compare risk factors among patients with mild and severe COVID-19.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

This was an observational retrospective study conducted at Vall d'Hebron Hospital Campus (Catalonia, Spain). Study patients were 231 pregnant women undergoing the first-trimester screening for preeclampsia and positive for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 between February 2020 and September 2021. The reference cohort were 13 033 women of the general population from six centers across Catalonia from May 2019 to June 2021. Based on the need for hospitalization, patients were classified in two groups: mild and severe COVID-19. First-trimester screening for preeclampsia included maternal history, mean arterial blood pressure, mean uterine artery pulsatility index (UtAPI), placental growth factor (PlGF), and pregnancy-associated plasma protein-A (PAPP-A).

RESULTS

The proportion of cases at high risk for preeclampsia was significantly higher among the COVID-19 group compared with the general population (19.0% and 13.2%, respectively; p = 0.012). When analyzing risk factors for preeclampsia individually, women with COVID-19 had higher median body mass index (25.2 vs 24.5, p = 0.041), higher UtAPI multiple of the median (MoM) (1.08 vs 1.00, p < 0.001), higher incidence of chronic hypertension (2.8% vs 0.9%, p = 0.015), and there were fewer smokers (5.7% vs 11.6%, p = 0.007). The MoMs of PlGF and PAPP-A did not differ significantly between both groups (0.96 vs 0.97, p = 0.760 and 1.00 vs 1.01, p = 0.432; respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

In patients with COVID-19, there was a higher proportion of women at high risk for preeclampsia at the first-trimester screening than in the general population, mainly because of maternal risk factors, rather than placental signs of a deficient trophoblastic invasion.

Placental Injury and Antibody Transfer Following COVID-19 Disease in Pregnancy

We examined the relationship between placental histopathology and transplacental antibody transfer in pregnant patients following SARS-CoV-2 infection. Differences in plasma concentrations of anti-Receptor Biding Domain (RBD) Immunoglobulin (Ig) G antibodies in maternal and cord blood were analyzed according to presence of placental injury. Median [IQR] anti-RBD IgG concentrations in cord blood with placental injury (n = 7) did not differ significantly from those without injury (n= 16) [(2.7 [1.8,3.6] vs 2.7[2.4, 2.9], p= 0.59). However, they were associated with lower transfer ratios (median [IQR] 0.77[0.61, 0.97] vs. 0.97[0.80, 1.01], p = 0.05) suggesting that SARS-CoV-2 placental injury mediates reduced maternal-fetal antibody transfer.

Neonatal outcomes related to maternal SARS-CoV-2 infection in French Guiana: A case-control study

Background

This study aims to assess the neonatal outcomes related to maternal SARS-COV-2 infection.

Methods

In this study, we identified newborns born between May 14 and August 31, 2020, to mothers who were PCR-SRAS-CoV-2 positive at the time of delivery. From the cohort of 974 infants, we performed a nested case-control study.

Results

During the study period, 133 (13.7%) mothers were positive for SARS‐CoV‐2. Among the 35 pregnant women with COVID-19 symptoms (26.3%), cough was the most common symptom, present in half of the cases. Four of them have progressed to critical pneumonia requiring transfer to intensive care unit. The neonates from mothers with positive SARS-CoV-2-RT-PCR, were routinely tested for COVID-19 within the first 24 h after labor, and 3 other newborns tested in the presence of symptoms. There was no significant difference between the two groups with respect to preterm birth, meconium-stained amniotic fluid distress, and neonatal asphyxia. Most infants were breastfed at birth, regardless of their mothers' COVID-19 status. In COVID-19-positive pregnant women admitted to intensive care unit, the proportion of preterm births (OR=12.5 [1.7–90.5]), fetal death in utero (OR=25.9 [2.2–305]) and admission in neonatal intensive care unit admission (OR=13.4 [3.0–60]), appeared higher than the controls. No maternal deaths were recorded.

Conclusions

Our data suggest little neonatal morbidity associated with maternal COVID-19, except for those born to mothers admitted to intensive care unit. However, under breastfeeding conditions with rigorous hygiene precautions and parental education, the risk of transmission of SARS-COV-2 virus to the newborn was very low.

RAGE against the Machine: Can Increasing Our Understanding of RAGE Help Us to Battle SARS-CoV-2 Infection in Pregnancy?

