Challenges associated with Penetration of Nanoparticles across Cell and Tissue Barriers: A Review of Current Status and Future Prospects

MicroRNA therapeutics and nucleic acid nano-delivery systems in bacterial infection: a review

Bacteria that have worked with humans for thousands of years pose a major threat to human health even today, as drug resistance has become a prominent problem. Compared to conventional drug therapy, nucleic acid-based therapies are a promising and potential therapeutic strategy for diseases in which nucleic acids are delivered through a nucleic acid delivery system to regulate gene expression in specific cells, offering the possibility of curing intractable diseases that are difficult to treat at this stage. Among the many nucleic acid therapeutic ideas, microRNA, a class of small nucleic acids with special properties, has made great strides in biology and medicine in just over two decades, showing promise in preclinical drug development. In this review, we introduce recent advances in nucleic acid delivery systems and their clinical applications, highlighting the potential of nucleic acid therapies, especially miRNAs extracted from traditional herbs, in combination with the existing set of nucleic acid therapeutic systems, to potentially open up a new line of thought in the treatment of cancer, viruses, and especially bacterial infectious diseases.

Ceftazidime-assisted synthesis of ultrasmall chitosan nanoparticles for biofilm penetration and eradication of Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa) infections present a grave threat to immunocompromised individuals, particularly those with cystic fibrosis due to the development of bacterial biofilms. In this study, we engineered self-assembling chitosan-ceftazidime nanoparticles (CSCE) capable of effectively penetrating biofilms and eradicating P. aeruginosa. The CSCE nanoparticles were synthesized through ionic cross-linking, combining negatively charged ceftazidime with positively charged chitosan, resulting in uniform nanoparticles measuring approximately 40 nm in diameter, exhibiting high dispersity and excellent biocompatibility. Remarkably, these nanoparticles exhibited significant inhibition of P. aeruginosa growth, reduced pyocyanin production, and diminished biofilm formation, achieving a maximum inhibition rate of 22.44%. Furthermore, in vivo investigations demonstrated enhanced survival in mice with abdominal P. aeruginosa infection following treatment with CSCE nanoparticles, accompanied by reduced levels of inflammatory cytokines Interleukin-6 (125.79 ± 18.63 pg/mL), Interleukin-17 (125.67 ± 5.94 pg/mL), and Tumor Necrosis Factor-α (135.4 ± 11.77 pg/mL). Critically, mice treated with CSCE nanoparticles showed no presence of bacteria in the bloodstream following intraperitoneal P. aeruginosa infection. Collectively, our findings highlight the potential of these synthesized nanoparticles as effective agents against P. aeruginosa infections.

Thermal-controlled cellular uptake of "hot" nanoparticles

Nanoparticles (NPs) have shown immense potential in the field of biomedical applications, particularly in NP-based photothermal therapy, which offers a remote-controlled approach to achieve precise temperature control for site-specific heating and sub-cellular tumor treatment. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying related cellular activities, such as the cellular uptake behavior of irradiated NPs in photothermal effects, remain elusive. In this study, we conducted a thorough investigation of the interaction between an irradiated NP with elevated temperature (ranging from 270 to 360 K) and a model bilayer membrane composed of DPPC or DOPC using nonequilibrium coarse-grained molecular dynamics simulations with the implicit-solvent Dry Martini force field. We observe that the interaction between a "hot" NP and a membrane is thermally regulated. In addition, the wrapping of membranes around NPs exhibits a strong dependence on the temperature of the irradiated NP, demonstrating a step-like change in behavior. This membrane wrapping effect is attributed to the heat conduction between NPs and membrane lipids, which occurs almost simultaneously with the membrane deformation and wrapping of NPs during the NP-membrane interaction process. Especially, during the process of heat conduction, a gel-to-fluid phase transition of the membrane may occur, which plays a crucial role in determining the deformation behavior of the membrane. Moreover, it is found that the membrane lipids in the two leaflets exhibit obvious and asymmetric molecular-level responses to heat flux, characterized by significant changes in packing states (e.g., the order parameter of lipid tails and area per lipid) and possible interdigitation between lipids. Furthermore, the thermal-controlled wrapping effect is tightly linked to the properties of NPs (e.g., size, NP-lipid affinity) and lipid species. Our findings are valuable for comprehending the thermal-regulated cellular internalization of NPs and offer insights into devising strategies to precisely modulate NP endocytosis by exploiting the interplay between heating and NP properties.

Recent advances and prospects for lipid-based nanoparticles as drug carriers in the treatment of human retinal diseases

The delivery of cures for retinal diseases remains problematic. There are four main challenges: passing through multiple barriers of the eye, the delivery to particular retinal cell types, the capability to carry different forms of therapeutic cargo and long-term therapeutic efficacy. Lipid-based nanoparticles (LBNPs) are potent to overcome these challenges due to their unique merits: amphiphilic nanoarchitectures to pass biological barriers, vary modifications with specific affinity to target cell types, flexible capacity for large and mixed types of cargos and slow-release formulations for long-term treatment. We have reviewed the latest research on the applications of LBNPs for treating retinal diseases and categorized them by different payloads. Furthermore, we identified technical barriers and discussed possible future development for LBNPs to expand the therapeutic potential in treating retinal diseases.

Addressing the in vivo delivery of nucleic-acid nanostructure therapeutics

DNA and RNA nanostructures are being investigated as therapeutics, vaccines, and drug delivery systems. These nanostructures can be functionalized with guests ranging from small molecules to proteins with precise spatial and stoichiometric control. This has enabled new strategies to manipulate drug activity and to engineer devices with novel therapeutic functionalities. Although existing studies have offered encouraging in vitro or pre-clinical proof-of-concepts, establishing mechanisms of in vivo delivery is the new frontier for nucleic-acid nanotechnologies. In this review, we first provide a summary of existing literature on the in vivo uses of DNA and RNA nanostructures. Based on their application areas, we discuss current models of nanoparticle delivery, and thereby highlight knowledge gaps on the in vivo interactions of nucleic-acid nanostructures. Finally, we describe techniques and strategies for investigating and engineering these interactions. Together, we propose a framework to establish in vivo design principles and advance the in vivo translation of nucleic-acid nanotechnologies.

Overcoming tumor microenvironment obstacles: Current approaches for boosting nanodrug delivery

In order to achieve targeted delivery of anticancer drugs, efficacy improvement, and side effect reduction, various types of nanoparticles are employed. However, their therapeutic effects are not ideal. This phenomenon is caused by tumor microenvironment abnormalities such as abnormal blood vessels, elevated interstitial fluid pressure, and dense extracellular matrix that affect nanoparticle penetration into the tumor's interstitium. Furthermore, nanoparticle properties including size, charge, and shape affect nanoparticle transport into tumors. This review comprehensively goes over the factors hindering nanoparticle penetration into tumors and describes methods for improving nanoparticle distribution by remodeling the tumor microenvironment and optimizing nanoparticle physicochemical properties. Finally, a critical analysis of future development of nanodrug delivery in oncology is further discussed. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: This article reviews the factors that hinder the distribution of nanoparticles in tumors, and describes existing methods and approaches for improving the tumor accumulation from the aspects of remodeling the tumor microenvironment and optimizing the properties of nanoparticles. The description of the existing methods and approaches is followed by highlighting their advantages and disadvantages and put forward possible directions for the future researches. At last, the challenges of improving tumor accumulation in nanomedicines design were also discussed. This review will be of great interest to the broad readers who are committed to delivering nanomedicine for cancer treatment.

