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A role for leptin-regulated neurocircuitry in subordination stress. Physiol Behav 2016; 178:144-150. [PMID: 27887997 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2016.11.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2016] [Revised: 11/07/2016] [Accepted: 11/18/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The visible burrow system produces a distinct combination of psychological and metabolic stress on, primarily, subordinate individuals that results in pronounced physiologic and behavioral dysfunction. However, the mechanisms underlying the consequences of chronic subordination stress are largely unknown. The simplest mechanistic explanation is that adaptations within brain systems with overlapping functions of both psychological and metabolic control provide immediate benefits that result in lasting susceptibility to diseases, disorders, and increased mortality rates in subordinates. Circuits regulated by leptin adapt to fluctuating levels of energy storage, such that the loss of leptin action within leptin-regulated neurocircuitry results in dysfunction in physiologic and behavioral systems implicated in the consequences of chronic social subordination. Thus, leptin-regulated neurocircuitry may provide a window into understanding the consequences of social subordination stress. This review examines the neural systems of leptin physiology implicated in social subordination stress: energy balance, motivation, HPA axis, and glycemic control.
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102
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Xu Y, Tong Q. Central leptin action on euglycemia restoration in type 1 diabetes: Restraining responses normally induced by fasting? Int J Biochem Cell Biol 2016; 88:198-203. [PMID: 27702650 DOI: 10.1016/j.biocel.2016.09.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2016] [Revised: 09/27/2016] [Accepted: 09/30/2016] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Leptin monotherapy is sufficient to restore euglycemia in insulinopenic type 1 diabetes (T1D), yet the underlying mechanism remains poorly understood. Accumulating evidence demonstrates that the brain mediates the leptin action on euglycemia restoration. Here, we first review evidence supporting that symptoms in T1D resemble an uncontrolled response to fasting. Then, we discuss recent research progress on brain neurons and their neurotransmitters that potentially mediate the leptin action. Finally, peripheral effective pathways, which are normally involved in fasting responses and associated with leptin action on euglycemia restoration in T1D, will also be discussed. This summary complements several previous excellent reviews on this topic (Meek and Morton, 2016; Perry et al., 2016; Fujikawa and Coppari, 2015). A deep understanding of neurocircuitry and the peripheral effective pathways that mediate the leptin action on euglycemia restoration will likely lead to novel targets for an insulin-independent therapeutics against T1D.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuanzhong Xu
- Brown Foundation Institute of Molecular Medicine for the Prevention of Human Diseases of McGovern Medical School, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, United States
| | - Qingchun Tong
- Brown Foundation Institute of Molecular Medicine for the Prevention of Human Diseases of McGovern Medical School, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, United States.
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103
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Sohn JW, Oh Y, Kim KW, Lee S, Williams KW, Elmquist JK. Leptin and insulin engage specific PI3K subunits in hypothalamic SF1 neurons. Mol Metab 2016; 5:669-679. [PMID: 27656404 PMCID: PMC5021675 DOI: 10.1016/j.molmet.2016.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2016] [Revised: 06/07/2016] [Accepted: 06/08/2016] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective The ventromedial hypothalamic nucleus (VMH) regulates energy balance and glucose homeostasis. Leptin and insulin exert metabolic effects via their cognate receptors expressed by the steroidogenic factor 1 (SF1) neurons within the VMH. However, detailed cellular mechanisms involved in the regulation of these neurons by leptin and insulin remain to be identified. Methods We utilized genetically-modified mouse models and performed patch-clamp electrophysiology experiments to resolve this issue. Results We identified distinct populations of leptin-activated and leptin-inhibited SF1 neurons. In contrast, insulin uniformly inhibited SF1 neurons. Notably, we found that leptin-activated, leptin-inhibited, and insulin-inhibited SF1 neurons are distinct subpopulations within the VMH. Leptin depolarization of SF1 neuron also required the PI3K p110β catalytic subunit. This effect was mediated by the putative transient receptor potential C (TRPC) channel. On the other hand, hyperpolarizing responses of SF1 neurons by leptin and insulin required either of the p110α or p110β catalytic subunits, and were mediated by the putative ATP-sensitive K+ (KATP) channel. Conclusions Our results demonstrate that specific PI3K catalytic subunits are responsible for the acute effects of leptin and insulin on VMH SF1 neurons, and provide insights into the cellular mechanisms of leptin and insulin action on VMH SF1 neurons that regulate energy balance and glucose homeostasis. Leptin recruits p110β/TRPC channels to depolarize/activate SF1 neurons. Leptin recruits p110α/p110β/KATP channels to hyperpolarize/inhibit SF1 neurons. Insulin recruits p110α/p110β/KATP channels to hyperpolarize/inhibit SF1 neurons. Acute leptin and insulin responses are segregated to distinct subsets of VMH SF1 neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jong-Woo Sohn
- Division of Hypothalamic Research, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, 75390, USA; Department of Biological Sciences, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Daejeon, 34141, South Korea.