The receptor of advanced glycation end products (RAGE) is a receptor that is thought to be a key driver of inflammation in pregnancy, SARS-CoV-2, and also in the comorbidities that are known to aggravate these afflictions. In addition to this, vulnerable populations are particularly susceptible to the negative health outcomes when these afflictions are experienced in concert. RAGE binds a number of ligands produced by tissue damage and cellular stress, and its activation triggers the proinflammatory transcription factor Nuclear Factor Kappa B (NF-κB), with the subsequent generation of key proinflammatory cytokines. While this is important for fetal membrane weakening, RAGE is also activated at the end of pregnancy in the uterus, placenta, and cervix. The comorbidities of hypertension, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and obesity are known to lead to poor pregnancy outcomes, and particularly in populations such as Native Hawaiians and Pacific Islanders. They have also been linked to RAGE activation when individuals are infected with SARS-CoV-2. Therefore, we propose that increasing our understanding of this receptor system will help us to understand how these various afflictions converge, how forms of RAGE could be used as a biomarker, and if its manipulation could be used to develop future therapeutic targets to help those at risk.

Stillbirth due to SARS-CoV-2 placentitis without evidence of intrauterine transmission to fetus: association with maternal risk factors

OBJECTIVES

To describe the placental pathology, fetal autopsy findings and clinical characteristics of pregnancies that resulted in stillbirth owing to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) placentitis, and to identify potential risk factors.

METHODS

This was a prospective multicenter study of non-vaccinated pregnant women affected by coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in Greece from April 2020 to August 2021. A total of 165 placentas were examined histologically and six cases of stillbirth associated with SARS-CoV-2 placentitis were retrieved. Complete fetal autopsy was performed in three of these cases. Gross, histopathological, immunohistochemical, molecular and electron microscopy examinations were carried out in the stillbirth placentas and fetal organs. The histological findings of cases with SARS-CoV-2 placentitis were compared with those in 159 cases with maternal COVID-19 which resulted in a live birth. Regression analysis was used to identify predisposing risk factors for SARS-CoV-2 placentitis.

RESULTS

The placentas of all six stillborn cases showed severe and extensive histological changes typical of SARS-CoV-2 placentitis, characterized by a combination of marked intervillositis with a mixed inflammatory infiltrate and massive perivillous fibrinoid deposition with trophoblast damage, associated with intensely positive immunostaining for SARS-CoV-2 spike protein, the presence of virions on electron microscopy and positive reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction test of placental tissues. The histological lesions obliterated over 75% of the maternal intervillous space, accounting for intrauterine fetal death. Similar histological lesions affecting less than 25% of the placenta were observed in seven liveborn neonates, while the remaining 152 placentas of COVID-19-affected pregnancies with a live birth did not show these findings. Complete fetal autopsy showed evidence of an asphyctic mode of death without evidence of viral transmission to the fetus. The mothers had mild clinical symptoms or were asymptomatic, and the interval between maternal COVID-19 diagnosis and fetal death ranged from 3 to 15 days. Statistically significant predisposing factors for SARS-CoV-2 placentitis included thrombophilia and prenatally diagnosed fetal growth restriction (FGR). Multiple sclerosis was seen in one case.

CONCLUSIONS

SARS-CoV-2 placentitis occurred uncommonly in COVID-19-affected pregnancies of non-vaccinated mothers and, when extensive, caused fetal demise, with no evidence of transplacental fetal infection. Thrombophilia and prenatally detected FGR emerged as independent predisposing factors for the potentially lethal SARS-CoV-2 placentitis. © 2022 International Society of Ultrasound in Obstetrics and Gynecology.

Reversing physician hesitancy to recommend COVID-19 vaccination for pregnant patients

Physician hesitancy is said to occur when physicians do not recommend COVID-19 vaccination, and it is a contributing factor for the low vaccination rate for COVID-19 in pregnant women. Physician hesitancy has become a major, unaddressed problem with regard to the quality and safety of obstetrical care. We identify 3 root causes of physician hesitancy and describe how professional ethics in obstetrics should guide in reversing these root causes. They are clinical misapplications of key components of professionally responsible obstetrical practice: therapeutic nihilism, shared decision-making, and respect for patient autonomy. Therapeutic nihilism directs the obstetrician to avoid any clinical interventions during pregnancy to prevent teratogenic effects that might be unknown. Therapeutic nihilism is misapplied when there is a documented net clinical benefit with no evidence of clinical harm. Shared decision directs the obstetrician to only offer but not recommend clinical management. Shared decision-making plays a major role when there is uncertainty in clinical judgment but is misapplied when it becomes a universal model. It does not apply when there is a net clinical benefit. When there is a net clinical benefit, clinical management should be recommended, not simply offered. The ethical principle of respect for patient autonomy plays an indispensable role in decision-making with patients. It is misapplied when it is assumed that respect for autonomy requires physicians not to make recommendations and to defer to and implement patients' decisions without exception. There is evidence that the obstetrician's recommendations about the management of pregnancy are the most important factor in a pregnant woman's decision-making. Simply deferring to the patient's decisions makes for misapplied respect for patient autonomy. Obstetricians must end physician hesitancy about COVID-19 vaccination of pregnant women by reversing these 3 root causes of physician hesitancy. Reversing the root causes of physician hesitancy is an urgent matter of patient safety. The longer physician hesitancy continues and the longer the low vaccine acceptance rate of pregnant women lasts, preventable serious diseases, deaths of pregnant women, intensive care unit admissions, stillbirths, and other maternal and fetal complications of unvaccinated women will continue to occur. Physician hesitancy should not be permitted to influence the response to future pandemics.