Polymer-based nanosystems and their applications in bone anticancer therapy

The mortality rate of bone cancer has witnessed a substantial reduction in recent years, all thanks to the advent of advanced cancer treatment modalities such as surgical intervention, radiation, and chemotherapy. Nevertheless, these popular modalities come with a set of clinical challenges, including non-specificity, side effects, and drug intolerance. In recent years, polymer-based nanosystems have emerged as a promising solution in bone anti-cancer therapy by virtue of their unique physical and chemical properties. These nanosystems can be tailored for use in different drug release mechanisms for therapeutic implementations. This review delves into the efficacy of these therapy applications in bone cancer (with a focus on one of the most common types of cancers, Osteosarcoma) treatment and their correlation with the properties of polymer-based nanosystems, in addition to their interaction with the tumor microenvironment and the biological milieu.

Recent Advances in Cell Membrane Coated-Nanoparticles as Drug Delivery Systems for Tackling Urological Diseases

Recent studies have revealed the functional roles of cell membrane coated-nanoparticles (CMNPs) in tackling urological diseases, including cancers, inflammation, and acute kidney injury. Cells are a fundamental part of pathology to regulate nearly all urological diseases, and, therefore, naturally derived cell membranes inherit the functional role to enhance the biopharmaceutical performance of their encapsulated nanoparticles on drug delivery. In this review, methods for CMNP synthesis and surface engineering are summarized. The application of different types of CMNPs for tackling urological diseases is updated, including cancer cell membrane, stem cell membrane, immune cell membrane, erythrocytes cell membranes, and extracellular vesicles, and their potential for clinical use is discussed.

Advances with Lipid-Based Nanosystems for siRNA Delivery to Breast Cancers

Breast cancer is the most frequently diagnosed cancer among women. Breast cancer is also the key reason for worldwide cancer-related deaths among women. The application of small interfering RNA (siRNA)-based drugs to combat breast cancer requires effective gene silencing in tumor cells. To overcome the challenges of drug delivery to tumors, various nanosystems for siRNA delivery, including lipid-based nanoparticles that protect siRNA from degradation for delivery to cancer cells have been developed. These nanosystems have shown great potential for efficient and targeted siRNA delivery to breast cancer cells. Lipid-based nanosystems remain promising as siRNA drug delivery carriers for effective and safe cancer therapy including breast cancer. Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) encapsulating siRNA enable efficient and specific silencing of oncogenes in breast tumors. This review discusses a variety of lipid-based nanosystems including cationic lipids, sterols, phospholipids, PEG-lipid conjugates, ionizable liposomes, exosomes for effective siRNA drug delivery to breast tumors, and the clinical translation of lipid-based siRNA nanosystems for solid tumors.

Nanocarriers for cancer nano-immunotherapy

The host immune system possesses an intrinsic ability to target and kill cancer cells in a specific and adaptable manner that can be further enhanced by cancer immunotherapy, which aims to train the immune system to boost the antitumor immune response. Several different categories of cancer immunotherapy have emerged as new standard cancer therapies in the clinic, including cancer vaccines, immune checkpoint inhibitors, adoptive T cell therapy, and oncolytic virus therapy. Despite the remarkable survival benefit for a subset of patients, the low response rate and immunotoxicity remain the major challenges for current cancer immunotherapy. Over the last few decades, nanomedicine has been intensively investigated with great enthusiasm, leading to marked advancements in nanoparticle platforms and nanoengineering technology. Advances in nanomedicine and immunotherapy have also led to the emergence of a nascent research field of nano-immunotherapy, which aims to realize the full therapeutic potential of immunotherapy with the aid of nanomedicine. In particular, nanocarriers present an exciting opportunity in immuno-oncology to boost the activity, increase specificity, decrease toxicity, and sustain the antitumor efficacy of immunological agents by potentiating immunostimulatory activity and favorably modulating pharmacological properties. This review discusses the potential of nanocarriers for cancer immunotherapy and introduces preclinical studies designed to improve clinical cancer immunotherapy modalities using nanocarrier-based engineering approaches. It also discusses the potential of nanocarriers to address the challenges currently faced by immuno-oncology as well as the challenges for their translation to clinical applications.

How Magnetic Composites are Effective Anticancer Therapeutics? A Comprehensive Review of the Literature

Chemotherapy is the most prominent route in cancer therapy for prolonging the lifespan of cancer patients. However, its non-target specificity and the resulting off-target cytotoxicities have been reported. Recent in vitro and in vivo studies using magnetic nanocomposites (MNCs) for magnetothermal chemotherapy may potentially improve the therapeutic outcome by increasing the target selectivity. In this review, magnetic hyperthermia therapy and magnetic targeting using drug-loaded MNCs are revisited, focusing on magnetism, the fabrication and structures of magnetic nanoparticles, surface modifications, biocompatible coating, shape, size, and other important physicochemical properties of MNCs, along with the parameters of the hyperthermia therapy and external magnetic field. Due to the limited drug-loading capacity and low biocompatibility, the use of magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) as drug delivery system has lost traction. In contrast, MNCs show higher biocompatibility, multifunctional physicochemical properties, high drug encapsulation, and multi-stages of controlled release for localized synergistic chemo-thermotherapy. Further, combining various forms of magnetic cores and pH-sensitive coating agents can generate a more robust pH, magneto, and thermo-responsive drug delivery system. Thus, MNCs are ideal candidate as smart and remotely guided drug delivery system due to a) their magneto effects and guide-ability by the external magnetic fields, b) on-demand drug release performance, and c) thermo-chemosensitization under an applied alternating magnetic field where the tumor is selectively incinerated without harming surrounding non-tumor tissues. Given the important effects of synthesis methods, surface modifications, and coating of MNCs on their anticancer properties, we reviewed the most recent studies on magnetic hyperthermia, targeted drug delivery systems in cancer therapy, and magnetothermal chemotherapy to provide insights on the current development of MNC-based anticancer nanocarrier.

Perspectives for Improving the Tumor Targeting of Nanomedicine via the EPR Effect in Clinical Tumors

Over the past few decades, the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect of nanomedicine has been a crucial phenomenon in targeted cancer therapy. Specifically, understanding the EPR effect has been a significant aspect of delivering anticancer agents efficiently to targeted tumors. Although the therapeutic effect has been demonstrated in experimental models using mouse xenografts, the clinical translation of the EPR effect of nanomedicine faces several challenges due to dense extracellular matrix (ECM), high interstitial fluid pressure (IFP) levels, and other factors that arise from tumor heterogeneity and complexity. Therefore, understanding the mechanism of the EPR effect of nanomedicine in clinics is essential to overcome the hurdles of the clinical translation of nanomedicine. This paper introduces the basic mechanism of the EPR effect of nanomedicine, the recently discussed challenges of the EPR effect of nanomedicine, and various strategies of recent nanomedicine to overcome the limitations expected from the patients' tumor microenvironments.