| | - Youjin Oh
- Department of Biological Sciences, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Daejeon, 34141, South Korea
| | - Ki Woo Kim
- Division of Hypothalamic Research, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, 75390, USA; Department of Pharmacology, Yonsei University Wonju College of Medicine, Wonju, 26426, South Korea
| | - Syann Lee
- Division of Hypothalamic Research, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, 75390, USA
| | - Kevin W Williams
- Division of Hypothalamic Research, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, 75390, USA.
| | - Joel K Elmquist
- Division of Hypothalamic Research, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, 75390, USA; Department of Pharmacology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, 75390, USA
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104
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Melanocortin-4 receptor-regulated energy homeostasis. Nat Neurosci 2016; 19:206-19. [PMID: 26814590 DOI: 10.1038/nn.4202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 205] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2015] [Accepted: 11/13/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The melanocortin system provides a conceptual blueprint for the central control of energetic state. Defined by four principal molecular components--two antagonistically acting ligands and two cognate receptors--this phylogenetically conserved system serves as a prototype for hierarchical energy balance regulation. Over the last decade the application of conditional genetic techniques has facilitated the neuroanatomical dissection of the melanocortinergic network and identified the specific neural substrates and circuits that underscore the regulation of feeding behavior, energy expenditure, glucose homeostasis and autonomic outflow. In this regard, the melanocortin-4 receptor is a critical coordinator of mammalian energy homeostasis and body weight. Drawing on recent advances in neuroscience and genetic technologies, we consider the structure and function of the melanocortin-4 receptor circuitry and its role in energy homeostasis.
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105
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Abstract
While it is well established that the adiposity hormone leptin plays a key role in the regulation of energy homeostasis, growing evidence suggests that leptin is also critical for glycaemic control. In this review we examine the role of the brain in the glucose-lowering actions of leptin and the potential mediators responsible for driving hyperglycaemia in states of uncontrolled insulin-deficient diabetes (uDM). These considerations highlight the possibility of targeting leptin-sensitive pathways as a therapeutic option for the treatment of diabetes. This review summarises a presentation given at the 'Is leptin coming back?' symposium at the 2015 annual meeting of the EASD. It is accompanied by two other reviews on topics from this symposium (by Christoffer Clemmensen and colleagues, DOI: 10.1007/s00125-016-3906-7 , and by Gerald Shulman and colleagues, DOI: 10.1007/s00125-016-3909-4 ) and an overview by the Session Chair, Ulf Smith (DOI: 10.1007/s00125-016-3894-7 ).
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas H Meek
- Diabetes and Obesity Center of Excellence, Department of Medicine, University of Washington at South Lake Union, 850 Republican St., N335, Box 358055, Seattle, WA, 98195, USA
| | - Gregory J Morton
- Diabetes and Obesity Center of Excellence, Department of Medicine, University of Washington at South Lake Union, 850 Republican St., N335, Box 358055, Seattle, WA, 98195, USA.
