Denitrification with methane as external carbon source

Optimum O2:CH4 Ratio Promotes the Synergy between Aerobic Methanotrophs and Denitrifiers to Enhance Nitrogen Removal

The O2:CH4 ratio significantly effects nitrogen removal in mixed cultures where aerobic methane oxidation is coupled with denitrification (AME-D). The goal of this study was to investigate nitrogen removal of the AME-D process at four different O2:CH4 ratios [0, 0.05, 0.25, and 1 (v/v)]. In batch tests, the highest denitrifying activity was observed when the O2:CH4 ratio was 0.25. At this ratio, the methanotrophs produced sufficient carbon sources for denitrifiers and the oxygen level did not inhibit nitrite removal. The results indicated that the synergy between methanotrophs and denitrifiers was significantly improved, thereby achieving a greater capacity of nitrogen removal. Based on thermodynamic and chemical analyses, methanol, butyrate, and formaldehyde could be the main trophic links of AME-D process in our study. Our research provides valuable information for improving the practical application of the AME-D systems.

Is denitrifying anaerobic methane oxidation-centered technologies a solution for the sustainable operation of wastewater treatment Plants?

With the world's increasing energy crisis, society is growingly considered that the operation of wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) should be shifted in sustainable paradigms with low energy input, or energy-neutral, or even energy output. There is a lack of critical thinking on whether and how new paradigms can be implemented in WWTPs based on the conventional process. The denitrifying anaerobic methane oxidation (DAMO) process, which uses methane and nitrate (or nitrite) as electron donor and acceptor, respectively, has recently been discovered. Based on critical analyses of this process, DAMO-centered technologies can be considered as a solution for sustainable operation of WWTPs. In this review, a possible strategy with DAMO-centered technologies was outlined and illustrated how this applies for the existing WWTPs energy-saving and newly designed WWTPs energy-neutral (or even energy-producing) towards sustainable operations.

Nitrate effects on chromate reduction in a methane-based biofilm

The effects of nitrate (NO₃^-) on chromate (Cr(VI)) reduction in a membrane biofilm reactor (MBfR) were studied when CH₄ was the sole electron donor supplied with a non-limiting delivery capacity. A high surface loading of NO₃^- gave significant and irreversible inhibition of Cr(VI) reduction. At a surface loading of 500 mg Cr/m²-d, the Cr(VI)-removal percentage was 100% when NO₃^- was absent (Stage 1), but was dramatically lowered to < 25% with introduction of 280 mg N m^-2-d NO₃^- (Stage 2). After ∼50 days operation in Stage 2, the Cr(VI) reduction recovered to only ∼70% in Stage 3, when NO₃^- was removed from the influent; thus, NO₃^- had a significant long-term inhibition effect on Cr(VI) reduction. Weighted PCoA and UniFrac analyses proved that the introduction of NO₃^- had a strong impact on the microbial community in the biofilms, and the changes possibly were linked to the irreversible inhibition of Cr(VI) reduction. For example, Meiothermus, the main genus involved in Cr(VI) reduction at first, declined with introduction of NO₃^-. The denitrifier Chitinophagaceae was enriched after the addition of NO₃^-, while Pelomonas became important when nitrate was removed, suggesting its potential role as a Cr(VI) reducer. Moreover, introducing NO₃^- led to a decrease in the number of genes predicted (by PICRUSt) to be related to chromate reduction, but genes predicted to be related to denitrification, methane oxidation, and fermentation increased.

Microbial Abundances Predict Methane and Nitrous Oxide Fluxes from a Windrow Composting System

Manure composting is a significant source of atmospheric methane (CH₄) and nitrous oxide (N₂O) that are two potent greenhouse gases. The CH₄ and N₂O fluxes are mediated by methanogens and methanotrophs, nitrifying and denitrifying bacteria in composting manure, respectively, while these specific bacterial functional groups may interplay in CH₄ and N₂O emissions during manure composting. To test the hypothesis that bacterial functional gene abundances regulate greenhouse gas fluxes in windrow composting systems, CH₄ and N₂O fluxes were simultaneously measured using the chamber method, and molecular techniques were used to quantify the abundances of CH₄-related functional genes (mcrA and pmoA genes) and N₂O-related functional genes (amoA, narG, nirK, nirS, norB, and nosZ genes). The results indicate that changes in interacting physicochemical parameters in the pile shaped the dynamics of bacterial functional gene abundances. The CH₄ and N₂O fluxes were correlated with abundances of specific compositional genes in bacterial community. The stepwise regression statistics selected pile temperature, mcrA and NH₄⁺ together as the best predictors for CH₄ fluxes, and the model integrating nirK, nosZ with pmoA gene abundances can almost fully explain the dynamics of N₂O fluxes over windrow composting. The simulated models were tested against measurements in paddy rice cropping systems, indicating that the models can also be applicable to predicting the response of CH₄ and N₂O fluxes to elevated atmospheric CO₂ concentration and rising temperature. Microbial abundances could be included as indicators in the current carbon and nitrogen biogeochemical models.

Evaluation of the impact of organic material on the anaerobic methane and ammonium removal in a membrane aerated biofilm reactor (MABR) based on the multispecies biofilm modeling

The simultaneous nitrogen and methane removal by the combined nitritation, anaerobic ammonium oxidation (anammox), and nitrite dependent anaerobic methane oxidation (n-damo) processes in the membrane aerated biofilm reactor (MABR) offers clear advantages in term of energy saving and greenhouse gas emission mitigation. The rejected water from sludge digestion usually contained high ammonium, COD, and dissolved methane. The impact of influent COD on the anaerobic methane and ammonium removal in an MABR was evaluated in the model based study. The results indicated that the influent COD did not reduce the methane and ammonium removal efficiency at C/N ratio (influent COD/NH₄⁺-N) less than 0.1. At high C/N ratio, the oxygen transfer coefficient needed to be increased to achieve high methane and nitrogen removal. Substrate flux analysis indicated that heterotrophic denitrification in the outside layer of biofilm reduced the impact of influent COD. Heterotrophic growth needed to be limited at the outside layer by using NO₃^- as electron acceptor; otherwise, the heterotrophic bacteria would compete NO₂^- and space with anammox and n-damo bacteria in the inner layers and reduce the nitrogen and methane removal efficiency.

Denitrification of groundwater using a biodegradable polymer as a carbon source: long-term performance and microbial diversity

Nitrate pollution in groundwater is a worldwide problem.