Impact of nanotechnology on the oral delivery of phyto-bioactive compounds

Nanotechnology is an advanced field that has remarkable nutraceutical and food applications. Phyto-bioactive compounds (PBCs) play critical roles in promoting health and disease treatment. However, PBCs generally encounter several limitations that delay their widespread application. For example, most PBCs have low aqueous solubility, poor biostability, poor bioavailability, and a lack of target specificity. Moreover, the high concentrations of effective PBC doses also limit their application. As a result, encapsulating PBCs into an appropriate nanocarrier may increase their solubility and biostability and protect them from premature degradation. Moreover, nanoencapsulation could improve absorption and prolong circulation with a high opportunity for targeted delivery that may decrease unwanted toxicity. This review addresses the main parameters, variables, and barriers that control and affect oral PBC delivery. Moreover, this review discusses the potential role of biocompatible and biodegradable nanocarriers in improving the water solubility, chemical stability, bioavailability, and specificity/selectivity of PBCs.

Obesity wars: hypothalamic sEVs a new hope

There are currently several pharmacological therapies available for the treatment of obesity, targeting both the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral tissues. In recent years, small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) have been shown to be involved in many pathophysiological conditions. Because of their special nanosized structure and contents, sEVs can activate receptors and trigger intracellular pathways in recipient cells. Notably, in addition to transferring molecules between cells, sEVs can also alter their phenotypic characteristics. The purpose of this review is to discuss how sEVs can be used as a CNS-targeted strategy for treating obesity. Furthermore, we will evaluate current findings, such as the sEV-mediated targeting of hypothalamic AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), and discuss how they can be translated into clinical application.

Self-Propelled Janus Nanocatalytic Robots Guided by Magnetic Resonance Imaging for Enhanced Tumor Penetration and Therapy

Biomedical micro/nanorobots as active delivery systems with the features of self-propulsion and controllable navigation have made tremendous progress in disease therapy and diagnosis, detection, and biodetoxification. However, existing micro/nanorobots are still suffering from complex drug loading, physiological drug stability, and uncontrollable drug release. To solve these problems, micro/nanorobots and nanocatalytic medicine as two independent research fields were integrated in this study to achieve self-propulsion-induced deeper tumor penetration and catalytic reaction-initiated tumor therapy in vivo. We presented self-propelled Janus nanocatalytic robots (JNCRs) guided by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) for in vivo enhanced tumor therapy. These JNCRs exhibited active movement in H₂O₂ solution, and their migration in the tumor tissue could be tracked by non-invasive MRI in real time. Both increased temperature and reactive oxygen species production were induced by near-infrared light irradiation and iron-mediated Fenton reaction, showing great potential for tumor photothermal and chemodynamic therapy. In comparison with passive nanoparticles, these self-propelled JNCRs enabled deeper tumor penetration and enhanced tumor therapy after intratumoral injection. Importantly, these robots with biocompatible components and byproducts exhibited biosecurity in the mouse model. It is expected that our work could promote the combination of micro/nanorobots and nanocatalytic medicine, resulting in improved tumor therapy and potential clinical transformations.

Genetically engineered cellular nanoparticles for biomedical applications

In recent years, nanoparticles derived from cellular membranes have been increasingly explored for the prevention and treatment of human disease. With their flexible design and ability to interface effectively with the surrounding environment, these biomimetic nanoparticles can outperform their traditional synthetic counterparts. As their popularity has increased, researchers have developed novel ways to modify the nanoparticle surface to introduce new or enhanced capabilities. Moving beyond naturally occurring materials derived from wild-type cells, genetic manipulation has proven to be a robust and flexible method by which nanoformulations with augmented functionalities can be generated. In this review, an overview of genetic engineering approaches to express novel surface proteins is provided, followed by a discussion on the various biomedical applications of genetically modified cellular nanoparticles.

Size-optimized simvastatin-loaded TPGS modified lipid nanocapsules for targeting epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition in hepatocellular carcinoma: Role of PTEN/AKT signaling

OBJECTIVES

Novel D-α-tocopherol polyethylene glycol 1000 succinate (TPGS) modified lipid nanocapsules (LNC) were prepared with the aim of improving the effectiveness of simvastatin (SIM) in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). The present study, therefore, sought to investigate the effect of size-optimized SIM-loaded LNC on epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in HCC, providing insights on the implication of phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN)/protein kinase B (AKT) axis.

METHODS

Two optimized SIM-loaded LNCs with particle sizes 25 nm (SIM-LNC25) and 50 nm (SIM-LNC50) were prepared and biodistribution studies were performed. The anticancer effect of the prepared LNC was evaluated both in vitro and in vivo. The anti-migratory potential and EMT suppression through PTEN/AKT axis modulation were also explored.

RESULTS

SIM-LNC50 was superior to SIM-LNC25 in both in vitro and in vivo experiments, as evidenced by cytotoxicity assays, tumor histopathology, and enhanced apoptosis. SIM-LNC50 also alleviated the migratory potential of HCC cells. Moreover, EMT markers implied a transition of tumor cells toward the epithelial rather than the mesenchymal phenotype both in vitro and in vivo. PTEN/AKT axis modulation was also evident with SIM-LNC50.

CONCLUSION

The present study, therefore, suggests the efficacy of the 50 nm particles in SIM-loaded LNC in HCC by targeting EMT via modulating the PTEN/AKT signaling axis.

Design of Disintegrable Nanoassemblies to Release Multiple Small-Sized Nanoparticles

The therapeutic and diagnostic effects of nanoparticles depend on the efficiency of their delivery to targeted tissues, such as tumors. The size of nanoparticles, among other characteristics, plays a crucial role in determining their tissue penetration and retention. Small nanoparticles may penetrate deeper into tumor parenchyma but are poorly retained, whereas large ones are distributed around tumor blood vessels. Thus, compared to smaller individual nanoparticles, assemblies of such nanoparticles due to their larger size are favorable for prolonged blood circulation and enhanced tumor accumulation. Upon reaching the targeted tissues, nanoassemblies may dissociate at the target region and release the smaller nanoparticles, which is beneficial for their distribution at the target site and ultimate clearance. The recent emerging strategy that combines small nanoparticles into larger, biodegradable nanoassemblies has been demonstrated by several groups. This review summarizes a variety of chemical and structural designs for constructing stimuli-responsive disintegrable nanoassemblies as well as their different disassembly routes. These nanoassemblies have been applied as demonstrators in the fields of cancer therapy, antibacterial infection, ischemic stroke recovery, bioimaging, and diagnostics. Finally, we summarize stimuli-responsive mechanisms and their corresponding nanomedicine designing strategies, and discuss potential challenges and barriers towards clinical translation.

Gel Formulations for Topical Treatment of Skin Cancer: A Review

Skin cancer, with all its variations, is the most common type of cancer worldwide. Chemotherapy by topical application is an attractive strategy because of the ease of application and non-invasiveness. At the same time, the delivery of antineoplastic agents through the skin is difficult because of their challenging physicochemical properties (solubility, ionization, molecular weight, melting point) and the barrier function of the stratum corneum. Various approaches have been applied in order to improve drug penetration, retention, and efficacy. This systematic review aims at identifying the most commonly used techniques for topical drug delivery by means of gel-based topical formulations in skin cancer treatment. The excipients used, the preparation approaches, and the methods characterizing gels are discussed in brief. The safety aspects are also highlighted. The combinatorial formulation of nanocarrier-loaded gels is also reviewed from the perspective of improving drug delivery characteristics. Some limitations and drawbacks in the identified strategies are also outlined and considered within the future scope of topical chemotherapy.

