Ozonation using a stainless-steel membrane contactor: Gas-liquid mass transfer and pharmaceuticals removal from secondary-treated municipal wastewater

A tubular porous stainless steel membrane contactor was characterized in terms of ozone-water mass transport, as well as its application in removing 23 pharmaceuticals (PhACs) detected in the secondary-treated municipal wastewater, under continuous mode operation. The volumetric mass transfer coefficient (KLa) was evaluated based on liquid flow rate, gas flow rate, and ozone gas concentration. The KLa values were substantially improved with an increment in liquid flow rate (1.6 times from 30 to 70 dm3 h-1) and gas flow rate (3.6 times from 0.30 to 0.85 Ndm3 min-1) due to the improved mixing in the gas-liquid interface. For the lowest liquid flow rate (30 dm3 h-1), the water phase boundary layer (82%) exhibited the major ozone transfer resistance, but it became almost comparable with membrane resistance for the highest liquid flow rate (70 dm3 h-1). Additionally, the influence of the specific ozone dose (0.39, 0.53, and 0.69 g O3 g DOC-1) and ozone inlet gas concentration ( [Formula: see text]  = 27, 80, and 134 g Nm-3) were investigated in the elimination of 23 PhACs found in secondary-treated municipal wastewater. An ozone dose of 0.69 g O3 g DOC-1 and residence time of 60 s resulted in the removal of 12 out of the 23 compounds over 80%, while 17 compounds were abated above 60%. The elimination of PhACs was strongly correlated with kinetic reaction constants values with ozone and hydroxyl radicals (kO3 and kHO•), leading to a characteristic elimination pattern for each group of contaminants. This study demonstrates the high potential of membrane contactors as an appealing alternative for ozone-driven wastewater treatment.

Influence of oxygen vacancies, surface composition, and crystallite size on the photoelectrochemical oxidation activity of C,N-codoped TiO2 for cefadroxil abatement along with O3

This study aims the development of photoelectrodes to be incorporated in a photoelectrocatalytic ozonation (PECO) process for tertiary treatment of urban wastewaters, targeting the removal of contaminants of emerging concern (CEC). PECO tests were performed using urban wastewater after secondary treatment fortified with Cefadroxil (CFX, C16H17N3O5S), as target model CEC. Three Nitrogen and Carbon doped TiO2 (CN-TiO2) electrodes were synthesized by anodizing at 50, 70, and 90 V, and calcined. These materials were characterized by X-Ray diffraction and Rietveld refinement, Scanning Electron Microscopy, Diffuse Reflectance Spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, chronoamperometry, and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, to correlate defects with photoactivity. All photoanodes considerably reduced their main bandgaps by the incorporation of C and N species, to enable absorption capacities in the UV region using a Xe lamp. The lowest oxygen vacancy content and largest crystallite size were found for CN-TiO2-70, favoring the reduction of bulk defects that could act as recombination of charge carriers. Therefore, oxygen vacancies affect more the TiO2 photoactivity compared to the crystallite size or the light absorption capacity, confirming that a lower content of vacancies in the material bulk and surface doping significantly influence the activity as detected by Rietveld refinement, DRS, and XPS. The electrochemical techniques confirm that the highest photocurrent was obtained for CN-TiO2-70, whence this photoanode was chosen to carry out the CFX degradation. A point defect model simulating Nyquist plot reveals that the photoactivity depends on the speed to diffuse oxygen vacancies through the TiO2 coating. All abatement processes were followed by high-performance liquid chromatography, and Total Organic Carbon (TOC). At neutral and alkaline conditions, CFX is eliminated to levels below the analytical detection limit after 90 min of treatment (TOC removals of 87 and 91%, respectively), indicating that the coupling between the CN-TiO2-70 photocatalyst and ozone is effective in eliminating the contaminant due to parallel routes forming •OH species. Lower CFX degradation observed at acidic pH (TOC removal of 70%) is assigned to the difficulty of oxidizing protonated CFX species.

Cork barriers for the remediation of soils polluted with lindane

The in-situ removal of lindane from spiked soil was studied using cork barriers combined with electrokinetic and ohmic heating soil remediation processes. Both vertical and horizontal cork barriers have been evaluated to retain pollutants mobilized by electro-osmotic flow or volatilized by ohmic heating. Moreover, the addition of surfactant solutions in electrolyte wells has been evaluated to promote the dragging of lindane by electrokinetic fluxes. Results indicated that the drag of lindane by liquid flows is not as important as expected, opposite to what happened with the dragging by gaseous flows. The retention of gaseous lindane was also confirmed in adsorption tests carried out in a column packed with cork granules. The addition of surfactant had a very limited effect on the mobility of lindane, and dragging of this species to the electrode wells or to a permeable reactive barrier. On the contrary, the reactivity of lindane during the electrochemical treatments is relevant due to the electrokinetic basic front promoting the in-situ conversion of lindane into less chlorinated pollutants.

Ozone membrane contactor for tertiary treatment of urban wastewater: Chemical, microbial and toxicological assessment

A membrane ozone contactor, operated under continuous mode, was applied to promote the tertiary treatment of urban wastewater (UWW), targeting the removal of contaminants of emerging concern (CECs), bacterial disinfection, and toxicity reduction. This system relies on the homogeneous radial distribution of ozone (O₃) in the reaction zone by "titration" through a microfiltration borosilicate tubular membrane, while the UWW swirls around the membrane and drags the O₃ microbubbles generated in the membrane shell-side. The membrane is coated with titanium dioxide (TiO₂-P25) and radiation can be externally supplied via four UV lamps. The ozonation tests were carried out with secondary-treated UWW collected in different seasons (winter and summer) and spiked with a mix of 19 CECs (10 μg L^-1 each). For an O₃ dose of 18 g m^-3, the best performance was obtained by increasing the O₃ concentration (maximum [O₃]_G,inlet of 200 g Nm^-3) and decreasing the gas flow rate (minimum Q_G of 0.15 Ndm³ min^-1), providing the highest ozone transfer yield (88 %) and, thus higher specific ozone dose (g O₃ per g dissolved organic carbon). Under these conditions, removals >80 % or concentrations below the limit of quantification were obtained for up to 13 of the 19 CECs and reductions up to 5 log units for total heterotrophs and below the limit of detection for enterobacteria and enterococci. Tests including a UVC dose of 0.10 kJ L^-1 enhanced disinfection ability but had no impact on CECs oxidation. After ozonation, the abundance of antibiotic resistant bacteria was reduced but not eliminated, and microbial regrowth after 3-day storage was observed. No toxic effect was detected on zebrafish embryos using a dilution factor of 4 for the ozonized UWW and when granular activated carbon adsorption was subsequently applied the dilution factor decreased to 2.