Selenate and Nitrate Bioreductions Using Methane as the Electron Donor in a Membrane Biofilm Reactor

Selenate (SeO4(2-)) bioreduction is possible with oxidation of a range of organic or inorganic electron donors, but it never has been reported with methane gas (CH4) as the electron donor. In this study, we achieved complete SeO4(2-) bioreduction in a membrane biofilm reactor (MBfR) using CH4 as the sole added electron donor. The introduction of nitrate (NO3(-)) slightly inhibited SeO4(2-) reduction, but the two oxyanions were simultaneously reduced, even when the supply rate of CH4 was limited. The main SeO4(2-)-reduction product was nanospherical Se(0), which was identified by scanning electron microscopy coupled to energy dispersive X-ray analysis (SEM-EDS). Community analysis provided evidence for two mechanisms for SeO4(2-) bioreduction in the CH4-based MBfR: a single methanotrophic genus, such as Methylomonas, performed CH4 oxidation directly coupled to SeO4(2-) reduction, and a methanotroph oxidized CH4 to form organic metabolites that were electron donors for a synergistic SeO4(2-)-reducing bacterium.

Effects of additional fermented food wastes on nitrogen removal enhancement and sludge characteristics in a sequential batch reactor for wastewater treatment

In order to enhance nitrogen removal from domestic wastewater with a carbon/nitrogen (C/N) ratio as low as 2.2:1, external carbon source was prepared by short-term fermentation of food wastes and its effect was evaluated by experiments using sequencing batch reactors (SBRs). The addition of fermented food wastes, with carbohydrate (42.8 %) and organic acids (24.6 %) as the main organic carbon components, could enhance the total nitrogen (TN) removal by about 25 % in contrast to the 20 % brought about by the addition of sodium acetate when the C/N ratio was equally adjusted to 6.6:1. The fermented food waste addition resulted in more efficient denitrification in the first anoxic stage of the SBR operation cycle than sodium acetate. In order to characterize the metabolic potential of microorganisms by utilizing different carbon sources, Biolog-ECO tests were conducted with activated sludge samples from the SBRs. As a result, in comparison with sodium acetate, the sludge sample by fermented food waste addition showed a greater average well color development (AWCD590), better utilization level of common carbon sources, and higher microbial diversity indexes. As a multi-organic mixture, fermented food wastes seem to be superior over mono-organic chemicals as an external carbon source.

Bioreduction of Chromate in a Methane-Based Membrane Biofilm Reactor

For the first time, we demonstrate chromate (Cr(VI)) bioreduction using methane (CH4) as the sole electron donor in a membrane biofilm reactor (MBfR). The experiments were divided into five stages lasting a total of 90 days, and each stage achieved a steady state for at least 15 days. Due to continued acclimation of the microbial community, the Cr(VI)-reducing capacity of the biofilm kept increasing. Cr(VI) removal at the end of the 90-day test reached 95% at an influent Cr(VI) concentration of 3 mg Cr/L and a surface loading of 0.37g of Cr m(-2) day(-1). Meiothermus (Deinococci), a potential Cr(VI)-reducing bacterium, was negligible in the inoculum but dominated the MBfR biofilm after Cr(VI) was added to the reactor, while Methylosinus, a type II methanotrophs, represented 11%-21% of the total bacterial DNA in the biofilm. Synergy within a microbial consortia likely was responsible for Cr(VI) reduction based on CH4 oxidation. In the synergy, methanotrophs fermented CH4 to produce metabolic intermediates that were used by the Cr(VI)-reducing bacteria as electron donors. Solid Cr(III) was the main product, accounting for more than 88% of the reduced Cr in most cases. Transmission electron microscope (TEM) and energy dispersive X-ray (EDS) analysis showed that Cr(III) accumulated inside and outside of some bacterial cells, implying that different Cr(VI)-reducing mechanisms were involved.

Evolution of the microbial community of the biofilm in a methane-based membrane biofilm reactor reducing multiple electron acceptors

Previous work documented complete perchlorate reduction in a membrane biofilm reactor (MBfR) using methane as the sole electron donor and carbon source. This work explores how the biofilm's microbial community evolved as the biofilm stage-wise reduced different combinations of perchlorate, nitrate, and nitrite. The initial inoculum, carrying out anaerobic methane oxidation coupled to denitrification (ANMO-D), was dominated by uncultured Anaerolineaceae and Ferruginibacter sp. The microbial community significantly changed after it was inoculated into the CH4-based MBfR and fed with a medium containing perchlorate and nitrite. Archaea were lost within the first 40 days, and the uncultured Anaerolineaceae and Ferruginibacter sp. also had significant losses. Replacing them were anoxic methanotrophs, especially Methylocystis, which accounted for more than 25 % of total bacteria. Once the methanotrophs became important, methanol-oxidizing denitrifying bacteria, namely, Methloversatilis and Methylophilus, became important in the biofilm, probably by utilizing organic matter generated by the metabolism of methanotrophs. When methane consumption was equal to the maximum-possible electron-donor supply, Methylomonas, also an anoxic methanotroph, accounted for >10 % of total bacteria and remained a major part of the community until the end of the experiments. We propose that aerobic methane oxidation coupled to denitrification and perchlorate reduction (AMO-D and AMO-PR) directly oxidized methane and reduced NO3 (-) to NO2 (-) or N2O under anoxic condition, producing organic matter for methanol-assimilating denitrification and perchlorate reduction (MA-D and MA-PR) to reduce NO3 (-). Simultaneously, bacteria capable of anaerobic methane oxidation coupled to denitrification and perchlorate reduction (ANMO-D and ANMO-PR) used methane as the electron donor to respire NO3 (-) or ClO4 (-) directly. Graphical Abstract ᅟ.

Simultaneous removal of chromate and nitrate in a packed-bed bioreactor using biodegradable meal box as carbon source and biofilm carriers

An up-flow packed-bed bioreactor was constructed to investigate the simultaneous removal of chromate and nitrate using biodegradable meal box as carbon source and biofilm carriers. The bioreactor was operated for 164days with varying influent Cr(VI) concentrations (2.0-50.0mg/L) and hydraulic retention times (HRT, 10-24h). It was shown that complete denitrification and Cr(VI) reduction could be achieved when influent Cr(VI) concentrations were lower than 20mg/L with a HRT of 17h. Shortening the HRT could significantly reduce the effluent CODcr. It was also observed that Cr(III) was mainly immobilized on the biofilm. Further investigation on Cr distribution in the biofilm compartments indicated that Cr(VI) reduction occurred in all compartments and the intercellular Cr was dominant. High-throughput sequencing analysis showed that Proteobacteria, Bacteroidetes and Firmicutes were the dominant phyla in the biofilm and Cr(VI) stress had a negative effect on the abundance of most bacteria.