Prevalence of Gestational Diabetes in preCOVID-19 and COVID-19 Years and Its Impact on Pregnancy: A 5-Year Retrospective Study

Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) affects a total of 3% to 9% of all pregnancies. It has a high impact on both mother and baby, increases the perinatal risks, and predicts the presence of long-term chronic metabolic complications. The aim of our study is to determine the incidence of GDM in tertiary hospitals in the west part of Romania to lay out the risk factors associated with GDM and to observe the evolution of pregnancy among patients with this pathology by emphasizing the state of birth of the fetus, the birth weight, and the way of birth. We also want to compare the prevalence of GDM in preCOVID-19 (Coronavirus disease) versus COVID-19 years. The study took place between January 2017 and December 2021 at the Municipal Emergency Hospital of Timisoara, Romania. The proportion of births with GDM was significantly increased during the COVID-19 period compared to the preCOVID-19 period (chi2 Fisher exact test, p < 0.001). The period 2020−2021 represents a significant risk factor for GDM births (OR = 1.87, with 95% CI = [1.30, 2.67]). COVID years represent a risk period for developing gestational diabetes, which can be explained by reduced physical activity, anxiety, or modified dietary habits, even if the follow-up period was not impacted.

Observational study on necrotizing enterocolitis in neonates born to SARS-CoV-2-positive mothers

Background

The impact of the severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic on expectant mother and their babies extends to many aspects of life. Necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) has been recognized as a life-threatening gastrointestinal inflammatory process in neonates that has high rates of morbidity and mortality.

Objective

To investigate factors associated with NEC in hospitalized neonates whose mothers were SARS-CoV-2-positive and their relationship to mortality.

Method

This observational study was conducted from May 2020 to March 2021. All neonates who were hospitalized, after confirming that the mother was SARS-CoV-2-positive, were included in this study. The confirmation of positive SARS-CoV-2 was determined according to the reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay. The neonatal SARS-CoV-2 test was performed on the first day of birth. NEC was established based on a suggestive clinical presentation and abnormal abdominal radiographs.

Results

Of the 125 neonates enrolled in this study, there were 5 neonates who developed NEC and only one survived. Significant associated factors with NEC included lower birth weight (p < 0.001), lower gestational age (p < 0.001), positive SARS-CoV-2 PCR results (OR = 15.333; 95% CI = 2.074–113.381, p = 0.007), asphyxia (OR = 13.143; 95% CI = 1.411–122.443, p = 0.024), and mortality (OR = 156.000; 95% CI = 13.157–1849.623; p < 0.001). Mortality was significantly associated with lower gestational age (p = 0.025), cesarean section delivery (p = 0.025), and asphyxia (p = 0.025).

Conclusion

Significant associated factors with NEC in neonates born to SARS-CoV-2-positive mothers included positive SARS-CoV-2 PCR results, asphyxia, lower gestational age, and lower birth weight. In addition to caesarean section delivery, these factors were related to mortality in neonates in such conditions.

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There is an association between SARS-CoV-2 positive mothers and the incidence of NEC in their neonates.

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Significant associated factors with NEC in neonates born to SARS-CoV-2-positive mothers included positive SARS-CoV-2, asphyxia, lower gestational age, and lower birth weight.

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There is a link between NEC and mortality in neonates born to SARS-CoV-2-positive mothers.