Selection of indicator contaminants of emerging concern when reusing reclaimed water for irrigation - A proposed methodology

Organic and microbial contaminants of emerging concern (CECs), even though not yet regulated, are of great concern in reclaimed water reuse projects. Due to the large number of CECs and their different characteristics, it is useful to include only a limited number of them in monitoring programs. The selection of the most representative CECs is still a current and open question. This study presents a new methodology for this scope, in particular for the evaluation of the performance of a polishing treatment and the assessment of the risk for the environment and the irrigated crops. As to organic CECs, the methodology is based on four criteria (occurrence, persistence, bioaccumulation and toxicity) expressed in terms of surrogates (respectively, concentrations in the secondary effluent, removal achieved in conventional activated sludge systems, Log K_ow and predicted-no-effect concentration). It consists of: (i) development of a dataset including the CECs found in the secondary effluent, together with the corresponding values of surrogates found in the literature or by in-field investigations; (ii) normalization step with the assignment of a score between 1 (low environmental impact) and 5 (high environmental impact) to the different criteria based on threshold values set according to the literature and experts' judgement; (iii) CEC ranking according to their final score obtained as the sum of the specific scores; and (iv) selection of the representative CECs for the different needs. Regarding microbial CECs, the selection is based on their occurrence and their highest detection frequency in the secondary effluent and in the receiving water, the antibiotic consumption patterns, and recommendations by national and international organisations. The methodology was applied within the ongoing reuse project SERPIC resulting in a list of 30 indicator CECs, including amoxicillin, bisphenol A, ciprofloxacin, diclofenac, erythromycin, ibuprofen, iopromide, perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS), sulfamethoxazole, tetracycline, Escherichia coli, faecal coliform, 16S rRNA, sul1, and sul2.

Industrial steel waste recovery pathway: Production of innovative supported catalyst and its application on hexavalent chromium reduction studies

Mill scale is the metallurgical waste produced by the rolling mill in the steel hot rolling process. This hazardous waste is mainly composed of oxide iron, such as hematite, magnetite and wustite. It may have a different and alternative final destination by becoming a catalyst for wastewater treatment. In this work, the catalytic potential of mill scale (MS) from a steel plant was evaluated for hexavalent chromium reduction from synthetic and real matrices under slurry conditions (MS particles dispersed in the solution) or immobilized in Raschig rings. Experiments were conducted in an annular photoreactor irradiated by UVA light. Raschig rings were coated with MS by electrostatic link with polyethylene-grafted-maleic anhydride copolymer (PEGMA) film, and further packed in the annular zone of the UV photoreactor. SEM, XRD and FTIR analysis showed a homogeneous film of MS firmly attached on Raschig rings surface. In this way, the iron-rich industrial steel waste acted as both source of iron and photocatalyst, allowing the reduction of Cr(VI) to Cr(III) in the bulk solution and MS surface, respectively, in the presence of tartaric acid as hole and hydroxyl scavenger and Fe-complexing agent. The Raschig rings (248 g) coated with MS (23 g) achieved total Cr(VI) reduction (below detection limit) after 45 min of reaction (k = 2.0 × 10^-2 mg L^-1 min^{- 1}) under UVA radiation, considering the following initial conditions: [Cr(VI)]₀ = 10 mg L^-1, [tartaric acid]₀/[Cr(VI)]₀ molar ratio = 6:1, pH = 3.0, T = 25 °C. The same system was tested for the treatment of a real effluent from a galvanic industry containing 6 mg L^-1 of Cr(VI). Using the same tartaric acid/Cr(VI) molar ratio (6:1) and pH 3.0, the Cr(VI) present in the effluent was totally reduced (below detection limit) in 360 min (k = 1.93 × 10^-2 mg L^{- 1} min^{- 1}), showing similar kinetic behavior as the process with the synthetic matrix. In all experiments, the concentrations of dissolved iron (Fe(II) and Fe_(total)) were below the disposal limit established by Brazilian legislation, and total chromium removal was achieved by Cr(III) precipitation after the photocatalytic reaction.

A tubular ceramic membrane coated with TiO2-P25 for radial addition of H2O2 towards AMX removal from synthetic solutions and secondary urban wastewater

This work aims to integrate several hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) activation mechanisms, photolysis (UVC irradiation), chemical electron transfer (TiO₂-P25 photocatalysis), and reaction with TiO₂-P25 in dark conditions, for reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation towards the removal of contaminants of emerging concern (CECs), in a single unit operated in continuous-flow mode. An H₂O₂ stock solution is fed by the lumen side of a tubular ceramic membrane, delivering the oxidant to the (i) catalyst immobilized in the membrane shell-side and (ii) annular reaction zone (ARZ, space between membrane shell-side and outer quartz tube) where CECs contaminated water flows with a helix trajectory, being activated by UV light provided by four lamps placed symmetrically around the reactor. First, the effect of several parameters in the removal of a CEC target molecule, amoxicillin (AMX), was evaluated using a synthetic solution ([AMX]_inlet = 2.0 mg L^-1): (i) light source (UVA or UVC radiation), (ii) H₂O₂ dose, (iii) H₂O₂ injection method (radial permeation vs. upstream injection), and (iv) number of TiO₂-P25 layers deposited on the membrane. The UVC/H₂O₂/TiO₂ system with radial addition of H₂O₂ (20 mg L^-1) and 9-TiO₂-P25 layers provided the highest AMX removal efficiency (72.2 ± 0.5%) with a UV fluence of 45 mJ cm^-2 (residence time of 4.6 s), due to the synergic effect of four mechanisms: (i) AMX photolysis, (ii) H₂O₂ photocleavage, (iii) TiO₂-P25 photoactivation, and (iv) chemical reactions between H₂O₂ and TiO₂-P25. The urban wastewater matrix showed a negative effect on AMX removal (~44%) due to the presence of ROS scavengers and light-filtering species.

Landfill leachate biological treatment: perspective for the aerobic granular sludge technology

Landfill leachates are high-strength complex mixtures containing dissolved organic matter, ammonia, heavy metals, and sulfur species, among others. The problem of leachate treatment has subsisted for some time, but an efficient and cost-effective universal solution capable of ensuring environmental resources protection has not been found. Aerobic granular sludge (AGS) has been considered a promising technology for biological wastewater treatment in recent years. Granules' layered structure, with an aerobic outer layer and an anaerobic/anoxic core, enables the presence of diverse microbial populations without the need for support media, allowing simultaneous removal of different pollutants in a single unit. Besides, its strong and compact arrangement provides higher tolerance to toxic pollutants and the ability to withstand large load fluctuations. Furthermore, its good that settling properties allow high biomass retention and better sludge separation. Nevertheless, AGS-related research has focused on carbon-nitrogen-phosphorus removal, mainly from sanitary sewage. This review aims to summarize and analyze the main findings and problems reported in the literature regarding AGS application to landfill leachate treatment and identify the knowledge gaps for future applications.