Microbiology and potential applications of aerobic methane oxidation coupled to denitrification (AME-D) process: A review

Aerobic methane oxidation coupled to denitrification (AME-D) is an important link between the global methane and nitrogen cycles. This mini-review updates discoveries regarding aerobic methanotrophs and denitrifiers, as a prelude to spotlight the microbial mechanism and the potential applications of AME-D. Until recently, AME-D was thought to be accomplished by a microbial consortium where denitrifying bacteria utilize carbon intermediates, which are excreted by aerobic methanotrophs, as energy and carbon sources. Potential carbon intermediates include methanol, citrate and acetate. This mini-review presents microbial thermodynamic estimations and postulates that methanol is the ideal electron donor for denitrification, and may serve as a trophic link between methanotrophic bacteria and denitrifiers. More excitingly, new discoveries have revealed that AME-D is not only confined to the conventional synergism between methanotrophic bacteria and denitrifiers. Specifically, an obligate aerobic methanotrophic bacterium, Methylomonas denitrificans FJG1, has been demonstrated to couple partial denitrification with methane oxidation, under hypoxia conditions, releasing nitrous oxide as a terminal product. This finding not only substantially advances the understanding of AME-D mechanism, but also implies an important but unknown role of aerobic methanotrophs in global climate change through their influence on both the methane and nitrogen cycles in ecosystems. Hence, further investigation on AME-D microbiology and mechanism is essential to better understand global climate issues and to develop niche biotechnological solutions. This mini-review also presents traditional microbial techniques, such as pure cultivation and stable isotope probing, and powerful microbial techniques, such as (meta-) genomics and (meta-) transcriptomics, for deciphering linked methane oxidation and denitrification. Although AME-D has immense potential for nitrogen removal from wastewater, drinking water and groundwater, bottlenecks and potential issues are also discussed.

Simultaneous denitrification and denitrifying phosphorus removal in a full-scale anoxic-oxic process without internal recycle treating low strength wastewater

Performance of a full-scale anoxic-oxic activated sludge treatment plant (4.0×10(5) m(3)/day for the first-stage project) was followed during a year. The plant performed well for the removal of carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus in the process of treating domestic wastewater within a temperature range of 10.8°C to 30.5°C. Mass balance calculations indicated that COD utilization mainly occurred in the anoxic phase, accounting for 88.2% of total COD removal. Ammonia nitrogen removal occurred 13.71% in the anoxic zones and 78.77% in the aerobic zones. The contribution of anoxic zones to total nitrogen (TN) removal was 57.41%. Results indicated that nitrogen elimination in the oxic tanks was mainly contributed by simultaneous nitrification and denitrification (SND). The reduction of phosphorus mainly took place in the oxic zones, 61.46% of the total removal. Denitrifying phosphorus removal was achieved biologically by 11.29%. Practical experience proved that adaptability to gradually changing temperature of the microbial populations was important to maintain the plant overall stability. Sudden changes in temperature did not cause paralysis of the system just lower removal efficiency, which could be explained by functional redundancy of microorganisms that may compensate the adverse effects of temperature changes to a certain degree. Anoxic-oxic process without internal recycling has great potential to treat low strength wastewater (i.e., TN<35 mg/L) as well as reducing operation costs.

Nitrogen removal from wastewater by anaerobic methane-driven denitrification in a lab-scale reactor: heterotrophic denitrifiers associated with denitrifying methanotrophs

Nitrite-dependent anaerobic methane oxidation (n-damo) is a newly discovered bioprocess that reduces nitrite to dinitrogen with methane as electron donor, which has promising potential to remove nitrogen from wastewater. In this work, a lab-scale sequencing batch reactor (SBR) was operated for 609 days with methane as the sole external electron donor. In the SBR, nitrite in synthetic wastewater was removed continuously; the final volumetric nitrogen removal rate was 12.22±0.02 mg N L(-1) day(-1) and the percentage of nitrogen removal was 98.5 ± 0.2 %. Microbial community analysis indicated that denitrifying methanotrophs dominated (60-70 %) the population of the final sludge. Notably, activity testing and microbial analysis both suggested that heterotrophic denitrifiers existed in the reactor throughout the operation period. After 609 days, the activity testing indicated the nitrogen removal percentage of heterotrophic denitrification was 17 ± 2 % and that of n-damo was 83 ± 2 %. A possible mutualism may be developed between the dominated denitrifying methanotrophs and the associated heterotrophs through cross-feed. Heterotrophs may live on the microbial products excreted by denitrifying methanotrophs and provide growth factors that are required by denitrifying methanotrophs.

Enhanced biological denitrification in the cyclic rotating bed reactor with catechol as carbon source

The performance of CRBR in denitrification with catechol carbon source is presented. The influence of inlet nitrate concentration, hydraulic retention time (HRT), media filling ratio and rotational speed of media on the performance of CRBR was investigated. The bioreactor could denitrify over 95% of the nitrate at an inlet concentration up to 1000 mg NO3(-)/L and a short HRT as low as 18 h. The optimum media filling ratio at which the maximum denitrification was achieved in the CRBR was 30% and the contribution of media at this condition was around 36%. The optimum ratio of media filling at which the maximum denitrification was 20 rpm and the contribution of rotational speed under this condition was around 17%. According to the findings, the CRBR is a high rate bioreactor and thus serves as an appropriate technology for denitrification of wastewaters containing a high concentration of nitrate and toxic organic compounds.

Characterization and biological abatement of diffuse methane emissions and odour in an innovative wastewater treatment plant

An innovative and patented process for medium-high strength sewage which comprises an anaerobic step followed by a hybrid anoxic-aerobic chamber and a final ultrafiltration stage was characterized in terms of methane fugitive emissions as well as odours. The operation at ambient temperature implies higher methane content in the liquid anaerobic effluent, which finally causes concentrations around 0.01-2.4% in the off-gas released in the anoxic-aerobic chamber (1.25% average). Mass balances indicate that these emissions account for up to 30-35% of the total methane generated in the anaerobic reactor. A conventional biofilter (BF) operated at an empty bed residence time of 4 min was used to treat these emissions for 70 d. In spite of the fluctuations in the methane inlet concentrations derived from the operation of the wastewater treatment plant (WWTP), it was possible to operate at pseudo-steady-state conditions, achieving average removal efficiencies of 76.5% and maximum elimination capacities of 30.1 g m(-3) h(-1). Odour removal was quantified as 99.1%. Fluorescence in situ hybridization probes as well as metabolic activity assays demonstrated the suitability of the biomass developed in the WWTP as inoculum to start up the BF due to the presence of methanotrophic bacteria.