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106
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Foster NN, Azam S, Watts AG. Rapid-onset hypoglycemia suppresses Fos expression in discrete parts of the ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2016; 310:R1177-85. [PMID: 27030665 DOI: 10.1152/ajpregu.00042.2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2016] [Accepted: 03/23/2016] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
The consensus view of the ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus (VMH) is that it is a key node in the rodent brain network controlling sympathoadrenal counterregulatory responses to hypoglycemia. To identify the location of hypoglycemia-responsive neurons in the VMH, we performed a high spatial resolution Fos analysis in the VMH of rats made hypoglycemic with intraperitoneal injections of insulin. We examined Fos expression in the four constituent parts of VMH throughout its rostrocaudal extent and determined their relationship to blood glucose concentrations. Hypoglycemia significantly decreased Fos expression only in the dorsomedial and central parts of the VMH, but not its anterior or ventrolateral parts. Moreover, the number of Fos-expressing neurons was significantly and positively correlated in the two responsive regions with terminal blood glucose concentrations. We also measured Fos responses in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus (PVH) and in several levels of the periaqueductal gray (PAG), which receives strong projections from the VMH. We found the expected and highly significant increase in Fos in the neuroendocrine PVH, which was negatively correlated to terminal blood glucose concentrations, but no significant differences were seen in any part of the PAG. Our results show that there are distinct populations of VMH neurons whose Fos expression is suppressed by hypoglycemia, and their numbers correlate with blood glucose. These findings support a clear division of glycemic control functions within the different parts of the VMH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas N Foster
- Department of Biological Sciences, USC Dornsife College of Letters, Arts, and Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California
| | - Sana Azam
- Department of Biological Sciences, USC Dornsife College of Letters, Arts, and Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California
| | - Alan G Watts
- Department of Biological Sciences, USC Dornsife College of Letters, Arts, and Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California
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107
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Functional identification of a neurocircuit regulating blood glucose. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2016; 113:E2073-82. [PMID: 27001850 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1521160113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Previous studies implicate the hypothalamic ventromedial nucleus (VMN) in glycemic control. Here, we report that selective inhibition of the subset of VMN neurons that express the transcription factor steroidogenic-factor 1 (VMN(SF1) neurons) blocks recovery from insulin-induced hypoglycemia whereas, conversely, activation of VMN(SF1) neurons causes diabetes-range hyperglycemia. Moreover, this hyperglycemic response is reproduced by selective activation of VMN(SF1) fibers projecting to the anterior bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (aBNST), but not to other brain areas innervated by VMN(SF1) neurons. We also report that neurons in the lateral parabrachial nucleus (LPBN), a brain area that is also implicated in the response to hypoglycemia, make synaptic connections with the specific subset of glucoregulatory VMN(SF1) neurons that project to the aBNST. These results collectively establish a physiological role in glucose homeostasis for VMN(SF1) neurons and suggest that these neurons are part of an ascending glucoregulatory LPBN→VMN(SF1)→aBNST neurocircuit.
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108
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D'Agostino G, Lyons DJ, Cristiano C, Burke LK, Madara JC, Campbell JN, Garcia AP, Land BB, Lowell BB, Dileone RJ, Heisler LK. Appetite controlled by a cholecystokinin nucleus of the solitary tract to hypothalamus neurocircuit. eLife 2016; 5. [PMID: 26974347 PMCID: PMC4861598 DOI: 10.7554/elife.12225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2015] [Accepted: 03/11/2016] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS) is a key gateway for meal-related signals entering the brain from the periphery. However, the chemical mediators crucial to this process have not been fully elucidated. We reveal that a subset of NTS neurons containing cholecystokinin (CCKNTS) is responsive to nutritional state and that their activation reduces appetite and body weight in mice. Cell-specific anterograde tracing revealed that CCKNTS neurons provide a distinctive innervation of the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus (PVH), with fibers and varicosities in close apposition to a subset of melanocortin-4 receptor (MC4RPVH) cells, which are also responsive to CCK. Optogenetic activation of CCKNTS axon terminals within the PVH reveal the satiating function of CCKNTS neurons to be mediated by a CCKNTS→PVH pathway that also encodes positive valence. These data identify the functional significance of CCKNTS neurons and reveal a sufficient and discrete NTS to hypothalamus circuit controlling appetite. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.12225.001 Obesity primarily results from eating more food than the body requires, the energy from which is then stored as fat. In recent years obesity has become increasingly common, with the resulting health problems presenting one of the major healthcare challenges of the twenty-first century. New ways to tackle the obesity epidemic are therefore required to improve human health on a global scale. To regulate how much food is eaten, the gut sends chemical messengers to the brain about how much food has been consumed. These messengers activate particular cells in the brain that signal to other brain regions to trigger a decision about whether we’ve had enough food to eat. This raises a question: if we can artificially activate these cells, can we ‘trick’ the brain into thinking that food has been consumed? A brain region called the nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS) is known to play a key role in receiving signals from the gut about meals. By studying mice, D’Agostino et al. found that cells in the NTS that make a brain hormone called cholecystokinin (CCK) are particularly activated by food. Further experiments then used a technique called optogenetics to activate these cells in mice that had free access to different types of food. This activation significantly reduced how hungry the mice were, causing them to eat less food and lose weight. D’Agostino et al. also showed that CCK cells relay the signal about food intake to a brain region called the hypothalamus. Overall, D’Agostino et al. have found a way to trick the brain into thinking that food has been eaten when it actually hasn’t, and for this reason mice eat less without feeling hungry and lose weight. The next step is to try and find a way to activate the CCK cells in obese humans who have health complications associated with excess body weight. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.12225.002
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Affiliation(s)
- Giuseppe D'Agostino
- Rowett Institute of Nutrition and Health, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, United Kingdom.,Department of Pharmacology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - David J Lyons
- Rowett Institute of Nutrition and Health, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, United Kingdom
| | - Claudia Cristiano
- Rowett Institute of Nutrition and Health, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, United Kingdom
| | - Luke K Burke
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Joseph C Madara
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, United States
| | - John N Campbell
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, United States
| | - Ana Paula Garcia
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Benjamin B Land
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, United States
| | - Bradford B Lowell
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, United States
| | - Ralph J Dileone
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, United States
| | - Lora K Heisler
- Rowett Institute of Nutrition and Health, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, United Kingdom.,Department of Pharmacology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
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109
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Abstract
Advances in neuro-technology for mapping, manipulating, and monitoring molecularly defined cell types are rapidly advancing insight into neural circuits that regulate appetite. Here, we review these important tools and their applications in circuits that control food seeking and consumption. Technical capabilities provided by these tools establish a rigorous experimental framework for research into the neurobiology of hunger.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott M Sternson
- Janelia Research Campus, HHMI, 19700 Helix Drive, Ashburn, VA 20147, USA.
| | - Deniz Atasoy
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Istanbul Medipol University, 34810 Istanbul, Turkey
| | - J Nicholas Betley
- Janelia Research Campus, HHMI, 19700 Helix Drive, Ashburn, VA 20147, USA
| | - Fredrick E Henry
- Janelia Research Campus, HHMI, 19700 Helix Drive, Ashburn, VA 20147, USA
| | - Shengjin Xu
- Janelia Research Campus, HHMI, 19700 Helix Drive, Ashburn, VA 20147, USA
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110
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Kamitakahara A, Xu B, Simerly R. Ventromedial hypothalamic expression of Bdnf is required to establish normal patterns of afferent GABAergic connectivity and responses to hypoglycemia. Mol Metab 2016; 5:91-101. [PMID: 26909317 PMCID: PMC4735662 DOI: 10.1016/j.molmet.2015.11.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2015] [Revised: 11/27/2015] [Accepted: 11/30/2015] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus (VMH) controls energy and glucose homeostasis through direct connections to a distributed network of nuclei in the hypothalamus, midbrain, and hindbrain. Structural changes in VMH circuit morphology have the potential to alter VMH function throughout life, however, molecular signals responsible for specifying its neural connections are not fully defined. The VMH contains a high density of neurons that express brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), a potent neurodevelopmental effector known to regulate neuronal survival, growth, differentiation, and connectivity in a number of neural systems. In the current study, we examined whether BDNF impacts the afferent and efferent connections of the VMH, as well as energy homeostatic function. METHODS To determine if BDNF is required for VMH circuit formation, a transgenic mouse model was used to conditionally delete Bdnf from steroidogenic factor 1 (SF1) expressing neurons of the VMH prior to the onset of establishing neural connections with other regions. Projections of SF1 expressing neurons were visualized with a genetically targeted fluorescent label and immunofluorescence was used to measure the density of afferents to SF1 neurons in the absence of BDNF. Physiological changes in body weight and circulating blood glucose were also evaluated in the mutant mice. RESULTS Our findings suggest that BDNF is required to establish normal densities of GABAergic afferents onto SF1 neurons located in the ventrolateral part of the VMH. Furthermore, loss of BDNF from VMH SF1 neurons results in impaired physiological responses to insulin-induced hypoglycemia. CONCLUSION The results of this study indicate that BDNF is required for formation and/or maintenance of inhibitory inputs to SF1 neurons, with enduring effects on glycemic control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Kamitakahara
- Neuroscience Program, The Saban Research Institute, Children's Hospital Los Angeles, University of Southern California, Keck School of Medicine, Los Angeles, CA 90027, USA
| | - Baoji Xu
- Department of Neuroscience, The Scripps Research Institute Florida, Jupiter, FL 33458, USA
| | - Richard Simerly
- Neuroscience Program, The Saban Research Institute, Children's Hospital Los Angeles, University of Southern California, Keck School of Medicine, Los Angeles, CA 90027, USA.