Ultrafiltration ceramic membrane as oxidant-catalyst/water contactor to promote sulfate radical AOPs: a case study on 17β-estradiol and 17α-ethinylestradiol removal

This work highlights the performance of an ultrafiltration ceramic membrane as photocatalyst support and oxidant-catalyst/water contactor to promote sulfate radical advanced oxidation processes (SR-AOPs). Peroxydisulfate (PDS) activation mechanisms include photolysis (UVC irradiation) and chemical electron transfer (TiO₂-P25 photocatalysis). The photoreactor is composed of an outer quartz tube (the "window"-radiation entrance to the reactor) and an inner tubular ceramic ultrafiltration membrane, where the catalyst particles (TiO₂-P25) are immobilized on the membrane shell-side. PDS stock solution is fed by the lumen side of the membrane, delivering the oxidant to the catalyst particles and to the annular reaction zone (ARZ), being the catalyst and PDS activated by UV light. The design facilitates controlled radial slip of PDS into the catalyst surface and to concurrent water to be treated, flowing with a helix trajectory in the ARZ. Under continuous mode operation, with an UV fluence of 45 mJ cm^-2 (residence time of 4.6 s), the UVC/PDS/TiO₂ system showed the best removal efficiency for two specific endocrine disrupting chemicals, 17β-estradiol (E2) and 17α-ethinylestradiol (EE2), spiked (100 μg L^-1 each) in demineralized water and urban wastewater after secondary treatment.

Tracking pollutants in a municipal sewage network impairing the operation of a wastewater treatment plant

This work provides a screening of organic contaminants and characterization of the dissolved organic matter in the sewer network until the municipal wastewater treatment plant (WWTP), identifying the network areas with a higher degree of contamination and their impact on the WWTP performance, particularly in the activated sludge reactor. Three monitoring campaigns were carried out at six selected locations of the sewage system (PVZ-1, PVZ-2, PS-F, PS-VC, CP-VC, and PS-T), influent (WWTP_INF) and effluent (WWTP_EFF) of the WWTP. Advanced analytical techniques were employed, namely excitation/emission matrix fluorescence-parallel factor analysis (EEM-PARAFAC), size exclusion chromatography with organic carbon detector (SEC-OCD), and liquid chromatography with high-resolution-mass spectrometric detection (LC-HRMS). EEM-PARAFAC showed higher fluorescence intensity for the protein-like component (C2), particularly at CP-VC (near seafood industries) associated with the presence of surfactants (~50 mg/L). SEC-OCD highlighted the WWTP efficiency in removing low molecular weight acids and neutrals. LC-HRMS tentatively identified 108 compounds of emerging concern (CEC) and similar detection patterns were obtained for all wastewater samples, except for PVZ-2 (lower detection), many of which occurred in the effluent. Eight CECs included on relevant Watch-Lists were detected in all WWTP_EFF samples. Furthermore, 111 surfactants were detected, the classes more frequently found being alcohol ethoxylates (AEOs), nonylphenol polyethoxylates (NPEOs) and linear alkylbenzene sulphonates (LAS). The continuous presence of LAS and NPEOs allied to surfactants concentrations in the WWTP_INF of 15-20 mg/L, with CP-VC location (linked with food industries) as an important contributor, explain the morphological changes in the activated sludge and high LAS content in the dewatered sludge, which may have impacted WWTP performance.

Functionalized mesoporous silicas SBA-15 for heterogeneous photocatalysis towards CECs removal from secondary urban wastewater

The photocatalytic activity of TiO₂ nanoparticles (NPs) supported on mesoporous silica SBA-15 (TiO₂/SBA-15) was evaluated for the photodegradation of sulfadiazine (SDZ), as target contaminant of emerging concern (CEC), using either pure water solutions (PW) or a real secondary urban wastewater (UWW) spiked with SDZ. For this purpose, TiO₂/SBA-15 samples with 10, 20 and 30% TiO₂ (w/w) were prepared by the sol-gel post synthetic method on pre-formed SBA-15, using titanium (IV) isopropoxide as a precursor. The TiO₂/SBA-15 materials were characterized by HRTEM, SAXS and XRD, nitrogen adsorption isotherms and UV-vis diffuse reflectance spectroscopy. TiO₂ NPs were shown to be attached onto the external surface, decorating the SBA-15 particles. The TiO₂/SBA-15 catalysts were active in SDZ photodegradation using the annular FluHelik photoreactor, when irradiated with UVA light. The 30% TiO₂/SBA-15 sample presented the best performance in optimization tests performed using PW, and it was further used for the tests with UWW. The photocatalytic activity of 30% TiO₂/SBA-15 was higher (56% SDZ degradation) than that of standard TiO₂-P25 (32% SDZ degradation) in the removal of SDZ spiked in the UWW ([SDZ] = 2 mg L^-1). The photodegradation of SDZ with 30% TiO₂/SBA-15 eached 90% for UWW spiked with a lower SDZ concentration ([SDZ] = 40 μg L^-1). Aside of SDZ, a suit of 65 other CECs were also identified in the UWW sample using LC-MS spectrometry. A fast-screening test showed the heterogeneous photocatalytic system was able to remove most of the detected CECs from UWW, by either adsorption and/or photocatalysis.

How does the pre-treatment of landfill leachate impact the performance of O3 and O3/UVC processes?

In this study, O₃ and O₃/UVC processes were evaluated for the treatment of landfill leachate after biological nitrification/denitrification, coagulation, or their combinations. The O₃-driven stage efficiency was assessed by the removal of color, organic matter (dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and chemical oxygen demand (COD)), and biodegradability increase (Zahn-Wellens test). Also, fluorescence excitation-emission matrix (EEM) and size exclusion chromatography coupled with OC detector (SEC-OCD) analysis were carried out for each strategy. The bio-nitrified-leachate (L_N) was not efficiently mineralized during the O₃-driven processes since the high nitrites content consumed ozone rapidly. In turn, carbonate/bicarbonate ions impaired the oxidation of the bio-denitrified-leachate (L_D), scavenging hydroxyl radicals (HO^•) and inhibiting the O₃ decomposition. For both bio-leachates, only O₃/UVC significantly enhanced the effluent biodegradability (>70%), but COD legal compliance was not reached. EEM and SEC-OCD results revealed differences in the organic matter composition between the nitrified-coagulated-leachate (L_NC) and denitrified-coagulated-leachate (L_DC). Nonetheless, the amount of DOC and COD removed per gram of ozone was similar for both. Cost estimation indicates the O₃-driven stage as the costliest among the treatment processes, while coagulation substantially reduced the cost of the following ozonation. Thus, the best treatment train strategy comprised L_DC (with methanol addition for denitrification and coagulated with 300 mg Al³⁺/L, without pH adjustment), followed by O₃/UVC (transferred ozone dose of 2.1 g O₃/L and 12.2 kJ_UVC/L) and final biological oxidation, allowed legal compliance for direct discharge (for organic and nitrogen parameters) with an estimated cost of 8.9 €/m³ (O₃/UVC stage counting for 6.9 €/m³).

ZnO Polymeric Composite Films for n-Decane Removal from Air Streams in a Continuous Flow NETmix Photoreactor under UVA Light

Polymeric composite films have been explored for many photocatalytic applications, from water treatment to self-cleaning devices. Their properties, namely, thickness and porosity, are controlled mainly by the preparation conditions. However, little has been discussed on the effect of thickness and porosity of polymeric composite films for photocatalytic processes, especially in gas phase. In the present study, different preparation treatments of ZnO-based polymeric composite films and their effects on its performance and stability were investigated. The polymeric composites were prepared by solution mixing followed by non-solvent induced phase separation (NIPS), using poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF) as the matrix and ZnO-based photocatalysts. Different wet thickness, photocatalyst mass, and treatments (e.g., using or not pore-forming agent and compatibilizer) were assessed. A low ZnO/PVDF ratio and higher wet thickness, together with the use of pore-forming agent and compatibilizer, proved to be a good strategy for increasing photocatalytic efficiency given the low agglomerate formation and high polymer transmittance. Nonetheless, the composites exhibited deactivation after several minutes of exposure. Characterization by XRD, FTIR-ATR, and SEM were carried out to further investigate the polymeric film treatments and stability. ZnO film was most likely deactivated due to zinc carbonate formation intensified by the polymer presence.