Methane as a resource: can the methanotrophs add value?

Methane is an abundant gas used in energy recovery systems, heating, and transport. Methanotrophs are bacteria capable of using methane as their sole carbon source. Although intensively researched, the myriad of potential biotechnological applications of methanotrophic bacteria has not been comprehensively discussed in a single review. Methanotrophs can generate single-cell protein, biopolymers, components for nanotechnology applications (surface layers), soluble metabolites (methanol, formaldehyde, organic acids, and ectoine), lipids (biodiesel and health supplements), growth media, and vitamin B12 using methane as their carbon source. They may be genetically engineered to produce new compounds such as carotenoids or farnesene. Some enzymes (dehydrogenases, oxidase, and catalase) are valuable products with high conversion efficiencies and can generate methanol or sequester CO2 as formic acid ex vivo. Live cultures can be used for bioremediation, chemical transformation (propene to propylene oxide), wastewater denitrification, as components of biosensors, or possibly for directly generating electricity. This review demonstrates the potential for methanotrophs and their consortia to generate value while using methane as a carbon source. While there are notable challenges using a low solubility gas as a carbon source, the massive methane resource, and the potential cost savings while sequestering a greenhouse gas, keeps interest piqued in these unique bacteria.

Complete perchlorate reduction using methane as the sole electron donor and carbon source

Using a CH4-based membrane biofilm reactor (MBfR), we studied perchlorate (ClO4(-)) reduction by a biofilm performing anaerobic methane oxidation coupled to denitrification (ANMO-D). We focused on the effects of nitrate (NO3(-)) and nitrite (NO2(-)) surface loadings on ClO4(-) reduction and on the biofilm community's mechanism for ClO4(-) reduction. The ANMO-D biofilm reduced up to 5 mg/L of ClO4(-) to a nondetectable level using CH4 as the only electron donor and carbon source when CH4 delivery was not limiting; NO3(-) was completely reduced as well when its surface loading was ≤ 0.32 g N/m(2)-d. When CH4 delivery was limiting, NO3(-) inhibited ClO4(-) reduction by competing for the scarce electron donor. NO2(-) inhibited ClO4(-) reduction when its surface loading was ≥ 0.10 g N/m(2)-d, probably because of cellular toxicity. Although Archaea were present through all stages, Bacteria dominated the ClO4(-)-reducing ANMO-D biofilm, and gene copies of the particulate methane mono-oxygenase (pMMO) correlated to the increase of respiratory gene copies. These pieces of evidence support that ClO4(-) reduction by the MBfR biofilm involved chlorite (ClO2(-)) dismutation to generate the O2 needed as a cosubstrate for the mono-oxygenation of CH4.

Denitrification characteristics of a newly isolated indigenous aerobic denitrifying bacterium under oligotrophic conditions

A novel indigenous bacterium, strain JM10, isolated from the oligotrophic Hei He reservoir was characterized and showed aerobic denitrification ability. JM10 was identified as Bacillus sp. by phylogenetic analysis of its 16S rRNA gene sequence. Strain JM10 displayed very high levels of activity in aerobic conditions, consuming over 94.3% NO3(-)-N (approximately 3.06 mg L(-1)) with a maximum reduction rate of 0.108 mg NO3(-)-N L(-1) h(-1). Full-factorial Box-Behnken design and response surface methodology were employed to investigate the optimal nitrate degradation conditions. The optimum conditions for nitrate degradation, at a rate of 0.140 mg L(-1) h(-1), were found to be an inoculum size of 16.3% v/v, initial pH of 7.6, C/N ratio of 7.4, and temperature of 27.4 °C, and the C/N ratio and temperature had the largest effect on the nitrate degradation rate. Strain JM10 was added into the water samples from Hei He reservoir and the total nitrogen and nitrate removal rates of the strain reached 66.5% and 100%, respectively. Therefore, our results demonstrate that the strain JM10 favored the bioremediation of the oligotrophic reservoir.

Effect of process design and operating parameters on aerobic methane oxidation in municipal WWTPs

Methane is a potent greenhouse gas and its emission from municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) should be prevented. One way to do this is to promote the biological conversion of dissolved methane over stripping in aeration tanks. In this study, the well-established Activated Sludge Model n°1 (ASM1) and Benchmark Simulation Model n°1 (BSM1) were extended to study the influence of process design and operating parameters on biological methane oxidation. The aeration function used in BSM 1 was upgraded to more accurately describe gas-liquid transfer of oxygen and methane in aeration tanks equipped with subsurface aeration. Dissolved methane could be effectively removed in an aeration tank at an aeration rate that is in agreement with optimal effluent quality. Subsurface bubble aeration proved to be better than surface aeration, while a CSTR configuration was superior to plug flow conditions in avoiding methane emissions. The conversion of methane in the activated sludge tank benefits from higher methane concentrations in the WWTP's influent. Finally, if an activated sludge tank is aerated with methane containing off-gas, a limited amount of methane is absorbed and converted in the mixed liquor. This knowledge helps to stimulate the methane oxidizing capacity of activated sludge in order to abate methane emissions from wastewater treatment to the atmosphere.

Microbial ecology of denitrification in biological wastewater treatment

Globally, denitrification is commonly employed in biological nitrogen removal processes to enhance water quality. However, substantial knowledge gaps remain concerning the overall community structure, population dynamics and metabolism of different organic carbon sources. This systematic review provides a summary of current findings pertaining to the microbial ecology of denitrification in biological wastewater treatment processes. DNA fingerprinting-based analysis has revealed a high level of microbial diversity in denitrification reactors and highlighted the impacts of carbon sources in determining overall denitrifying community composition. Stable isotope probing, fluorescence in situ hybridization, microarrays and meta-omics further link community structure with function by identifying the functional populations and their gene regulatory patterns at the transcriptional and translational levels. This review stresses the need to integrate microbial ecology information into conventional denitrification design and operation at full-scale. Some emerging questions, from physiological mechanisms to practical solutions, for example, eliminating nitrous oxide emissions and supplementing more sustainable carbon sources than methanol, are also discussed. A combination of high-throughput approaches is next in line for thorough assessment of wastewater denitrifying community structure and function. Though denitrification is used as an example here, this synergy between microbial ecology and process engineering is applicable to other biological wastewater treatment processes.