Assessing regulated cell death modalities as an efficient tool for in vitro nanotoxicity screening: a review

Nanomedicine is a fast-growing field of nanotechnology. One of the major obstacles for a wider use of nanomaterials for medical application is the lack of standardized toxicity screening protocols for assessing the safety of newly synthesized nanomaterials. In this review, we focus on less frequently studied nanomaterials-induced regulated cell death (RCD) modalities, including eryptosis, necroptosis, pyroptosis, and ferroptosis, as a tool for in vitro nanomaterials safety evaluation. We summarize the latest insights into the mechanisms that mediate these RCDs in response to nanomaterials exposure. Comprehensive data from reviewed studies suggest that ROS (reactive oxygen species) overproduction and ROS-mediated pathways play a central role in nanomaterials-induced RCDs activation. On the other hand, studies also suggest that individual properties of nanomaterials, including size, shape, or surface charge, could determine specific toxicity pathways with consequent RCD induction as well. We anticipate that the evaluation of RCDs can become one of the mechanism-based screening methods in nanotoxicology. In addition to the toxicity assessment, evaluation of necroptosis-, pyroptosis-, and ferroptosis-promoting capacity of nanomaterials could simultaneously provide useful information for specific medical applications as could be their anti-tumor potential. Moreover, a detailed understanding of molecular mechanisms driving nanomaterials-mediated induction of immunogenic RCDs will substantially aid novel anti-tumor nanodrugs development.

Sonoprinting nanoparticles on cellular spheroids via surface acoustic waves for enhanced nanotherapeutics delivery

Nanotherapeutics, on their path to the target tissues, face numerous physicochemical hindrances that affect their therapeutic efficacy. Physical barriers become more pronounced in pathological tissues, such as solid tumors, where they limit the penetration of nanocarriers into deeper regions, thereby preventing the efficient delivery of drug cargo. To address this challenge, we introduce a novel approach that employs surface acoustic wave (SAW) technology to sonoprint and enhance the delivery of nanoparticles onto and into cell spheroids. Our SAW platform is designed to generate focused and unidirectional acoustic waves for creating vigorous acoustic streaming while promoting Bjerknes forces. The effect of SAW excitation on cell viability, as well as the accumulation and penetration of nanoparticles on human breast cancer (MCF 7) and mouse melanoma (YUMM 1.7) cell spheroids were investigated. The high frequency, low input voltage, and contact-free nature of the proposed SAW system ensured over 92% cell viability for both cell lines after SAW exposure. SAW sonoprinting enhanced the accumulation of 100 nm polystyrene particles on the periphery of the spheroids to near four-fold, while the penetration of nanoparticles into the core regions of the spheroids was improved up to three times. To demonstrate the effectiveness of our SAW platform on the efficacy of nanotherapeutics, the platform was used to deliver nanoliposomes encapsulated with the anti-cancer metal compound copper diethyldithiocarbamate (CuET) to MCF 7 and YUMM 1.7 cell spheroids. A three-fold increase in the cytotoxic activity of the drug was observed in spheroids under the effect of SAW, compared to controls. The capacity of SAW-based devices to be manufactured as minuscule wearable patches can offer highly controllable, localized, and continuous acoustic waves to enhance drug delivery efficiency to target tissues.

Recent Development of Nanomaterials for Transdermal Drug Delivery

Nano-engineered medical products first appeared in the last decade. The current research in this area focuses on developing safe drugs with minimal adverse effects associated with the pharmacologically active cargo. Transdermal drug delivery, an alternative to oral administration, offers patient convenience, avoids first-pass hepatic metabolism, provides local targeting, and reduces effective drug toxicities. Nanomaterials provide alternatives to conventional transdermal drug delivery including patches, gels, sprays, and lotions, but it is crucial to understand the transport mechanisms involved. This article reviews the recent research trends in transdermal drug delivery and emphasizes the mechanisms and nano-formulations currently in vogue.

Endothelial-Specific Targeting of RhoA Signaling via CD31 Antibody-Conjugated Nanoparticles

Existing vascular endothelial growth factor-oriented antiangiogenic approaches are known for their high potency. However, significant side effects associated with their use drive the need for novel antiangiogenic strategies. The small GTPase RhoA is an established regulator of actin cytoskeletal dynamics. Previous studies have highlighted the impact of endothelial RhoA pathway on angiogenesis. Rho-associate kinase (ROCK), a direct RhoA effector, is potently inhibited by Fasudil, a clinically relevant ROCK inhibitor. Here, we aimed to target the RhoA signaling in endothelial cells by generating Fasudil-encapsulated CD31-targeting liposomes as a potential antiangiogenic therapy. The liposomes presented desirable characteristics, preferential binding to CD31-expressing HEK293T cells and to endothelial cells, inhibited stress fiber formation and cytoskeletal-related morphometric parameters, and inhibited in vitro angiogenic functions. Overall, this work shows that the nanodelivery-mediated endothelial targeting of RhoA signaling can offer a promising strategy for angiogenesis inhibition in vascular-related diseases. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Systemic administration of antiangiogenic therapeutics induces side effects to non-targeted tissues. This study, among others, has shown the impact of the RhoA signaling in the endothelial cells and their angiogenic functions. Here, to minimize potential toxicity, this study generated CD31-targeting liposomes with encapsulated Fasudil, a clinically relevant Rho kinase inhibitor, and successfully targeted endothelial cells. In this proof-of-principle study, the efficient Fasudil delivery, its impact on the endothelial signaling, morphometric alterations, and angiogenic functions verify the benefits of site-targeted antiangiogenic therapy.

Nanoparticles as Drug Delivery Systems: A Review of the Implication of Nanoparticles' Physicochemical Properties on Responses in Biological Systems

In the last four decades, nanotechnology has gained momentum with no sign of slowing down. The application of inventions or products from nanotechnology has revolutionised all aspects of everyday life ranging from medical applications to its impact on the food industry. Nanoparticles have made it possible to significantly extend the shelf lives of food product, improve intracellular delivery of hydrophobic drugs and improve the efficacy of specific therapeutics such as anticancer agents. As a consequence, nanotechnology has not only impacted the global standard of living but has also impacted the global economy. In this review, the characteristics of nanoparticles that confers them with suitable and potentially toxic biological effects, as well as their applications in different biological fields and nanoparticle-based drugs and delivery systems in biomedicine including nano-based drugs currently approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) are discussed. The possible consequence of continuous exposure to nanoparticles due to the increased use of nanotechnology and possible solution is also highlighted.