The role of ozone combined with UVC/H2O2 process for the tertiary treatment of a real slaughterhouse wastewater

The main goal of this work is to evaluate the usage of ozone (O₃) as a pre-treatment or simultaneously combined with UVC/H₂O₂ process for the polishing stage treatment of real bio-treated slaughterhouse wastewater. Two different treatment strategies were tested: i) pre-ozonation of the wastewater followed by an UVC/H₂O₂ process (two-step treatment); ii) simultaneous application of O₃/UVC/H₂O₂ combined process (one-step treatment). For the two-step strategy, the pre-treatment with 30 mg O₃/min for 10 min reduces significantly total suspended solids (TSS), turbidity and colour, reducing light filtering effects and increasing the efficiency of the following UVC/H₂O₂ process. In turn, the one-step treatment strategy (O₃/UVC/H₂O₂) allows a more efficient use of injected O₃ by reducing the amount of O₃ required (from 273 to 189 mg O₃/L_effluent) to achieve similar mineralization levels. The real bio-treated slaughterhouse wastewater treated by O₃/UVC/H₂O₂ process achieved final colour values of 20 Pt/Co, TSS of 35 mg/L and COD of 61 mg O₂/L, allowing its direct discharge into water compartments according to European Council Directive 91/271/EEC.

Facile fabrication of hybrid titanium(IV) isopropoxide/pozzolan nanosheets (TnS-Pz) of high photocatalytic activity: characterization and application for Cr(VI) reduction in an aqueous solution

This paper presents the synthesis of a hybrid material through the use of natural pozzolan and titanium(IV) isopropoxide using the sol-gel method and its application in the photocatalytic hexavalent chromium reduction. The characterization data indicated a mesoporous material possessing a surface area of 271.7 m² g^-1. The morphology studies (SEM and TEM) showed nanosheet hybrid structures. The analysis of DRUV, FTIR, XRD, and Mössbauer spectroscopy provides a different electronic structure of the synthetized material when compared with the originals, proving the hybridization process between pozzolan and titanium(IV) isopropoxide. The photocatalytic reduction of Cr(VI) to Cr(III) using the hybrid material showed a better performance than conventional photocatalysts (precursor and TiO₂-P25). Operational conditions such as chromium initial concentration (0.02-0.20 mM), solution pH (3-6), and type of scavenger (citric or tartaric acid) were evaluated in order to determine the best experimental conditions for the Cr(VI) photoreduction. At their optimum (catalyst load of 15 mg L^-1, tartaric acid as scavenger, [scavenger]₀/[Cr(VI)]₀ M ratio = 3:1, pH 3, and 25 °C), the total photoreduction of 0.20 mM Cr(VI) was achieved in 180 min. The novel hybrid materials synthesized from pozzolan and titanium(IV) isopropoxide showed to be a potential catalyst for the Cr(VI) reduction in aqueous solution. Graphical abstract.

Tube-in-tube membrane photoreactor as a new technology to boost sulfate radical advanced oxidation processes

This work proposes a tube-in-tube membrane photoreactor, operated in a continuous-mode, to boost the efficiency of peroxydisulfate (PDS), through the photolytic (UV-C radiation) and photocatalytic (TiO₂-P25) processes. This new technology can efficiently facilitate the transportation of PDS to the catalyst surface and water to be treated. The ultrafiltration tubular ceramic membrane was used as support for the TiO₂-P25 and oxidant-catalyst/water contactor. Tests were performed using a synthetic solution and a municipal secondary effluent, both spiked with a pharmaceutical mix solution (paracetamol (PCT), furosemide (FRS), nimesulide (NMD), and diazepam (DZP); 200 μg L^-1 of each). At steady-state regime, the UVC/S₂O₈^2-/TiO₂ system, with radial PDS addition, showed the highest removal of pharmaceuticals in both matrices. Furthermore, twenty-two transformation products (TPs) were identified by applying LC-QTOF MS technique. Hence, the transformation pathways including hydroxylation in aromatic moiety by an electrophilic attack, electron transfer reactions, cleavage of C-O, C-N bond, H-abstraction and ring opening were proposed. TPs chemical structures were evaluated by in silico (Q)SAR approach using TOXTREE and EPI Suite™ software.

A tube-in-tube membrane microreactor for tertiary treatment of urban wastewaters by photo-Fenton at neutral pH: A proof of concept

This work presents a disruptive approach to promote highly-efficient photo-Fenton process at neutral pH under continuous mode operation. The system consists of a tube-in-tube membrane reactor designed for continuous-flow titration of low iron doses to the annular reaction zone (ARZ). A concentrated acidic ferrous ion (Fe²⁺) solution is fed by the lumen-side of the membrane, permeating through the membrane pores (inside-out mode), being dosed and uniformly delivered to the membrane shell-side. Polluted water, containing amoxicillin (AMX) and oxidant (H₂O₂), flows continuously in the reactor annulus (space between the membrane shell-side and an outer quartz tube). The catalyst radial dispersion is enhanced by the helicoidal movement of water around the membrane shell-side, efficiently promoting its contact with H₂O₂ and UV light. The efficiency of photochemical and photocatalytic oxidation was evaluated as a function of catalyst dose, catalyst injection mode (radial permeation vs injection upstream from the reactor inlet), light source (UVA vs UVC) and aqueous solution matrix (synthetic vs real wastewater). At steady-state, photo-Fenton reaction with Fe²⁺ radial addition, driven by UVC light, showed the highest AMX removal for synthetic (∼65%, removal rate of 44 μM_AMX/min, using [Fe²⁺]_ARZ = 2 mg/L and [H₂O₂]_inlet = 10 mg/L) and real municipal wastewaters (∼45%, removal rate of 31 μM_AMX/min, with [Fe²⁺]_ARZ = 5 mg/L and [H₂O₂]_inlet = 40 mg/L), with a residence time of only 4.6 s.