Diagnosis and management of covid-19 in pregnancy

Pregnant women with covid-19 are at greater risk of severe disease than their non-pregnant peers, and yet they are frequently denied investigations or treatments because of unfounded concerns about risk to the fetus. The basic principles of diagnosing and managing covid-19 are the same as for non-pregnant patients, and a multidisciplinary, expert team approach is essential to ensure optimal care. During pregnancy, treatment with corticosteroids should be modified to use non-fluorinated glucocorticoids. Il-6 inhibitors and monoclonal antibodies, together with specific antiviral therapies, may also be considered. Prophylaxis against venous thromboembolism is important. Women may require respiratory support with oxygen, non-invasive ventilation, ventilation in a prone position (either awake or during invasive ventilation), intubation and ventilation, and extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO). Pregnancy is not a contraindication for any of these supportive therapies, and the criteria for providing them are the same as in the general population. Decisions regarding timing, place, and mode of delivery should be taken with a multidisciplinary team including obstetricians, physicians, anesthetists, and intensivists experienced in the care of covid-19 in pregnancy. Ideally these decisions should take place in consultation with centers that have experience and expertise in all these specialties.

Maternal and neonatal outcomes of pregnancies with COVID-19 after medically assisted reproduction: results from the prospective COVID-19-Related Obstetrical and Neonatal Outcome Study

Background

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus type 2 infections in pregnancy have been associated with maternal morbidity, admission to intensive care, and adverse perinatal outcomes such as preterm birth, stillbirth, and hypertensive disorders of pregnancy. It is unclear whether medically assisted reproduction additionally affects maternal and neonatal outcomes in women with COVID-19.

Objective

To evaluate the effect of medically assisted reproduction on maternal and neonatal outcomes in women with COVID-19 in pregnancy.

Study Design

A total of 1485 women with COVID-19 registered in the COVID-19 Related Obstetric and Neonatal Outcome Study (a multicentric, prospective, observational cohort study) were included. The maternal and neonatal outcomes in 65 pregnancies achieved with medically assisted reproduction and in 1420 spontaneously conceived pregnancies were compared. We used univariate und multivariate (multinomial) logistic regressions to estimate the (un)adjusted odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals for adverse outcomes.

Results

The incidence of COVID-19-associated adverse outcomes (eg, pneumonia, admission to intensive care, and death) was not different in women after conceptions with COVID-19 than in women after medically assisted reproduction pregnancies. Yet, the risk of obstetrical and neonatal complications was higher in pregnancies achieved through medically assisted reproduction. However, medically assisted reproduction was not the primary risk factor for adverse maternal and neonatal outcomes including pregnancy-related hypertensive disorders, gestational diabetes mellitus, cervical insufficiency, peripartum hemorrhage, cesarean delivery, preterm birth, or admission to neonatal intensive care. Maternal age, multiple pregnancies, nulliparity, body mass index >30 (before pregnancy) and multiple gestation contributed differently to the increased risks of adverse pregnancy outcomes in women with COVID-19 independent of medically assisted reproduction.

Conclusion

Although women with COVID-19 who conceived through fertility treatment experienced a higher incidence of adverse obstetrical and neonatal complications than women with spontaneous conceptions, medically assisted reproduction was not the primary risk factor.

Advocating for Interventions When Depression Complicates Preeclampsia

Preeclampsia is a condition of pregnancy that is associated with high morbidity and mortality rates. Individuals diagnosed with preeclampsia have an increased chance of developing depression during pregnancy and in the postpartum period. This ultimately increases the risk for negative physical and emotional outcomes. A review of the etiology, pathophysiology, symptomatology, and risk factors for preeclampsia and depression, as well as the impact of COVID-19, can improve outcomes by helping nurses provide evidence-based holistic care. This article focuses on providing enhanced knowledge to help nurses identify the psychosocial aspects of preeclampsia and advocate for appropriate mental health assessment and intervention for affected individuals.

Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 Infection in Pregnancy. A Non-systematic Review of Clinical Presentation, Potential Effects of Physiological Adaptations in Pregnancy, and Placental Vascular Alterations

In December 2019, the novel Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) rapidly spread to become a pandemic. To date, increasing evidence has described the potential negative impact of SARS-CoV-2 infection on pregnant women. Although the pathophysiology of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is not entirely understood, there is emerging evidence that it causes a severe systemic inflammatory response associated with vascular alterations that could be of special interest considering some physiological changes in pregnancy. Additionally, these alterations may affect the physiology of the placenta and are associated with pregnancy complications and abnormal histologic findings. On the other hand, data about the vaccine against SARS-CoV-2 are limited, but the risks of administering COVID-19 vaccines during pregnancy appear to be minimal. This review summarizes the current literature on SARSCoV2 virus infection, the development of COVID-19 and its relationship with physiological changes, and angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) function during pregnancy. We have particularly emphasized evidence coming from Latin American countries.