Nitrogen removal from coal gasification wastewater by activated carbon technologies combined with short-cut nitrogen removal process

A system combining granular activated carbon and powdered activated carbon technologies along with shortcut biological nitrogen removal (GAC-PACT-SBNR) was developed to enhance total nitrogen (TN) removal for anaerobically treated coal gasification wastewater with less need for external carbon resources. The TN removal efficiency in SBNR was significantly improved by introducing the effluent from the GAC process into SBNR during the anoxic stage, with removal percentage increasing from 43.8%-49.6% to 68.8%-75.8%. However, the TN removal rate decreased with the progressive deterioration of GAC adsorption. After adding activated sludge to the GAC compartment, the granular carbon had a longer service-life and the demand for external carbon resources became lower. Eventually, the TN removal rate in SBNR was almost constant at approx. 43.3%, as compared to approx. 20.0% before seeding with sludge. In addition, the production of some alkalinity during the denitrification resulted in a net savings in alkalinity requirements for the nitrification reaction and refractory chemical oxygen demand (COD) degradation by autotrophic bacteria in SBNR under oxic conditions. PACT showed excellent resilience to increasing organic loadings. The microbial community analysis revealed that the PACT had a greater variety of bacterial taxons and the dominant species associated with the three compartments were in good agreement with the removal of typical pollutants. The study demonstrated that pre-adsorption by the GAC-sludge process could be a technically and economically feasible method to enhance TN removal in coal gasification wastewater (CGW).

Modeling of simultaneous anaerobic methane and ammonium oxidation in a membrane biofilm reactor

Nitrogen removal by using the synergy of denitrifying anaerobic methane oxidation (DAMO) and anaerobic ammonium oxidation (Anammox) microorganisms in a membrane biofilm reactor (MBfR) has previously been demonstrated experimentally. In this work, a mathematical model is developed to describe the simultaneous anaerobic methane and ammonium oxidation by DAMO and Anammox microorganisms in an MBfR for the first time. In this model, DAMO archaea convert nitrate, both externally fed and/or produced by Anammox, to nitrite, with methane as the electron donor. Anammox and DAMO bacteria jointly remove the nitrite fed/produced, with ammonium and methane as the electron donor, respectively. The model is successfully calibrated and validated using the long-term (over 400 days) dynamic experimental data from the MBfR, as well as two independent batch tests at different operational stages of the MBfR. The model satisfactorily describes the methane oxidation and nitrogen conversion data from the system. Modeling results show the concentration gradients of methane and nitrogen would cause stratification of the biofilm, where Anammox bacteria mainly grow in the biofilm layer close to the bulk liquid and DAMO organisms attach close to the membrane surface. The low surface methane loadings result in a low fraction of DAMO microorganisms, but the high surface methane loadings would lead to overgrowth of DAMO bacteria, which would compete with Anammox for nitrite and decrease the fraction of Anammox bacteria. The results suggest an optimal methane supply under the given condition should be applied not only to benefit the nitrogen removal but also to avoid potential methane emissions.

Feasibility and interest of the anammox process as treatment alternative for anaerobic digester supernatants in manure processing--an overview

Completely autotrophic nitrogen removal (ANR) is based on the combination of partial nitritation (PN) and anaerobic ammonium oxidation (anammox). It is a promising alternative for the subsequent treatment of biogas digester supernatants in livestock manure processing and nitrogen surplus scenarios. However, as no full-scale experiences in the treatment of manure digestates by ANR have been published to date, future field studies addressing treatment of this kind of effluent would be of great interest. Some topics to be considered in these studies would be coupling anaerobic digestion and ANR, analysis of the factors that affect the process, comparing reactor configurations, microbial ecology, gas emissions, and achieving robust performance. This paper provides an overview of published studies on ANR. Specific issues related to the applicability of the process for treating manure digestates are discussed. The energy requirements of ANR are compared with those of other technological alternatives aimed at recovering nitrogen from digester supernatants. The results of the assessment were shown to depend on the composition of the supernatant. In this regard, the PN-anammox process was shown to be more competitive than other alternatives particularly at concentrations of up to 2 kg NH4(+)-N m(-3).

Molecular characterization of a microbial consortium involved in methane oxidation coupled to denitrification under micro-aerobic conditions

Methane can be used as an alternative carbon source in biological denitrification because it is nontoxic, widely available and relatively inexpensive. A microbial consortium involved in methane oxidation coupled to denitrification (MOD) was enriched with nitrite and nitrate as electron acceptors under micro-aerobic conditions. The 16S rRNA gene combined with pmoA phylogeny of methanotrophs and nirK phylogeny of denitrifiers were analysed to reveal the dominant microbial populations and functional microorganisms. Real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction results showed high numbers of methanotrophs and denitrifiers in the enriched consortium. The 16S rRNA gene clone library revealed that Methylococcaceae and Methylophilaceae were the dominant populations in the MOD ecosystem. Phylogenetic analyses of pmoA gene clone libraries indicated that all methanotrophs belonged to Methylococcaceae, a type I methanotroph employing the ribulose monophosphate pathway for methane oxidation. Methylotrophic denitrifiers of the Methylophilaceae that can utilize organic intermediates (i.e. formaldehyde, citrate and acetate) released from the methanotrophs played a vital role in aerobic denitrification. This study is the first report to confirm micro-aerobic denitrification and to make phylogenetic and functional assignments for some members of the microbial assemblages involved in MOD.

Biological removal of nitrate and ammonium under aerobic atmosphere by Paracoccus versutus LYM

The bacterium isolated from sea sludge Paracoccus versutus LYM was characterized with the ability of aerobic denitrification. Strain LYM performs perfect activity in aerobically converting over 95% NO3(-)-N (approximate 400mg L(-1)) to gaseous products via nitrite with maximum reduction rate 33 mg NO3(-)-N L(-1) h(-1). Besides characteristic of aerobic denitrification, strain LYM was confirmed in terms of the ability to be heterotrophic nitrification and aerobic denitrification (HNAD) with few accumulations of intermediates. After the nitrogen balance and enzyme assays, the putative nitrogen pathway of HNAD could be NH4(+) → NH2OH → NO2(-)→ NO3(-), then NO3(-) was denitrified to gaseous products via nitrite. N2 was sole denitrification product without any detection of N2O by gas chromatography. Strain LYM could also simultaneously remove ammonium and additional nitrate. Meanwhile, the accumulated nitrite had inhibitory effect on ammonium reduction rate.