Bromate removal from water intended for human consumption by heterogeneous photocatalysis: Effect of major dissolved water constituents

This study focuses on the influence of major dissolved constituents naturally found in waters intended for human consumption on bromate (BrO₃^-) reduction by heterogeneous photocatalysis. The individual and combined effect of chloride (Cl^-), bicarbonate/carbonic acid (HCO₃^-/H₂CO₃), nitrate (NO₃^-), sulphate (SO₄^2-) and humic acids (HAs) on BrO₃^- reduction was evaluated in synthetic waters (SWs). Additionally, freshwaters (FWs) from a drinking water treatment plant (DWTP) were tested and directly compared to SWs. Cl^- was beneficial for contents in the range 0.47-1.4 mM, with negligible influence for lower and higher contents. NO₃^- had a null effect regardless of its content (0.024-0.81 mM). HCO₃^-/H₂CO₃ (0.061/0.45 mM), SO₄^2- (0.12-2.6 mM) and HAs (0.11-1.0 mM C) had a negative effect in the tested contents. The BrO₃^- reduction rate was 2.8 times lower in SW with a mixture of water constituents compared to SW without constituents addition. This decline on BrO₃^- reduction rate corresponded to the sum of the individual species contribution and so there was no evidence of synergetic effects. By contrast, the use of FWs provided BrO₃^- reduction rates only slightly lower than that found for SW without constituents addition (∼1.2-fold), which can be attributed to: (i) the distinct characteristics of the organic matter of FWs (HAs, fulvic acids and humins with distinct molecular weights and functional groups) compared to that of SW (pure HAs), and/or (ii) the presence in FWs of other inorganics in addition to those here addressed. The heterogeneous TiO₂ photocatalysis proved to be a promising process for BrO₃^- reduction in DWTPs.

Peroxidation and photo-peroxidation of pantoprazole in aqueous solution using silver molybdate as catalyst

In this study, silver molybdate was used as a catalyst in different oxidation processes to degrade pantoprazole (PAN) from aqueous suspension. The catalyst was synthesized using a controlled precipitation method and characterized by XRD, FTIR spectroscopy, BET analysis, Zeta potential, FEG-SEM/EDS, DRS and EPR. The α- and β-phases of Ag₂MoO₄ were identified as crystalline structure of the butterfly-shaped particles. The metastable α-phase could be completely converted into β-Ag₂MoO₄ by thermal treatment at 300 °C. The band gap energy of β-Ag₂MoO₄ (E_g = 3.25 eV) is slightly higher than for as-prepared catalyst (α-Ag₂MoO₄ + β-Ag₂MoO₄) (E_g = 3.09 eV), suggesting that as-prepared catalyst should be active under visible light. PAN is sensible to UV light irradiation, and the addition of H₂O₂ as electron acceptor enhanced the mineralization rate. In the catalytic UV-based reactions, high PAN oxidation efficiencies were obtained (>85%) but with low mineralization (32-64%). Catalytic peroxidation and photo-catalytic peroxidation under visible light showed the highest PAN oxidation efficiency, leading to its almost complete mineralization (>95%), even under dark conditions (98% in 120 min). Several degradation byproducts were identified and three mechanistic routes of PAN decomposition were proposed. The identified byproducts are less toxic than the parent compound. EPR coupled with the spin trapping method identified ^•OH radicals as the main ROS species in both photocatalytic and catalytic peroxidation reactions. Ag₂MoO₄ showed to be a promising catalyst to promote the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide into ROS.¹.

Heterogeneous photocatalytic degradation of pharmaceuticals in synthetic and real matrices using a tube-in-tube membrane reactor with radial addition of H2O2

A tube-in-tube membrane reactor, with radial addition of hydrogen peroxide, was used for the oxidation of four pharmaceuticals, paracetamol (PCT), furosemide (FRS), nimesulide (NMD), and diazepam (DZP), in a continuous-mode operation, using photochemical and photocatalytic processes, driven by UVA or UVC photons. This reactor allows a controlled titration of small H₂O₂ doses (inside-out mode) to the catalyst particles immobilized in the membrane shell side and to the annular space between the membrane inner tubing and the concentric outer quartz tubing, where water to be treated flows. Tests were performed using synthetic (SWW) and real (urban wastewater after secondary treatment) (UWW) matrices, both spiked with the pharmaceutical mix solution (200 μg L^-1 of each). The photochemical and photocatalytic oxidation efficiency was evaluated as a function of H₂O₂ dose (5-20 mg L^-1), oxidant injection mode (radial permeation vs injection upstream from the reactor inlet), light source (UVA vs UVC lamps) and aqueous matrix (synthetic vs real matrix). At steady-state regime, the UVC/H₂O₂/TiO₂ system, with radial H₂O₂ addition (20 mg L^-1), showed the highest pharmaceuticals removal percentage, PCT (27.4%), FRS (35.0%), NMD (24.2%) and DZP (30.0%) in SWW. A substantial decrease in pharmaceuticals elimination was observed for UWW (PCT - 11.5%, FRS - 20.3%, NMD - 8.2% and DZP - 12.6%), in comparison with the SWW matrix. Finally, twelve transformation products (TPs) were identified; most of them showed in their structures hydroxylation in aromatic moiety; all TPs chemical structures were evaluated by BIOWIN software indicating that the TPs are non-biodegradables.

Development of a treatment train for the remediation of a hazardous industrial waste landfill leachate: A big challenge

This study focuses on the development of a treatment train for a leachate from a hazardous industrial waste landfill (HIWL) previously treated by: (i) catalytic oxidation with hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) for sulphide and sulphite conversion into oxidized sulphur species, including sulphate, and (ii) chemical precipitation of sulphate as barite. The complete treatment line counted on four more stages: (iii) 1^st biological oxidation for removal of biodegradable organic compounds and nitrogen species, (iv) coagulation with ferric chloride (coagulant dose of 100 mg Fe L^-1, pH 2.8) for removal of a fraction of recalcitrant organics and suspended solids, (v) photo-Fenton oxidation using ultraviolet A (UVA) radiation (PF-UVA) (pH 2.8, initial total dissolved iron content of 140 mg L^-1, treatment time of ~4 h) for recalcitrant organics degradation and biodegradability improvement, and (vi) 2^nd biological oxidation for removal of the biodegradable organic matter resulting from the PF-UVA process. The use of anodic oxidation or photoelectro-Fenton processes in stage (v) demonstrated to be unfeasible. A chemical oxygen demand (COD) below 1000 mg O₂ L^-1, a common limit imposed by municipal wastewater treatment plants (MWWTPs) to effluents discharged into the municipal sewer, was achieved after a feasible treatment time (~4 h) using the multistep approach. The remediation of the HIWL leachate proved to be a big challenge.

Integration of Fenton's reaction based processes and cation exchange processes in textile wastewater treatment as a strategy for water reuse

The remediation of a real textile wastewater aiming its reuse in the textile industry was carried out by integrating two processes: (i) a chemical or electrochemical advanced oxidation process (AOP or EAOP) based on Fenton's reaction for organics degradation, and (ii) a cation exchange process using marine macroalgae for removal of the iron acting in the Fenton's reaction based processes. Four AOPs/EAOPs at acidic pH 2.8 were tested: Fenton, photo-Fenton with ultraviolet A (UVA) radiation (PF/UVA), electro-Fenton (EF) and photoelectro-Fenton with UVA radiation (PEF/UVA). These processes provided very high color removals. After a running time of 45 min, the color removals were 68-95% for the Fenton process, 76-94% for the EF process, 80-98% for the PF/UVA process and 85-100% for the PEF/UVA process. In contrast, the mineralization was negligible for all the processes, indicating the generation/presence of persistent colorless compounds. The PF process was selected as first treatment stage due to its ability for color removal and related lower costs. A set of six marine macroalgae (Gracilaria caudata, Gracilaria cervicornis, Ascophyllum nodosum, Fucus spiralis, Laminaria hyperborea and Pelvetia canaliculata) were tested for iron uptake. Laminaria hyperborea showed the highest ion exchange capacity and affinity for iron species. Its application allowed the removal of all the iron acting in the PF process (3.4 mg/L). The textile wastewater resulting from the application of PF process followed by cation exchange with Laminaria hyperborea was successfully reused in scouring, bleaching and dyeing processes.