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111
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112
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Geerling JC, Kim M, Mahoney CE, Abbott SBG, Agostinelli LJ, Garfield AS, Krashes MJ, Lowell BB, Scammell TE. Genetic identity of thermosensory relay neurons in the lateral parabrachial nucleus. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2015; 310:R41-54. [PMID: 26491097 DOI: 10.1152/ajpregu.00094.2015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2015] [Accepted: 10/02/2015] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The parabrachial nucleus is important for thermoregulation because it relays skin temperature information from the spinal cord to the hypothalamus. Prior work in rats localized thermosensory relay neurons to its lateral subdivision (LPB), but the genetic and neurochemical identity of these neurons remains unknown. To determine the identity of LPB thermosensory neurons, we exposed mice to a warm (36°C) or cool (4°C) ambient temperature. Each condition activated neurons in distinct LPB subregions that receive input from the spinal cord. Most c-Fos+ neurons in these LPB subregions expressed the transcription factor marker FoxP2. Consistent with prior evidence that LPB thermosensory relay neurons are glutamatergic, all FoxP2+ neurons in these subregions colocalized with green fluorescent protein (GFP) in reporter mice for Vglut2, but not for Vgat. Prodynorphin (Pdyn)-expressing neurons were identified using a GFP reporter mouse and formed a caudal subset of LPB FoxP2+ neurons, primarily in the dorsal lateral subnucleus (PBdL). Warm exposure activated many FoxP2+ neurons within PBdL. Half of the c-Fos+ neurons in PBdL were Pdyn+, and most of these project into the preoptic area. Cool exposure activated a separate FoxP2+ cluster of neurons in the far-rostral LPB, which we named the rostral-to-external lateral subnucleus (PBreL). These findings improve our understanding of LPB organization and reveal that Pdyn-IRES-Cre mice provide genetic access to warm-activated, FoxP2+ glutamatergic neurons in PBdL, many of which project to the hypothalamus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joel C Geerling
- Department of Neurology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center; Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts;
| | - Minjee Kim
- Department of Neurology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center; Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Carrie E Mahoney
- Department of Neurology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center; Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Stephen B G Abbott
- Department of Neurology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center; Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Lindsay J Agostinelli
- Department of Neurology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center; Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Alastair S Garfield
- Division of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center; Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts; Centre for Integrative Physiology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland
| | - Michael J Krashes
- Diabetes, Endocrinology and Obesity Branch, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland; and National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Bradford B Lowell
- Division of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center; Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Thomas E Scammell
- Department of Neurology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center; Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
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113
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Abstract
Leptin is an adipocytokine that circulates in proportion to body fat to signal the repletion of long-term energy stores. Leptin acts via its receptor, LepRb, on specialized neuronal populations in the brain (mainly in the hypothalamus and brainstem) to alter motivation and satiety, as well as to permit energy expenditure and appropriate glucose homeostasis. Decreased leptin, as with prolonged caloric restriction, promotes a powerful orexigenic signal, decreases energy use via a number of neuroendocrine and autonomic axes, and disrupts glucose homeostasis. Here, we review what is known about cellular leptin action and focus on the roles for specific populations of LepRb-expressing neurons for leptin action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan N Flak
- Division of Metabolism, Endocrinology and Diabetes (J.N.F., M.G.M.), Department of Internal Medicine, and Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology (M.G.M.), University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109
| | - Martin G Myers