Multistage treatment system for raw leachate from sanitary landfill combining biological nitrification-denitrification/solar photo-Fenton/biological processes, at a scale close to industrial--biodegradability enhancement and evolution profile of trace pollutants

A multistage treatment system, at a scale close to the industrial, was designed for the treatment of a mature raw landfill leachate, including: a) an activated sludge biological oxidation (ASBO), under aerobic and anoxic conditions; b) a solar photo-Fenton process, enhancing the bio-treated leachate biodegradability, with and without sludge removal after acidification; and c) a final polishing step, with further ASBO. The raw leachate was characterized by a high concentration of humic substances (HS) (1211 mg CHS/L), representing 39% of the dissolved organic carbon (DOC) content, and a high nitrogen content, mainly in the form of ammonium nitrogen (>3.8 g NH4(+)-N/L). In the first biological oxidation step, a 95% removal of total nitrogen and a 39% mineralization in terms of DOC were achieved, remaining only the recalcitrant fraction, mainly attributed to HS (57% of DOC). Under aerobic conditions, the highest nitrification rate obtained was 8.2 mg NH4(+)-N/h/g of volatile suspended solids (VSS), and under anoxic conditions, the maximum denitrification rate obtained was 5.8 mg (NO2(-)-N + NO3(-)-N)/h/g VSS, with a C/N consumption ratio of 2.4 mg CH3OH/mg (NO2(-)-N + NO3(-)-N). The precipitation of humic acids (37% of HS) after acidification of the bio-treated leachate corresponds to a 96% DOC abatement. The amount of UV energy and H2O2 consumption during the photo-Fenton reaction was 30% higher in the experiment without sludge removal and, consequently, the reaction velocity was 30% lower. The phototreatment process led to the depletion of HS >80%, of low-molecular-weight carboxylate anions >70% and other organic micropollutants, thus resulting in a total biodegradability increase of >70%. The second biological oxidation allowed to obtain a final treated leachate in compliance with legal discharge limits regarding water bodies (with the exception of sulfate ions), considering the experiment without sludge. Finally, the high efficiency of the overall treatment process was further reinforced by the total removal percentages attained for the identified organic trace contaminants (>90%).

Nitrogen removal from wastewater by coupling anammox and methane-dependent denitrification in a membrane biofilm reactor

This work demonstrates, for the first time, the feasibility of nitrogen removal by using the synergy of anammox and denitrifying anaerobic methane oxidation (DAMO) microorganisms in a membrane biofilm reactor (MBfR). The reactor was fed with synthetic wastewater containing nitrate and ammonium. Methane was delivered from the interior of hollow fibres in the MBfR to the biofilm that grew on the fiber's outer wall. After 24 months of operation, the system achieved a nitrate and an ammonium removal rate of about 190 mgN L(-1) d(-1) (or 86 mgN m(-2) d(-1), with m(2) referring to biofilm surface area) and 60 mgN L(-1) d(-1) (27 mgN m(-2) d(-1)), respectively. No nitrite accumulation was observed. Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) analysis indicated that DAMO bacteria (20-30%), DAMO archaea (20-30%) and anammox bacteria (20-30%) jointly dominated the microbial community. Based on the known metabolism of these microorganisms, mass balance, and isotope studies, we hypothesize that DAMO archaea converted nitrate, both externally fed and produced by anammox, to nitrite, with methane as the electron donor. Anammox and DAMO bacteria jointly removed the nitrite produced, with ammonium and methane as the electron donor, respectively. The process could potentially be used for anaerobic nitrogen removal from wastewater streams containing ammonium and nitrate/nitrite.

Aerobic methane oxidation coupled to denitrification in a membrane biofilm reactor: treatment performance and the effect of oxygen ventilation

Aerobic methane-oxidation coupled to denitrification (AME-D) process was successfully achieved in a membrane biofilm reactor (MBfR). PVDF membrane was employed to supply the methane and oxygen for biofilm, which was coexistence of methanotrophs and denitrifier. With a feeding NO3(-)-N of 30 mg/L, up to 97% nitrate could be removed stably. The oxygen ventilation modes impacted the denitrification performance remarkably, resulting in different nitrate removal efficiencies and biofilm microorganism distribution. The biofilm sludge showed a high resistance to the DO inhibition, mainly due to the co-existing methanotroph being capable of utilizing oxygen perferentially within biofilm, and create an anoxic micro-environment. The denitrification of both nitrate and nitrite by biofilm sludge conformed to the Monod equation, and the maximum specific nitrate utilization rate (k) ranged from 1.55 to 1.78 NO3(-)-N/g VSS-d. The research findings should be significant to understand the considerable potential of MBfR as a bioprocess for denitrification.

A metagenomic insight into freshwater methane-utilizing communities and evidence for cooperation between the Methylococcaceae and the Methylophilaceae

We investigated microbial communities active in methane oxidation in lake sediment at different oxygen tensions and their response to the addition of nitrate, via stable isotope probing combined with deep metagenomic sequencing. Communities from a total of four manipulated microcosms were analyzed, supplied with ¹³C-methane in, respectively, ambient air, ambient air with the addition of nitrate, nitrogen atmosphere and nitrogen atmosphere with the addition of nitrate, and these were compared to the community from an unamended sediment sample. We found that the major group involved in methane oxidation in both aerobic and microaerobic conditions were members of the family Methylococcaceae, dominated by species of the genus Methylobacter, and these were stimulated by nitrate in aerobic but not microaerobic conditions. In aerobic conditions, we also noted a pronounced response to both methane and nitrate by members of the family Methylophilaceae that are non-methane-oxidizing methylotrophs, and predominantly by the members of the genus Methylotenera. The relevant abundances of the Methylococcaceae and the Methylophilaceae and their coordinated response to methane and nitrate suggest that these species may be engaged in cooperative behavior, the nature of which remains unknown.