Ozone-driven processes for mature urban landfill leachate treatment: Organic matter degradation, biodegradability enhancement and treatment costs for different reactors configuration

In this work, the application of ozone-driven processes for the treatment of mature landfill leachate was investigated by testing different system setups. As a first approach, ozonation (O₃-only) was tested, using a porous ceramic diffuser combined with a bubble column (BC), and the best operational conditions were established for leachate treatment (initial pH = 9.0; inlet ozone dose = 18 mg O₃/min). Then, a novel photoreactor (FluHelik) was coupled in series with the bubble column, using a diffuser or a Venturi to inject ozone into the fluid stream. The FluHelik/BC-Venturi setup led to the highest efficiency, treating 50% more leachate than BC-alone using the same ozone dose and reaction time (3 h). Following, the oxidation ability of ozone combined with H₂O₂ and/or UVC for leachate treatment was assessed. The highest synergistic effect was obtained for the O₃/UVC process, with pseudo-first-order rate constant for DOC and COD removal, 2.0 and 1.4 times higher than for the O₃-only, respectively. Ozone-driven processes considerably enhanced the leachate biodegradability from 17% to 79% (O₃/H₂O₂), 81% (O₃-only), 85% (O₃/H₂O₂/UVC) and 91% (O₃/UVC), after a 3 h reaction period. With FluHelik/BC-Venturi system, the O₃/UVC process stands out as the most efficient and cost-effective (6.0 €/m³), ensuring an effluent that meets discharge legal limit for COD (150 mg/L) after further biological oxidation.

Enhancing methane yield from crude glycerol anaerobic digestion by coupling with ultrasound or A. niger/E. coli biodegradation

Anaerobic digestion of crude glycerol from biodiesel production is a feasible way for methane production. However, crude glycerol (CG) contains impurities, such as long-chain fatty acids (LCFA) that can inhibit methanogenic microorganisms. Ultrasound promotes the hydrolysis of LCFA and deagglomerates the microorganisms in biological flocs. Furthermore, Aspergillus niger and Escherichia coli produce lipases capable of degrading LCFA. This study aims at improving the methane yield from anaerobic digestion by coupling with ultrasound or E. coli/A. niger biodegradation. The effect of the different treatments was first assessed in a perfectly mixed batch reactor (PMBR), using diluted CG at concentrations of 0.2%, 1.7%, and 3.2% (v/v). Later, the best conditions were replicated in an upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) reactor to simulate full-scale practical applications. Experiments in the PMBR showed that ultrasound or A. niger biodegradation steps improved methane yield up to 11% for 0.2% CG and 99% for 1.7% CG, respectively. CG biodegradation by E. coli inhibited the subsequent anaerobic digestion for all concentrations tested. Using a UASB digester, ultrasonic treatment of CG led to an average increase of 29% in methane production. The application of ultrasound led to a lower accumulation of propionic acid in the digested material and increased biogas production. On the other hand, an average 77% increase in methane production was achieved using a preliminary CG biodegradation step by A. niger, when operated at a loading rate of 2.9 kg COD m^-3 day^-1. Under these conditions, an energy gain of 0.48 kWh day^-1, with the production of the 0.434 m³ CH₄ kg^-1 COD_removal and 0.573 m³ CH₄ kg^-1 VS, and a biogas quality of 73% in methane were obtained. The digested material was analyzed for the detection and quantification of added-value by-products in order to obtain a broad assessment of the CG valorization through anaerobic digestion. In some experiments, propionic and oxalic acid were detected. However, the accumulation of propionic caused the inhibition of the acetogenic and methanogenic microorganisms.

Use of cork granules as an effective sustainable material to clean-up spills of crude oil and derivatives

The use of cork granules for cleaning up crude oil or oil derivative spills and further oil recovery appears as a promising option due to their unique properties, which allow a high oil sorption capacity, low water pickup and excellent reuse. The present work reports the effect of oil viscosity on cork sorption capacity by using five types of oils (lubricating oil, 5.7 g_oil g_cork^-1; heavy oil, 4.2 g_oil g_cork^-1; light oil, 3.0 g_oil g_cork^-1; biodiesel, 2.6 g_oil g_cork^-1; and diesel, 2.0 g_oil g_cork^-1). The cork sorption capacity for light petroleum was also evaluated as a function of temperature and sorbent particle size. Additionally, improvements on oil recovery from cork sorbents by a mechanical compression process have been achieved as a result of a design of experiments (DOE) using the response surface methodology. Such statistical technique provided remarkable results in terms of cork sorbent reusability, as the oil sorption capacity was preserved after 30 cycles of sorption-squeezing steps. The sorbed oils could be removed from the sorbent surface, collected simply by squeezing the cork granules and further reused. The best operational region yielded near 80% oil recovery, using a cork mass of 8.85 g (particle size of 2.0-4.0 mm) loaded with 43.5 mL of lubricating oil, at 5.4 bar, utilising two compressions with a duration of 2 min each. Graphical abstract.

Correction to: Use of cork granules as an effective sustainable material to clean-up spills of crude oil and derivatives

The original publication of this paper contains a mistake.

Removal of bromate from drinking water using a heterogeneous photocatalytic mili-reactor: impact of the reactor material and water matrix

The main goal of this study was to evaluate the removal of bromate from drinking water using a heterogeneous photocatalytic mili-photoreactor, based on NETmix technology. The NETmix mili-reactor consists of a network of channels and chambers imprinted in a back slab made of acrylic (AS) or stainless steel (SSS) sealed, through mechanical compression and o-rings, with an UVA-transparent front borosilicate glass slab (BGS). A plate of UVA-LEDs was placed above the BGS window. TiO₂-P25 thin films were immobilized on the BGS (back-side illumination, BSI) or SSS (front-side illumination, FSI) by using a spray deposition method. The photoreduction rate of a 200 μg L^-1 (1.56 μM) BrO₃^- solution was assessed taking into account the following: (i) catalyst film thickness, (ii) catalyst coated surface and illumination mechanism (BSI or FSI), (iii) solution pH, (iv) type and dose of sacrificial agent (SA), (v) reactor material, and (vi) water matrix. In acidic conditions (pH 3.0) and in the absence of light/catalyst/SA, 28% and 36% of BrO₃^- was reduced into Br^- only by contacting with AS and SSS during 2-h, respectively. This effect prevailed during BSI experiments, but not for FSI ones since back SSS was coated with the photocatalyst. The results obtained have demonstrated that (i) the molar rate of disappearance of bromates was similar to the molar rate of formation of bromides; (ii) higher BrO₃^- reduction efficiencies were reached in the presence of an SA using the FSI at pH 3.0; (iii) formic acid ([BrO₃^-]:[CH₂O₂] molar ratio of 1:3) presented higher performance than humic acids (HA = 1 mg C L^-1) as SA; (iv) high amounts of HA impaired the BrO₃^- photoreduction reaction; (v) SSS coated catalyst surface revealed to be stable for at least 4 consecutive cycles, keeping its photonic efficiency. Under the best operating conditions (FSI, 18 mL of 2% wt. TiO₂-P25 suspension, pH 3.0), the use of freshwater matrices led to (i) equal or higher reaction rates, when compared with a synthetic water in the absence of SA, and (ii) lower reaction rates, when compared with a synthetic water containing formic acid with a [BrO₃^-]:[CH₂O₂] molar ratio of 1:3. Notwithstanding, heterogeneous TiO₂ photocatalysis, using the NETmix mili-reactor can be used to promote the reduction of BrO₃^- into Br^-, attaining concentrations below 10 μg L^-1 (guideline value) after 2-h reaction. Graphical Abstract .