Food Peptides for the Nutricosmetic Industry

In recent years, numerous reports have described bioactive peptides (biopeptides)/hydrolysates produced from various food sources. Biopeptides are considered interesting for industrial application since they show numerous functional properties (e.g., anti-aging, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial properties) and technological properties (e.g., solubility, emulsifying, and foaming). Moreover, they have fewer side effects than synthetic drugs. Nevertheless, some challenges must be overcome before their administration via the oral route. The gastric, pancreatic, and small intestinal enzymes and acidic stomach conditions can affect their bioavailability and the levels that can reach the site of action. Some delivery systems have been studied to avoid these problems (e.g., microemulsions, liposomes, solid lipid particles). This paper summarizes the results of studies conducted on biopeptides isolated from plants, marine organisms, animals, and biowaste by-products, discusses their potential application in the nutricosmetic industry, and considers potential delivery systems that could maintain their bioactivity. Our results show that food peptides are environmentally sustainable products that can be used as antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-aging, and anti-inflammatory agents in nutricosmetic formulations. Biopeptide production from biowaste requires expertise in analytical procedures and good manufacturing practice. It is hoped that new analytical procedures can be developed to simplify large-scale production and that the authorities adopt and regulate use of appropriate testing standards to guarantee the population's safety.

DLin-MC3-Containing mRNA Lipid Nanoparticles Induce an Antibody Th2-Biased Immune Response Polarization in a Delivery Route-Dependent Manner in Mice

mRNA-based vaccines have made a leap forward since the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic and are currently used to develop anti-infectious therapies. If the selection of a delivery system and an optimized mRNA sequence are two key factors to reach in vivo efficacy, the optimal administration route for those vaccines remains unclear. We investigated the influence of lipid components and immunization route regarding the intensity and quality of humoral immune responses in mice. The immunogenicity of HIV-p55Gag encoded mRNA encapsulated into D-Lin-MC3-DMA or GenVoy-ionizable lipid-based LNPs was compared after intramuscular or subcutaneous routes. Three sequential mRNA vaccines were administrated followed by a heterologous boost composed of p24-HIV protein antigen. Despite equivalent IgG kinetic profiles of general humoral responses, IgG1/IgG2a ratio analysis showed a Th2/Th1 balance toward a Th1-biased cellular immune response when both LNPs were administrated via the intramuscular route. Surprisingly, a Th2-biased antibody immunity was observed when DLin-containing vaccine was injected subcutaneously. A protein-based vaccine boost appeared to reverse this balance to a cellular-biased response correlated to an increase in antibody avidity. Our finding suggests that the intrinsic adjuvant effect of ionizable lipids appears to be dependent on the delivery route used, which could be relevant to reach potent and long-lasting immunity after mRNA-based immunization.

Development of pH-Responsive N-benzyl-N-O-succinyl Chitosan Micelles Loaded with a Curcumin Analog (Cyqualone) for Treatment of Colon Cancer

This work aimed at preparing nanomicelles from N-benzyl-N, O-succinyl chitosan (NBSCh) loaded with a curcumin analog, 2,6-bis((3-methoxy-4-hydroxyphenyl) methylene) cyclohexanone, a.k.a. cyqualone (CL), for antineoplastic colon cancer chemotherapy. The CL-loaded NBSCh micelles were spherical and less than 100 nm in size. The entrapment efficiency of CL in the micelles ranged from 13 to 39%. Drug release from pristine CL was less than 20% in PBS at pH 7.4, whereas the release from CL-NBSCh micelles was significantly higher. The release study of CL-NBSCh revealed that around 40% of CL content was released in simulated gastric fluid at pH 1.2; 79 and 85% in simulated intestinal fluids at pH 5.5 and 6.8, respectively; and 75% in simulated colonic fluid at pH 7.4. CL-NBSCh showed considerably high selective cytotoxicity towards mucosal epithelial human colon cancer (HT-29) cells and lower levels of toxicity towards mouse connective tissue fibroblasts (L929). CL-NBSCh was also more cytotoxic than the free CL. Furthermore, compared to free CL, CL-NBSCh micelles were found to be more efficient at arresting cell growth at the G2/M phase, and induced apoptosis earlier in HT-29 cells. Collectively, these results indicate the high prospective potential of CL-loaded NBSCh micelles as an oral therapeutic intervention for colon cancer.

Multifunctional AIE Nanosphere-Based "Nanobomb" for Trimodal Imaging-Guided Photothermal/Photodynamic/Pharmacological Therapy of Drug-Resistant Bacterial Infections

Injudicious or inappropriate use of antibiotics has led to the prevalence of drug-resistant bacteria, posing a huge menace to global health. Here, a self-assembled aggregation-induced emission (AIE) nanosphere (AIE-PEG₁₀₀₀ NPs) that simultaneously possesses near-infrared region II (NIR-II) fluorescence emissive, photothermal, and photodynamic properties is prepared using a multifunctional AIE luminogen (AIE-4COOH). The AIE-PEG₁₀₀₀ NPs were encapsulated with teicoplanin (Tei) and ammonium bicarbonate (AB) into lipid nanovesicles to form a laser-activated "nanobomb" (AIE-Tei@AB NVs) for the multimodal theranostics of drug-resistant bacterial infections. In vivo experiments validate that the "nanobomb" enables high-performance NIR-II fluorescence, infrared thermal, and ultrasound (AB decomposition during the photothermal process to produce numerous CO₂/NH₃ bubbles, which is an efficient ultrasound contrast agent) imaging of multidrug-resistant bacteria-infected foci after intravenous administration of AIE-Tei@AB NVs followed by 660 nm laser stimulation. The highly efficient photothermal and photodynamic features of AIE-Tei@AB NVs, combined with the excellent pharmacological property of rapidly released Tei during bubble generation and NV disintegration, collectively promote broad-spectrum eradication of three clinically isolated multidrug-resistant bacteria strains and rapid healing of infected wounds. This multimodal imaging-guided synergistic therapeutic strategy can be extended for the theranostics of superbugs.

Functional nano-systems for transdermal drug delivery and skin therapy

Transdermal drug delivery is one of the least intrusive and patient-friendly ways for therapeutic agent administration. Recently, functional nano-systems have been demonstrated as one of the most promising strategies to treat skin diseases by improving drug penetration across the skin barrier and achieving therapeutically effective drug concentrations in the target cutaneous tissues. Here, a brief review of functional nano-systems for promoting transdermal drug delivery is presented. The fundamentals of transdermal delivery, including skin biology and penetration routes, are introduced. The characteristics of functional nano-systems for facilitating transdermal drug delivery are elucidated. Moreover, the fabrication of various types of functional transdermal nano-systems is systematically presented. Multiple techniques for evaluating the transdermal capacities of nano-systems are illustrated. Finally, the advances in the applications of functional transdermal nano-systems for treating different skin diseases are summarized.

Research Advances on the Stability of mRNA Vaccines

Compared to other vaccines, the inherent properties of messenger RNA (mRNA) vaccines and their interaction with lipid nanoparticles make them considerably unstable throughout their life cycles, impacting their effectiveness and global accessibility. It is imperative to improve mRNA vaccine stability and investigate the factors influencing stability. Since mRNA structure, excipients, lipid nanoparticle (LNP) delivery systems, and manufacturing processes are the primary factors affecting mRNA vaccine stability, optimizing mRNA structure and screening excipients can effectively improve mRNA vaccine stability. Moreover, improving manufacturing processes could also prepare thermally stable mRNA vaccines with safety and efficacy. Here, we review the regulatory guidance associated with mRNA vaccine stability, summarize key factors affecting mRNA vaccine stability, and propose a possible research path to improve mRNA vaccine stability.