Dynamics of CH4 oxidation in landfill biocover soil: effect of O2/CH4 ratio on CH4 metabolism

The CH(4) oxidation dynamics was investigated by observing the CH(4) oxidation rates at concentrations (from 1.0 × 10(4) ppmv to 2.0 × 10(5) ppmv) mixed with O(2) (from 5.0 × 10(4) ppmv to 7.5 × 10(5) ppmv). The CH(4)-O(2) dual-substrate model based on Michaelis-Menten equation (K(m, CH4) = 1.4 × 10(5) ppmv; V(max) = 7.6 × 10(2) μmol kg(-1) d(-1); K(m, O2) = 5.5 × 10(4) ppmv) was got and agreed well with the experimental data when the initial O(2)/CH(4) ratio reached 3:1, indicating full aerobic CH(4) oxidization. Anoxic CH(4) oxidation gradually became predominant with decreasing O(2)/CH(4) ratios. The effect of CH(4) is more significant than O(2), as evidenced by higher slope (0.58 kg(-1) d(-1)) of V(CH4) - [S(CH4)] line graph compared with that of V(CH4) - [S(CH4)] line graph (0.062 kg(-1) d(-1)). The paper presents the dynamics of CH(4) oxidation and proposes that ratio of O(2)/CH(4) need to be considered for their dynamically changing in environmental habitats. The findings provide an important parameter for optimizing the operations of breathing biocover systems.

Enrichment of denitrifying methanotrophic bacteria for application after direct low-temperature anaerobic sewage treatment

Despite many advantages of anaerobic sewage treatment over conventional activated sludge treatment, it has not yet been applied in temperate zones. This is especially because effluent from low-temperature anaerobic treatment contains nitrogen and dissolved methane. The presence of nitrogen and methane offers the opportunity to develop a reactor in which methane is used as electron donor for denitrification. Such a reactor could be used in a new concept for low-temperature anaerobic sewage treatment, consisting of a UASB-digester system, a reactor for denitrification coupled to anaerobic methane oxidation, and a nitritation reactor. In the present study denitrifying methanotrophic bacteria similar to 'Candidatus Methylomirabilis oxyfera' were enriched. Maximum volumetric nitrite consumption rates were 33.5 mg NO(2)(-)-N/Ld (using synthetic medium) and 37.8 mg NO(2)(-)-N/Ld (using medium containing effluent from a sewage treatment plant), which are similar to the maximum rate reported so far. Though the goal was to increase the rates, in both reactors, after reaching these maximum rates, volumetric nitrite consumption rates decreased in time. Results indicate biomass washout may have significantly decelerated enrichment. Therefore, to obtain higher volumetric consumption rates, further research should focus on systems with complete biomass retention.

Microbiology, ecology, and application of the nitrite-dependent anaerobic methane oxidation process

Nitrite-dependent anaerobic methane oxidation (n-damo), which couples the anaerobic oxidation of methane to denitrification, is a recently discovered process mediated by "Candidatus Methylomirabilis oxyfera." M. oxyfera is affiliated with the "NC10" phylum, a phylum having no members in pure culture. Based on the isotopic labeling experiments, it is hypothesized that M. oxyfera has an unusual intra-aerobic pathway for the production of oxygen via the dismutation of nitric oxide into dinitrogen gas and oxygen. In addition, the bacterial species has a unique ultrastructure that is distinct from that of other previously described microorganisms. M. oxyfera-like sequences have been recovered from different natural habitats, suggesting that the n-damo process potentially contributes to global carbon and nitrogen cycles. The n-damo process is a process that can reduce the greenhouse effect, as methane is more effective in heat-trapping than carbon dioxide. The n-damo process, which uses methane instead of organic matter to drive denitrification, is also an economical nitrogen removal process because methane is a relatively inexpensive electron donor. This mini-review summarizes the peculiar microbiology of M. oxyfera and discusses the potential ecological importance and engineering application of the n-damo process.

Enhanced nitrogen removal in a wastewater treatment process characterized by carbon source manipulation with biological adsorption and sludge hydrolysis

An innovative adsorption/nitrification/denitrification/sludge-hydrolysis wastewater treatment process (ENRS) characterized by carbon source manipulation with a biological adsorption unit and a sludge hydrolysis unit was developed to enhance nitrogen removal and reduce sludge production for municipal wastewater treatment. The system presented good performance in pollutants removal, yielding the effluent with average COD, NH(4)(+)-N, TN and TP of 48.5, 0.6, 13.2 and 1.0 mg/L, respectively. Sixty percent of the total carbon source in the influent was concentrated and separated by the quick adsorption of activated sludge, providing the possibilities of reusing waste carbon source in the denitrification tank and accumulating nitrobacteria in the nitrification tank. Low temperature of 6-15 °C and high hydraulic loading rate of 3.0-15.0 m(3)/d did not affect NH(4)(+)-N removal performance, yielding the NH(4)(+)-N of lower 1.0 mg/L in the effluent. Furthermore, 50% of the residual sludge in the ENRS system could be transformed into soluble COD (SCOD) by alkaline thermal hydrolysis with temperature of 60 °C and pH of 11, and the hydrolyzed carbon could completely substitute methanol as a good quality carbon to support high efficient denitrification.

Treatment of a sanitary landfill leachate using combined solar photo-Fenton and biological immobilized biomass reactor at a pilot scale

A solar photo-Fenton process combined with a biological nitrification and denitrification system is proposed for the decontamination of a landfill leachate in a pilot plant using photocatalytic (4.16 m(2) of Compound Parabolic Collectors - CPCs) and biological systems (immobilized biomass reactor). The optimum iron concentration for the photo-Fenton reaction of the leachate is 60 mg Fe(2+) L(-1). The organic carbon degradation follows a first-order reaction kinetics (k = 0.020 L kJ(UV)(-1), r(0) = 12.5 mg kJ(UV)(-1)) with a H(2)O(2) consumption rate of 3.0 mmol H(2)O(2) kJ(UV)(-1). Complete removal of ammonium, nitrates and nitrites of the photo-pre-treated leachate was achieved by biological denitrification and nitrification, after previous neutralization/sedimentation of iron sludge (40 mL of iron sludge per liter of photo-treated leachate after 3 h of sedimentation). The optimum C/N ratio obtained for the denitrification reaction was 2.8 mg CH(3)OH per mg N-NO(3)(-), consuming 7.9 g/8.2 mL of commercial methanol per liter of leachate. The maximum nitrification rate obtained was 68 mg N-NH(4)(+) per day, consuming 33 mmol (1.3 g) of NaOH per liter during nitrification and 27.5 mmol of H(2)SO(4) per liter during denitrification. The optimal phototreatment energy estimated to reach a biodegradable effluent, considering Zahn-Wellens, respirometry and biological oxidation tests, at pilot plant scale, is 29.2 kJ(UV) L(-1) (3.3 h of photo-Fenton at a constant solar UV power of 30 W m(-2)), consuming 90 mM of H(2)O(2) when used in excess, which means almost 57% mineralization of the leachate, 57% reduction of polyphenols concentration and 86% reduction of aromatic content.