Ozonation and ozone-enhanced photocatalysis for VOC removal from air streams: Process optimization, synergy and mechanism assessment

The present work evaluates ozone driven processes (O₃, O₃/UVC, O₃/TiO₂/UVA) in the NETmix mili-photoreactor, as a cost-effective alternative for the removal of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from air streams, using n-decane as a model pollutant. The network of channels and chambers of the mili-photoreactor was coated with a TiO₂-P25 thin film, resulting in a catalyst coated surface per reactor volume of 990 m² m^-3. Ozone and n-decane streams were fed to alternate chambers of the mili-photoreactor, promoting a good contact between O₃/n-decane/catalyst. Initially, direct reaction between n-decane and ozone (ozonation) was assessed for different O₃/n-decane (O₃/dec) feed molar ratios and total feed flow rates. Under the best conditions, ozonation process achieved total n-decane conversion (below the limit of detection), yielding a reaction rate (r_dec) of 6.8 μmol min^-1 or 6.7 mmol m^-3_reactor s^-1. However, the low reactivity of ozone with the degradation by-products resulted in a quite poor mineralization (~10%). For the O₃/UVC system, an increase on relative humidity from 7 to 40% slight improved the n-decane oxidation rate, mainly associated with the generation of HO from the reaction of active oxygen radicals (O) and water molecules. A strong synergistic effect was observed when coupling TiO₂/UVA photocatalysis with ozonation (O₃/TiO₂/UVA), enhancing substantially the mineralization of n-decane molecules up to 100% under O₃/dec feed molar ratio of 15, photonic flux of 2.67 ± 0.03 J s^-1 and a residence time of 2.0 s. Different reaction intermediates were detected for O₃, TiO₂/UVA and O₃/TiO₂/UVA oxidative systems, indicating the participation of different oxidant species (O₃, HO, O, etc.).

Intensification of heterogeneous TiO2 photocatalysis using the NETmix mili-photoreactor under microscale illumination for oxytetracycline oxidation

This study focuses on the intensification of heterogeneous TiO₂ photocatalysis for the removal of a contaminant of emerging concern (CEC), oxytetracycline (OTC), as a polishing step of urban wastewaters, using an innovative NETmix mili-photoreactor under UVA-LEDs illumination. The effect of catalyst coated surface per reactor volume and the illumination mechanism, back-side (BSI) or front-side (FSI) irradiation, on OTC oxidation were evaluated. For that, a thin film of photocatalyst was uniformly deposited on the front borosilicate slab (BS) (BSI mechanism; 333 m²_catalyst m^-3_reactor) or on the network of channels and chambers imprinted in the back stainless-steel slab (SSS) (FSI mechanism; 989 m²_catalyst m^-3_reactor) using a spray system. OTC removal was also assessed as a function of TiO₂ film thickness immobilized on both slabs. The photocatalyst reactivity in combination with photoreactor was significantly enhanced (3.4 times) from 0.64 to 2.19 mmol_OTC m^-3_{illuminated reactor volume} s^-1, when considering the BSI and FSI mechanisms, respectively. In addition, the influence of UVA-LEDs intensity on OTC oxidation rate was investigated. UVA-LEDs plates were placed on the top of the NETmix borosilicate window. Moreover, the effect of water matrix was assessed using a secondary effluent from an urban wastewater treatment plant fortified with OTC. OTC oxidation rate was only inhibited in about 1.3 times in the presence of the real matrix, showing the ability of the NETmix to overcome matrix effects due to its unique characteristics. Catalyst film stability over four consecutive reaction cycles was evaluated using synthetic and real matrices fortified with OTC.

Treatment train for mature landfill leachates: Optimization studies

In the current study, a treatment train strategy for urban mature leachates, comprising biological and physicochemical processes, was tested for full legal compliance. The leachate presents a high organic and nitrogen content (1.1g C/L; 3.6g O₂/L; 2.0gN/L) and low biodegradability (BOD₅/COD=0.05). In the first stage, a sequential batch reactor (SBR), operated in a 24h-cycle mode (15h aeration +8.5h anoxic, with methanol as external carbon source +0.5h settling), was tested for total nitrogen (TN) removal. The maximum daily TN load that could be treated, reaching the legal limit (< 15mgN/L), increased by 50% with the rise in temperature from 20 to 30°C. For the following coagulation stage, the highest dissolved organic carbon (DOC) removal (64%) and lower final turbidity (33 NTU) were obtained with 240mg Fe³⁺/L, at pH3.0. The jar-tests, comparing nitrified (L_NIT.) and nitrified/denitrified (L_N/D.) leachate, stressed the effect of the leachate alkalinity, generated during the denitrification reaction, on process efficiency. For the coagulated L_N/D., with alkalinity of 1.1g CaCO₃/L, the final concentration of sulfate was only slightly below the legal limit (< 2g/L). A photo-Fenton (PF) oxidation process (pH range of 2.8-3.0, 60mg Fe²⁺/L), as third treatment step, promoted a significant enhancement on leachate biodegradability, consuming 75mM of H₂O₂ and 8.9 kJ/L of accumulated UV energy, to achieve an effluent that can be further biologically treated in compliance with the COD discharge limit (150mg O₂/L) into water bodies. Biological continuous mode tests using a conventional activated sludge process, with an hydraulic retention time (HRT) of 12h, allowed to obtain COD and TSS values (107±3 and 50±2mg/L, respectively) below the legal limit.

Photocatalytic NOx abatement: Mathematical modeling, CFD validation and reactor analysis

A 2D CFD model was implemented for the numerical simulation of NO_x abatement in a photocatalytic reactor, considering the effect of relative humidity (10-60%), light intensity (0.3-13 W⋅m^-2) and inlet NO concentration (0.1-1.0 ppm). Significant differences of NO_x concentration at the catalytic surface and bulk gas were found (Δ_max of ∼12% and ∼16% for NO and NO₂, respectively) and corrections were proposed to achieve intrinsic rate laws from a model available in the literature. An analysis of the reactor performance was conducted and a nonlinear behavior was observed when the channel height (H) was varied. A point of maximum for the integral rate of NO and NO₂ consumption as a function of H was found (Δ_NO of ∼2% and ∼-1% for H→2H→4H; [Formula: see text] of ∼46% and -8.5% for H→2H→4H). Additionally, the NO conversion decreased from ∼29% to ∼7% and the selectivity decreased from ∼85% to ∼80% (passing through a point of minimum at 2H) when the height was varied in the range H-4H. When comparing the results from the CFD simulations and the predictions of a plug flow model, deviations for NO conversion and selectivity increased with H (Δ_max of ∼2% and ∼45%, respectively).