The role of acoustofluidics and microbubble dynamics for therapeutic applications and drug delivery

Targeted drug delivery is proposed to reduce the toxic effects of conventional therapeutic methods. For that purpose, nanoparticles are loaded with drugs called nanocarriers and directed toward a specific site. However, biological barriers challenge the nanocarriers to convey the drug to the target site effectively. Different targeting strategies and nanoparticle designs are used to overcome these barriers. Ultrasound is a new, safe, and non-invasive drug targeting method, especially when combined with microbubbles. Microbubbles oscillate under the effect of the ultrasound, which increases the permeability of endothelium, hence, the drug uptake to the target site. Consequently, this new technique reduces the dose of the drug and avoids its side effects. This review aims to describe the biological barriers and the targeting types with the critical features of acoustically driven microbubbles focusing on biomedical applications. The theoretical part covers the historical developments in microbubble models for different conditions: microbubbles in an incompressible and compressible medium and bubbles encapsulated by a shell. The current state and the possible future directions are discussed.

Ultrasound-mediated nano drug delivery for treating cancer: Fundamental physics to future directions

The application of biocompatible nanocarriers in medicine has provided several benefits over conventional treatment methods. However, achieving high treatment efficacy and deep penetration of nanocarriers in tumor tissue is still challenging. To address this, stimuli-responsive nano-sized drug delivery systems (DDSs) are an active area of investigation in delivering anticancer drugs. While ultrasound is mainly used for diagnostic purposes, it can also be applied to affect cellular function and the delivery/release of anticancer drugs. Therapeutic ultrasound (TUS) has shown potential as both a stand-alone anticancer treatment and a method to induce targeted drug release from nanocarrier systems. TUS approaches have been used to overcome various physiological obstacles, including endothelial barriers, the tumor microenvironment (TME), and immunological hurdles. Combining nanomedicine and ultrasound as a smart DDS can increase in situ drug delivery and improve access to impermeable tissues. Furthermore, smart DDSs can perform targeted drug release in response to distinctive TMEs, external triggers, or dual/multi-stimulus. This results in enhanced treatment efficacy and reduced damage to surrounding healthy tissue or organs at risk. Integrating DDSs and ultrasound is still in its early stages. More research and clinical trials are required to fully understand ultrasound's underlying physical mechanisms and interactions with various types of nanocarriers and different types of cells and tissues. In the present review, ultrasound-mediated nano-sized DDS, specifically focused on cancer treatment, is presented and discussed. Ultrasound interaction with nanoparticles (NPs), drug release mechanisms, and various types of ultrasound-sensitive NPs are examined. Additionally, in vitro, in vivo, and clinical applications of TUS are reviewed in light of the critical challenges that need to be considered to advance TUS toward an efficient, secure, straightforward, and accessible cancer treatment. This study also presents effective TUS parameters and safety considerations for this treatment modality and gives recommendations about system design and operation. Finally, future perspectives are considered, and different TUS approaches are examined and discussed in detail. This review investigates drug release and delivery through ultrasound-mediated nano-sized cancer treatment, both pre-clinically and clinically.

Nanoparticle biodistribution coefficients: A quantitative approach for understanding the tissue distribution of nanoparticles

The objective of this manuscript is to provide quantitative insights into the tissue distribution of nanoparticles. Published pharmacokinetics of nanoparticles in plasma, tumor and 13 different tissues of mice were collected from literature. A total of 2018 datasets were analyzed and biodistribution of graphene oxide, lipid, polymeric, silica, iron oxide and gold nanoparticles in different tissues was quantitatively characterized using Nanoparticle Biodistribution Coefficients (NBC). It was observed that typically after intravenous administration most of the nanoparticles are accumulated in the liver (NBC = 17.56 %ID/g) and spleen (NBC = 12.1 %ID/g), while other tissues received less than 5 %ID/g. NBC values for kidney, lungs, heart, bones, brain, stomach, intestine, pancreas, skin, muscle and tumor were found to be 3.1 %ID/g, 2.8 %ID/g, 1.8 %ID/g, 0.9 %ID/g, 0.3 %ID/g, 1.2 %ID/g, 1.8 %ID/g, 1.2 %ID/g, 1.0 %ID/g, 0.6 %ID/g and 3.4 %ID/g, respectively. Significant variability in nanoparticle distribution was observed in certain organs such as liver, spleen and lungs. A large fraction of this variability could be explained by accounting for the differences in nanoparticle physicochemical properties such as size and material. A critical overview of published nanoparticle physiologically-based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) models is provided, and limitations in our current knowledge about in vitro and in vivo pharmacokinetics of nanoparticles that restrict the development of robust PBPK models is also discussed. It is hypothesized that robust quantitative assessment of whole-body pharmacokinetics of nanoparticles and development of mathematical models that can predict their disposition can improve the probability of successful clinical translation of these modalities.

On the deformability of additivated phosphatidylcholine liposomes: Molecular dynamic regimes and membrane elasticity

Liposomes with enhanced elasticity have been proven to increase the efficiency of drug transport across the skin. The understanding of the background physicochemical processes driving the liposome viscoelastic properties is an essential feature for the design of effective formulations involving different lipids and additive molecules. In this work we use field-cycled nuclear magnetic resonance relaxometry to analyze both the mechanical properties of liposome membranes, and their relationship with the involved molecular dynamics. Different liposomal formulations were considered. We show a correlation between the molecular dynamical regime and mesoscopic physical parameters that define the expected deformability of the vesicles. Results strongly suggest that the purity of the used lipids may influence the elastic properties of the membranes in an appreciable way. Common features in the behaviour of the involved dynamic variables were identified by comparing formulations with surfactants of similar molecular weight.

Probing the coverage of nanoparticles by biomimetic membranes through nanoplasmonics

Although promising for biomedicine, the clinical translation of inorganic nanoparticles (NPs) is limited by low biocompatibility and stability in biological fluids. A common strategy to circumvent this drawback consists in disguising the active inorganic core with a lipid bilayer coating, reminiscent of the structure of the cell membrane to redefine the chemical and biological identity of NPs. While recent reports introduced membrane-coating procedures for NPs, a robust and accessible method to quantify the integrity of the bilayer coverage is not yet available. To fill this gap, we prepared SiO₂ nanoparticles (SiO₂NPs) with different membrane coverage degrees and monitored their interaction with AuNPs by combining microscopic, scattering, and optical techniques. The membrane-coating on SiO₂NPs induces spontaneous clustering of AuNPs, whose extent depends on the coating integrity. Remarkably, we discovered a linear correlation between the membrane coverage and a spectral descriptor for the AuNPs' plasmonic resonance, spanning a wide range of coating yields. These results provide a fast and cost-effective assay to monitor the compatibilization of NPs with biological environments, essential for bench tests and scale-up. In addition, we introduce a robust and scalable method to prepare SiO₂NPs/AuNPs hybrids through spontaneous self-assembly, with a high-fidelity structural control mediated by a lipid bilayer.