- Division of Metabolism, Endocrinology and Diabetes (J.N.F., M.G.M.), Department of Internal Medicine, and Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology (M.G.M.), University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109
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114
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Elson AE, Simerly RB. Developmental specification of metabolic circuitry. Front Neuroendocrinol 2015; 39:38-51. [PMID: 26407637 PMCID: PMC4681622 DOI: 10.1016/j.yfrne.2015.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2015] [Revised: 09/18/2015] [Accepted: 09/21/2015] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
The hypothalamus contains a core circuitry that communicates with the brainstem and spinal cord to regulate energy balance. Because metabolic phenotype is influenced by environmental variables during perinatal development, it is important to understand how these neural pathways form in order to identify key signaling pathways that are responsible for metabolic programming. Recent progress in defining gene expression events that direct early patterning and cellular specification of the hypothalamus, as well as advances in our understanding of hormonal control of central neuroendocrine pathways, suggest several key regulatory nodes that may represent targets for metabolic programming of brain structure and function. This review focuses on components of central circuitry known to regulate various aspects of energy balance and summarizes what is known about their developmental neurobiology within the context of metabolic programming.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda E Elson
- The Saban Research Institute, Children's Hospital Los Angeles, University of Southern California, Keck School of Medicine, Los Angeles, CA 90027, USA
| | - Richard B Simerly
- The Saban Research Institute, Children's Hospital Los Angeles, University of Southern California, Keck School of Medicine, Los Angeles, CA 90027, USA.
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115
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Cheung CC, Krause WC, Edwards RH, Yang CF, Shah NM, Hnasko TS, Ingraham HA. Sex-dependent changes in metabolism and behavior, as well as reduced anxiety after eliminating ventromedial hypothalamus excitatory output. Mol Metab 2015; 4:857-66. [PMID: 26629409 PMCID: PMC4632173 DOI: 10.1016/j.molmet.2015.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2015] [Revised: 08/26/2015] [Accepted: 09/02/2015] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Objectives The ventromedial hypothalamic nucleus (VMH) regulates energy homeostasis as well as social and emotional behaviors. Nearly all VMH neurons, including those in the sexually dimorphic ventrolateral VMH (VMHvl) subregion, release the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate and use the vesicular glutamate transporter 2 (Vglut2). Here, we asked how glutamatergic signaling contributes to the collective metabolic and behavioral responses attributed to the VMH and VMHvl. Methods Using Sf1-Cre and a Vglut2 floxed allele, Vglut2 was knocked-out in SF-1 VMH neurons (Vglut2Sf1-Cre). Metabolic and neurobehavioral assays were carried out initially on Vglut2fl/fl and Vglut2Sf1-Cre mice in a mixed, and then in the C57BL/6 genetic background, which is prone to hyperglycemia and diet induced obesity (DIO). Results Several phenotypes observed in Vglut2Sf1-Cre mice were largely unexpected based on prior studies that have perturbed VMH development or VMH glutamate signaling. In our hands, Vglut2Sf1-Cre mice failed to exhibit the anticipated increase in body weight after high fat diet (HFD) or the impaired glucose homeostasis after fasting. Instead, there was a significant sex-dependent attenuation of DIO in Vglut2Sf1-Cre females. Vglut2Sf1-Cre males also display a sex-specific loss of conditioned-fear responses and aggression accompanied by more novelty-associated locomotion. Finally, unlike the higher anxiety noted in Sf1Nestin-Cre mice that lack a fully formed VMH, both male and female Vglut2Sf1-Cre mice were less anxious. Conclusions Loss of VMH glutamatergic signaling sharply decreased DIO in females, attenuated aggression and learned fear in males, and was anxiolytic in males and females. Collectively, our findings demonstrate that while glutamatergic output from the VMH appears largely dispensable for counter regulatory responses to hypoglycemia, it drives sex-dependent differences in metabolism and social behaviors and is essential for adaptive responses to anxiety-provoking stimuli in both sexes. Excitatory VMH output controls sex-dependent metabolic and behavioral phenotypes. Vglut2Sf1-Cre mice are not prone to diet-induced obesity or glucose misregulation. Loss of VMH glutamatergic signaling leads to negative energy state in females. Aggression and learned fear are lower in males lacking VMH excitatory output. VMH glutamatergic signaling drives normal anxiety responses in both sexes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clement C Cheung