Pyrosequencing analysis of bacterial biofilm communities in water meters of a drinking water distribution system

The applicability of 454 pyrosequencing to characterize bacterial biofilm communities from two water meters of a drinking water distribution system was assessed. Differences in bacterial diversity and composition were observed. A better understanding of the bacterial ecology of drinking water biofilms will allow for effective management of water quality in distribution systems.

Nitrate removal and biofilm characteristics in methanotrophic membrane biofilm reactors with various gas supply regimes

Aerobic methanotrophs can contribute to nitrate removal from contaminated waters, wastewaters, or landfill leachate by assimilatory reduction and by producing soluble organics that can be utilized by coexisting denitrifiers. The goal of this study was to investigate nitrate removal and biofilm characteristics in membrane biofilm reactors (MBfR) with various supply regimes of oxygen and methane gas. Three MBfR configurations were developed and they achieved significantly higher nitrate removal efficiencies in terms of methane utilization (values ranging from 0.25 to 0.36molNmol(-1)CH(4)) than have previously been observed with suspended cultures. The biofilm characteristics were investigated in two MBfRs with varying modes of oxygen supply. The biofilms differed in structure, but both were dominated by Type I methanotrophs growing close to the membrane surface. Detection of the nitrite reductase genes, nirS and nirK, suggested genetic potential for denitrification was present in the mixed culture biofilms.

Advanced treatment of dyeing wastewater towards reuse by the combined Fenton oxidation and membrane bioreactor process

The performance of combined Fenton oxidation and membrane bioreactor (MBR) process for the advanced treatment of an effluent from an integrated dyeing wastewater treatment plant was evaluated. The experimental results revealed that under the optimum Fenton oxidation conditions (initial pH 5, H2O2 dosage 17 mmol/L, and Fe2+ 1.7 mmol/L) the average total organic carbon (TOC) and color removal ratios were 39.3% and 69.5% after 35 min of reaction, respectively. Results from Zahn-Wallens Test also represented that Fenton process was effective to enhance the biodegradability of the test wastewater. As for the further purification of MBR process, TOC removal capacity was examined at different hydraulic retention times (HRT) of 10, 18 and 25 hr. Under the optimum HRT of 18 hr, the average TOC concentration and color of the final MBR effluent were 16.8 mg/L and 2 dilution time, respectively. The sludge yield coefficient was 0.13 g MLSS/g TOC and TOC degradation rate was 0.078 kg TOC/(m3 x day). The final effluent of MBR can meet the reuse criteria of urban recycling water - water quality standard for miscellaneous water consumption GBT18920-2002.

Microaerobic and anaerobic metabolism of a Methylocystis parvus strain isolated from a denitrifying bioreactor

An obligate methanotrophic bacterium, strain MTS, was isolated from a methane-fed microaerobic denitrifying bioreactor. 16S rRNA and DNA-DNA hybridization analysis revealed that this organism was most closely related to Methylocystis parvus, a Type II methanotroph, belonging to the α-subclass of the Proteobacteria. The metabolism of the bacterium under microaerobic and anaerobic conditions was studied by (13) C-NMR. (13) C-labelled poly-β-hydroxybutyrate (PHB) formation occurred in cell suspensions incubated with (13) C-labelled methane at low (5-10%) oxygen concentration. Under these conditions low levels of succinate, acetate and 2,3-butanediol were formed and excreted into the culture medium. Intracellular PHB degradation was observed in intact cells under anaerobic conditions in the absence of an exogenous carbon source during a long-term incubation of 90 days. Multiple (13) C-labelled β-hydroxybutyrate, butyrate, acetate, acetone, isopropanol, 2,3-butanediol and succinate were identified as products in in vivo(13) C-NMR spectra and in the spectra of culture medium during the dynamic PHB degradation. The isolated obligate methanotroph clearly shows a fermentative metabolism of PHB under anaerobic conditions. The excreted products may serve as substrates for denitrifying bacteria.

Enrichment of denitrifying anaerobic methane oxidizing microorganisms

The microorganisms responsible for anaerobic oxidation of methane (AOM) coupled to denitrification have not been clearly elucidated. Three recent publications suggested it can be achieved by a denitrifying bacterium with or without the involvement of anaerobic methanotrophic archaea. A key factor limiting the progress in this research field is the shortage of enrichment cultures performing denitrifying anaerobic methane oxidation (DAMO). In this study, DAMO cultures were enriched from mixed inoculum including sediment from a freshwater lake, anaerobic digester sludge and return activated sludge from a sewage treatment plant. Two reactors, operated at 35°C and at 22°C, respectively, showed simultaneous methane oxidation and nitrate reduction after several months of operation. Analysis of 16S rRNA gene clone libraries from the 35°C enrichment showed the presence of an archaeon closely related to other DAMO archaea and a dominated bacterium belonging to the yet uncultivated NC10 phylum. This culture preferred nitrite to nitrate as the electron acceptor. The present study suggests that the archaea are rather methanotrophs than methanogens. The highest denitrification rate achieved was 2.35 mmol NO3 (-) -N gVSS(-1)  day(-1) . The culture enriched at 22°C contained the same NC10 bacterium observed in the culture enriched at 35°C but no archaea.

Performance of a membrane biofilm reactor for denitrification with methane

In this study, a membrane biofilm reactor was investigated for aerobic methane oxidation coupled indirectly to denitrification, a process potentially useful for denitrification of nitrate-contaminated waters and wastewaters using methane as external electron donor. Methane and oxygen were supplied from the interior of a silicone tube to a biofilm growing on its surface. We found that the membrane biofilm reactor was to some extent self-regulating in the supply of methane and oxygen. Although the intramembrane partial pressures of methane and oxygen were varied, the oxygen-to-methane ratio penetrating the membrane tended towards 1.68. Both nitrate removal rate and dissolved organic carbon (DOC) production rate appeared to be positively correlated with intramembrane methane pressure. Based on measured nitrate removal rates, DOC production rates, and nitrate removal efficiency, the possibility of using this method for treatment of a hypothetical wastewater was evaluated.