Evaluation of cannabidiol nanoparticles and nanoemulsion biodistribution in the central nervous system after intrathecal administration for the treatment of pain

We investigated how the biodistribution of cannabidiol (CBD) within the central nervous system (CNS) is influenced by two different formulations, an oil-in-water (O/W) nanoemulsion and polymer-coated nanoparticles (PCNPs). We observed that both CBD formulations administered were preferentially retained in the spinal cord, with high concentrations reaching the brain within 10 min of administration. The CBD nanoemulsion reached C_max in the brain at 210 ng/g within 120 min (T_max), whereas the CBD PCNPs had a C_max of 94 ng/g at 30 min (T_max), indicating that rapid brain delivery can be achieved through the use of PCNPs. Moreover, the AUC_0-4h of CBD in the brain was increased 3.7-fold through the delivery of the nanoemulsion as opposed to the PCNPs, indicating higher retention of CBD at this site. Both formulations exhibited immediate anti-nociceptive effects in comparison to the respective blank formulations.

In utero delivery of mRNA to the heart, diaphragm and muscle with lipid nanoparticles

Nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems have the potential to revolutionize medicine, but their low vascular permeability and rapid clearance by phagocytic cells have limited their medical impact. Nanoparticles delivered at the in utero stage can overcome these key limitations due to the high rate of angiogenesis and cell division in fetal tissue and the under-developed immune system. However, very little is known about nanoparticle drug delivery at the fetal stage of development. In this report, using Ai9 CRE reporter mice, we demonstrate that lipid nanoparticle (LNP) mRNA complexes can deliver mRNA in utero, and can access and transfect major organs, such as the heart, the liver, kidneys, lungs and the gastrointestinal tract with remarkable efficiency and low toxicity. In addition, at 4 weeks after birth, we demonstrate that 50.99 ± 5.05%, 36.62 ± 3.42% and 23.7 ± 3.21% of myofiber in the diaphragm, heart and skeletal muscle, respectively, were transfected. Finally, we show here that Cas9 mRNA and sgRNA complexed to LNPs were able to edit the fetal organs in utero. These experiments demonstrate the possibility of non-viral delivery of mRNA to organs outside of the liver in utero, which provides a promising strategy for treating a wide variety of devastating diseases before birth.

Advantages and Potential Benefits of Using Organoids in Nanotoxicology

Organoids are microtissues that recapitulate the complex structural organization and functions of tissues and organs. Nanoparticles have several specific properties that must be considered when replacing animal models with in vitro studies, such as the formation of a protein corona, accumulation, ability to overcome tissue barriers, and different severities of toxic effects in different cell types. An increase in the number of articles on toxicology research using organoid models is related to an increase in publications on organoids in general but is not related to toxicology-based publications. We demonstrate how the quantitative assessment of toxic changes in the structure of organoids and the state of their cell collections provide more valuable results for toxicological research and provide examples of research methods. The impact of the tested materials on organoids and their differences are also discussed. In conclusion, we highlight the main challenges, the solution of which will allow researchers to approach the replacement of in vivo research with in vitro research: biobanking and standardization of the structural characterization of organoids, and the development of effective screening imaging techniques for 3D organoid cell organization.

Edible and cation-free kiwi fruit derived vesicles mediated EGFR-targeted siRNA delivery to inhibit multidrug resistant lung cancer

Clinically, activated EGFR mutation associated chemo-drugs resistance has severely threaten NSCLC patients. Nanoparticle based small interfering RNA (siRNA) therapy representing another promising alternative by silencing specific gene while still suffered from charge associated toxicity, strong immunogenicity and poor targetability. Herein, we reported a novel EGFR-mutant NSCLC therapy relying on edible and cation-free kiwi-derived extracellular vesicles (KEVs), which showed sevenfold enhancement of safe dosage compared with widely used cationic liposomes and could be further loaded with Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription 3 interfering RNA (siSTAT3). siSTAT3 loaded KEVs (STAT3/KEVs) could be easily endowed with EGFR targeting ability (STAT3/EKEVs) and fluorescence by surface modification with tailor-making aptamer through hydrophobic interaction. STAT3/EKEVs with a controlled size of 186 nm displayed excellent stability, high specificity and good cytotoxicity towards EGFR over-expressing and mutant PC9-GR4-AZD1 cells. Intriguingly, the systemic administration of STAT3/EKEVs significantly suppressed subcutaneous PC9-GR4-AZD1 tumor xenografts in nude mice by STAT3 mediated apoptosis. This safe and robust KEVs has emerged as the next generation of gene delivery platform for NSCLC therapy after multiple drug-resistance.

A Current Perspective on the Potential of Nanomedicine for Anti-Tuberculosis Therapy

Tuberculosis (TB) is one of the ten infectious diseases that cause the highest amount of human mortality and morbidity. This infection, which is caused by a single pathogen, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, kills over a million people every year. There is an emerging problem of antimicrobial resistance in TB that needs urgent treatment and management. Tuberculosis treatment is complicated by its complex drug regimen, its lengthy duration and the serious side-effects caused by the drugs required. There are a number of critical issues around drug delivery and subsequent intracellular bacterial clearance. Drugs have a short lifespan in systemic circulation, which limits their activity. Nanomedicine in TB is an emerging research area which offers the potential of effective drug delivery using nanoparticles and a reduction in drug doses and side-effects to improve patient compliance with the treatment and enhance their recovery. Here, we provide a minireview of anti-TB treatment, research progress on nanomedicine and the prospects for future applications in developing innovative therapies.

Effect of surface functionalization and loading on the mechanical properties of soft polymeric nanoparticles prepared by nano-emulsion templating

Drug and gene delivery systems based on polymeric nanoparticles offer a greater efficacy and a reduced toxicity compared to traditional formulations. Recent studies have evidenced that their internalization, biodistribution and efficacy can be affected, among other factors, by their mechanical properties. Here, we analyze by means of Atomic Force Microscopy force spectroscopy how composition, surface functionalization and loading affect the mechanics of nanoparticles. For this purpose, nanoparticles made of Poly(lactic-co-glycolic) (PLGA) and Ethyl cellulose (EC) with different functionalizations and loading were prepared by nano-emulsion templating using the Phase Inversion Composition method (PIC) to form the nano-emulsions. A multiparametric nanomechanical study involving the determination of the Young's modulus, maximum deformation and breakthrough force was carried out. The obtained results showed that composition, surface functionalization and loading affect the nanomechanical properties in a different way, thus requiring, in general, to consider the overall mechanical properties after the addition of a functionalization or loading. A graphical representation method has been proposed enabling to easily identify mechanically equivalent formulations, which is expected to be useful in the development of soft polymeric nanoparticles for pre-clinical and clinical use.