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, Mission Bay Campus, University of California, San Francisco 94143, United States
| | - William C Krause
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, Mission Bay Campus, University of California, San Francisco 94143, United States
| | - Robert H Edwards
- Department of Physiology and Neurology, Mission Bay Campus, University of California, San Francisco 94143, United States
| | - Cindy F Yang
- Department of Anatomy, Mission Bay Campus, University of California, San Francisco 94143, United States
| | - Nirao M Shah
- Department of Anatomy, Mission Bay Campus, University of California, San Francisco 94143, United States
| | - Thomas S Hnasko
- Department of Physiology and Neurology, Mission Bay Campus, University of California, San Francisco 94143, United States
| | - Holly A Ingraham
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, Mission Bay Campus, University of California, San Francisco 94143, United States
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116
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Steinbusch L, Labouèbe G, Thorens B. Brain glucose sensing in homeostatic and hedonic regulation. Trends Endocrinol Metab 2015; 26:455-66. [PMID: 26163755 DOI: 10.1016/j.tem.2015.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2015] [Revised: 06/15/2015] [Accepted: 06/16/2015] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Glucose homeostasis as well as homeostatic and hedonic control of feeding is regulated by hormonal, neuronal, and nutrient-related cues. Glucose, besides its role as a source of metabolic energy, is an important signal controlling hormone secretion and neuronal activity, hence contributing to whole-body metabolic integration in coordination with feeding control. Brain glucose sensing plays a key, but insufficiently explored, role in these metabolic and behavioral controls, which when deregulated may contribute to the development of obesity and diabetes. The recent introduction of innovative transgenic, pharmacogenetic, and optogenetic techniques allows unprecedented analysis of the complexity of central glucose sensing at the molecular, cellular, and neuronal circuit levels, which will lead to a new understanding of the pathogenesis of metabolic diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Steinbusch
- Center for Integrative Genomics, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Gwenaël Labouèbe
- Center for Integrative Genomics, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Bernard Thorens
- Center for Integrative Genomics, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland.
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117
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A neural basis for melanocortin-4 receptor-regulated appetite. Nat Neurosci 2015; 18:863-71. [PMID: 25915476 PMCID: PMC4446192 DOI: 10.1038/nn.4011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 288] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2015] [Accepted: 03/30/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC)- and agouti-related peptide (AgRP)-expressing neurons are oppositely regulated by caloric depletion and co-ordinately stimulate and inhibit homeostatic satiety, respectively. This bimodality is principally underscored by the antagonistic actions of these ligands at downstream melanocortin-4 receptors (MC4R) within the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus. Although this population is critical to energy balance the underlying neural circuitry remains unknown. Enabled by mice expressing Cre-recombinase in MC4R neurons, we demonstrate bidirectional control of feeding following real-time activation and inhibition of PVHMC4R neurons and further identify these cells as a functional exponent of ARCAgRP neuron-driven hunger. Moreover, we reveal this function to be mediated by a PVHMC4R→lateral parabrachial nucleus (LPBN) pathway. Activation of this circuit encodes positive valence, but only in calorically depleted mice. Thus, the satiating and appetitive nature of PVHMC4R→LPBN neurons supports the principles of drive reduction and highlights this circuit as a promising target for anti-obesity drug development.
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118
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Abstract
Brain glucosensing neurons monitor extracellular glucose concentrations and act to defend normoglycemia. To date, the majority of these neurons have been ascribed to hypothalamic and hindbrain centers. In this issue, Garfield and colleagues (2014) demonstrate that cholecystokinin-expressing neurons in the rodent parabrachial nucleus function as glucosensors that counter-regulate hypoglycemia.
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