Exploring the impact of PEGylation on the cell-nanomicelle interactions by AFM-based single-molecule force spectroscopy and force tracing

PEGylation has been considered the gold standard method for the modification of various drug delivery systems since the last century. However, the impact of PEGylation on the dynamic interaction between drug carriers and cell membranes has not been quantitatively clarified. Herein, the cellular binding and receptor-mediated endocytosis of a model PEGylated polypeptide nanomicelle were systematically investigated at the single-particle level using AFM-based single-molecule force spectroscopy (SMFS) and force tracing. A self-assembled elastin-like polypeptide (ELP) nanomicelle, which is capable of cross-linking, gastrin-releasing peptide (GRP) modification, and PEGylation was prepared. The cross-linked ELP-based nanomicelles exhibited outstanding stability in a broad temperature range of 4-40 °C, which facilitate the drug loading, as well as our cell-nanomicelle study at the single particle level. The unbinding force between the cross-linked ELP-based nanomicelles and the GRP receptor (GRPR)-containing cell (PC-3) membranes was quantitatively measured by AFM-SMFS. It is found that the PEGylated GRP-displaying nanomicelles exhibit the highest unbinding force, indicating the enhanced specific binding effect of PEGylation. Furthermore, the receptor-mediated endocytosis of the cross-linked ELP-based nanomicelles was monitored with the help of force tracing based on AFM-SMFS. Our results show that PEGylation decreases the endocytic force, duration, and engulfment depth of the PEGylated GRP-displaying nanomicelles, but increases their endocytic velocity, which results from the elimination of non-specific interactions during endocytosis. These observations demonstrate the diverse and complex roles of PEGylation on the interaction of polypeptide nanomicelles to cell membranes and may shed light on the rational design of organic polymer-based drug delivery systems aiming for active and passive targeting strategies. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: A self-assembled elastin-like polypeptide (ELP) nanomicelle, which can be easily cross-linked, gastrin-releasing peptide (GRP) modified, and PEGylated, is designed. The AFM-SMFS experiment shows that PEGylation can enhance specific binding of the nanomicelles to the receptors on cell membranes. The force tracing experiment indicates that PEGylation decreases the endocytic force as well as engulfment depth of the nanomicelles through the elimination of non-specific interactions. PEGylation can benefit the drug delivery systems aiming at active targeting, while might not be an ideal modification for drug carriers designed for passive targeting, whose cellular uptake mainly depends on non-specific interactions.

Mucus-penetrating dendritic mesoporous silica nanoparticle loading drug nanocrystal clusters to enhance permeation and intestinal absorption

Multiple gastrointestinal barriers (mucus clearance and epithelium barrier) are the main challenges in the oral administration of nanocarriers. To achieve efficient mucus penetration and epithelial absorption, a novel strategy based on mesoporous silica nanoparticles with dendritic superstructure, hydrophilicity, and nearly neutral-charged modification was designed. The mPEG covalently grafted dendritic mesoporous silica nanoparticles (mPEG-DMSNs) had a particle size of about 200 nm and a loading capacity of up to 50% andrographolide (AG) as a nanocrystal cluster in the mesoporous structure. This dual strategy of combining with the surface topography structure and hydrophilic modification maintained a high mucus permeability and showed an increase in cell absorption. The mPEG-DMSN formulation also exhibited effective transepithelial transport and intestinal tract distribution. The pharmacokinetics study demonstrated that compared with other AG formulations, the andrographolide nanocrystals-loaded mPEG-DMSN (AG@mPEG-DMSN) exhibited much higher bioavailability. Also, AG@mPEG-DMSN could significantly improve the in vitro and in vivo anti-inflammatory efficacy of AG. In summary, mPEG-DMSN offers an interesting strategy to overcome the mucus clearance and epithelium barriers of the gastrointestinal tract.

Fluorescent Gold Nanoparticles in Suspension as an Efficient Theranostic Agent for Highly Radio-Resistant Cancer Cells

Gold nanoparticles are a promising candidate for developing new strategies of therapy against cancer. Due to their high atomic number and relative biocompatibility, they are commonly investigated as radiosensitizers to locally increase the dose of radiotherapy. In order to optimize this radiosensitizing effect, it is necessary to control the positioning of the nanoparticles in the cells. The purpose of this study is to investigate, by means of fluorescent gold nanoparticles in suspension, the dose enhancement on highly radio-resistant cancer cells. These nanoparticles were successfully produced using modern click-chemistry methods, first by attaching a chelating agent Diethylenetriamine pentaacetate benzylamine to L-cysteine, bonding the resulting ligand to a gold core, grafting propargylamine and then utilizing copper-catalyzed azide-alkyne cycloaddition (CuAAC) to fuse AlexaFluor 647 to the ligands. The results of this study prove the success of the reactions to produce a minimally cytotoxic and highly stable nanoparticle suspension that increases the radiosensitivity of gliosarcoma 9L tumor cells, with a 35% increase in cell death using 5 Gy kilovoltage radiation. Their fluorescent functionalization allowed for their simple localization within living cells and detection in vivo post-mortem.

Nanoparticle delivery through the BBB in central nervous system tuberculosis

Recent advances in Nanotechnology have revolutionized the production of materials for biomedical applications. Nowadays, there is a plethora of nanomaterials with potential for use towards improvement of human health. On the other hand, very little is known about how these materials interact with biological systems, especially at the nanoscale level, mainly because of the lack of specific methods to probe these interactions. In this review, we will analytically describe the journey of nanoparticles (NPs) through the brain, starting from the very first moment upon injection. We will preliminarily provide a brief overlook of the physicochemical properties of NPs. Then, we will discuss how these NPs interact with the body compartments and biological barriers, before reaching the blood-brain barrier (BBB), the last gate guarding the brain. Particular attention will be paid to the interaction with the biomolecular, the bio-mesoscopic, the (blood) cellular, and the tissue barriers, with a focus on the BBB. This will be framed in the context of brain infections, especially considering central nervous system tuberculosis (CNS-TB), which is one of the most devastating forms of human mycobacterial infections. The final aim of this review is not a collection, nor a list, of current literature data, as it provides the readers with the analytical tools and guidelines for the design of effective and rational NPs for delivery in the infected brain.

Ethosomes and their monotonous effects on Skin cancer disruption

Skin cancer is one of the most prominent diseases, affecting all continents worldwide, and has shown a significant rise in mortality and prevalence. Conventional therapy, including chemotherapy and surgery, has a few drawbacks. The ethosomal systems would be thoroughly reviewed in this compilation, and they would be classified based on constituents: classical ethosomes, binary ethosomes, and transethosomes. Ethosomes systems are model lipid vesicular carriers with a substantial portion of ethanol. The impacts of ethosomal system components, preparation techniques, and their major roles in selecting the final characteristics of these nanocarriers are comprehensively reviewed in this chapter. The special techniques for ethosomes, including the cold approach, hot approach, injection method, mechanical dispersion method, and conventional method, are explained in this chapter. Various evaluation parameters of ethosomes were also explained. Furthermore, ethosomal gels, patches, and creams can be emphasised as innovative pharmaceutical drug formulations. Some hybrid ethosomal vesicles possessing combinatorial cancer therapy using nanomedicine could overcome the current drug resistance of specific cancer cells. Through the use of repurpose therapy, phytoconstituents may be delivered more effectively. A wide range of in vivo models are employed to assess their effectiveness. Ethosomes have provided numerous potential skin cancer therapeutic approaches in the future.

Recent Advances in Targeted Nanocarriers for the Management of Triple Negative Breast Cancer

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is a life-threatening form of breast cancer which has been found to account for 15% of all the subtypes of breast cancer. Currently available treatments are significantly less effective in TNBC management because of several factors such as poor bioavailability, low specificity, multidrug resistance, poor cellular uptake, and unwanted side effects being the major ones. As a rapidly growing field, nano-therapeutics offers promising alternatives for breast cancer treatment. This platform provides a suitable pathway for crossing biological barriers and allowing sustained systemic circulation time and an improved pharmacokinetic profile of the drug. Apart from this, it also provides an optimized target-specific drug delivery system and improves drug accumulation in tumor cells. This review provides insights into the molecular mechanisms associated with the pathogenesis of TNBC, along with summarizing the conventional therapy and recent advances of different nano-carriers for the management of TNBC.