An innovative photoreactor, FluHelik, to promote UVC/H2O2 photochemical reactions: Tertiary treatment of an urban wastewater

An innovative photoreactor, FluHelik, was used to promote the degradation of contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) by a photochemical UVC/H₂O₂ process. First, the system was optimized for the oxidation of a model antibiotic, oxytetracycline (OTC), using both ultrapure water (UPW) and a real urban wastewater (UWW) (collected after secondary treatment) as solution matrices. Following, the process was evaluated for the treatment of a UWW spiked with a mixture of OTC and 10 different pharmaceuticals established by the Swiss legislation at residual concentrations (∑CECs <660 μg L^-1). The performance of the FluHelik reactor was analyzed both at lab and pre-pilot scale in multiple and single pass flow modes. The efficiency of the FluHelik photoreactor, at lab-scale, was evaluated at different operational conditions (H₂O₂ concentration, UVC lamp power (4, 6 and 11 W) and flow rate) and further compared with a conventional Jets photoreactor. Both photoreactors exhibited similar OTC removal efficiencies at the best conditions; however, the FluHelik reactor showed to be more efficient (1.3 times) in terms of mineralization when compared with the Jets reactor. Additionally, the efficiency of the UVC/H₂O₂ photochemical system using the FluHelik photoreactor in reducing the toxicity of the real effluent containing 11 pharmaceuticals was evaluated through zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryo toxicity bioassays. FluHelik scale-up from laboratory to pre-pilot to promote UVC/H₂O₂ photochemical process proved to be feasible.

Selecting the best piping arrangement for scaling-up an annular channel reactor: An experimental and computational fluid dynamics study

This study is focused on the selection of the best piping arrangement for a pilot scale annular channel reactor intended for the remediation of waters and wastewaters. Two annular channel reactors composed of a single UV lamp and distinct piping arrangements were considered: (i) a novel reactor with tangential inlet/outlet pipes - the FluHelik reactor, and (ii) a conventional Jets reactor. These two reactors were manufactured at lab scale and characterized in terms of residence time distribution (RTD), radiant power and ability to degrade aqueous solutions spiked with a model compound - 3-amino-5-methylisoxazole (AMI) - by H₂O₂/UVC and UVC processes. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations were used to assess the hydrodynamics, RTD and UV radiation intensity distribution of both reactors at pilot scale. In general, experimental results at lab scale revealed quite similar RTDs, radiant powers and AMI degradation rates for both reactors. On the other hand, CFD simulations at pilot scale revealed the generation of a helical motion of fluid around the UVC lamp in the FluHelik reactor, inducing: (i) a longer contact time between fluid particles and UV light, (ii) more intense dynamics of macromixing as a result of larger velocity gradients, turbulent intensities and dispersion of RTD values around the peak, and (iii) a more homogeneous UV radiation distribution. In addition, the design of the FluHelik reactor can favor the implementation of various reactors in series, promoting its application at industrial scale. The FluHelik reactor was chosen for scaling-up. A pre-pilot scale treatment unit containing this reactor was constructed and its feasibility was proven.

Intensifying heterogeneous TiO2 photocatalysis for bromate reduction using the NETmix photoreactor

This work focuses on the intensification of BrO₃^- (200 μg L^-1) reduction by TiO₂-assisted heterogeneous photocatalysis, using the NETmix mili-photoreactor illuminated by UVA light-emitting diodes (UVA-LEDs). The mili-photoreactor was assembled in two configurations: i) catalyst deposition on the channels and chambers of a back stainless steel slab (SSS) and ii) catalyst deposition on the front borosilicate glass slab (BGS), allowing the study of front-side (FSI) and back-side (BSI) illumination mechanisms, respectively. The BrO₃^- reduction rate in aqueous solution was assessed as a function of: i) pH; ii) dissolved oxygen (DO); iii) addition of formic acid (CH₂O₂) as a sacrificial agent (SA); iv) photocatalyst film thickness; v) illumination mechanism; vi) irradiation intensity; vii) temperature; and viii) water matrix. Higher BrO₃^- reduction rates were observed using the FSI mechanism and lower pH values. Nitrogen injection (to eliminate DO) did not significantly improve the reaction rate and the addition of CH₂O₂ had a negative effect at pH 6.5. Neither temperature nor irradiance increase showed a considerable improvement on the reduction rate. Moreover, TiO₂ film remains stable for at least 13 consecutive reactions without significant catalyst leaching. The chemically pre-treated fresh water (FW) matrix negatively affected the reaction rate when compared with the synthetic water (SW), under the best operational conditions (SSS: pH = 5.5, 287 mg of TiO₂, 25 °C, SA absence, [DO] = 232-263 μM). This was associated with the presence of both inorganic and organic matter at much higher concentrations than BrO₃^-. Notwithstanding, heterogeneous TiO₂ photocatalysis, using the NETmix mili-photoreactor, was successfully applied to fresh water, achieving [BrO₃^-] < 10 μg L^-1 (guideline value) after 2-hour reaction.

Development of an integrated treatment strategy for a leather tannery landfill leachate

This study aimed at developing an efficient multistage treatment strategy for a complex industrial landfill leachate: a leather tannery landfill leachate. Based on the leachate physicochemical characteristics, the following treatment train was delineated and tested: (i) initial biological process for removal of biodegradable organics, ammonium and alkalinity, (ii) coagulation/flocculation process for total removal of chromium and partial removal of recalcitrant organics and suspended solids, (iii) advanced oxidation process (AOP) or electrochemical AOP (EAOP) for degradation of recalcitrant organics and biodegradability enhancement, and (iv) final biological polishing step. Two initial biological treatment configurations were applied: one comprising nitrification and the other nitrification-denitrification. Coagulation/flocculation was optimized in terms of pH, coagulant dosage (iron(III) chloride) and flocculant nature and dosage. The following AOPs/EAOPs were tested: Fenton, photo-Fenton with UVA or UVC radiation (PF-UVA or PF-UVC), anodic oxidation (AO), electro-Fenton (EF) and photoelectro-Fenton with UVA radiation (PEF-UVA). The biological nitrification-denitrification was beneficial not only because it avoided the need for alkalinity addition during nitrification and decreased the amount of substrate added during denitrification, as expected. Over and above that, it reduced the acid consumption in the coagulation/flocculation, avoided the application of an additional stage comprising nitrites oxidation to nitrates prior to the AOP/EAOP, and improved the efficiency of Fenton's reaction based processes. Following nitrification-denitrification, the coagulation/flocculation was maximized at pH 3.0 and 400 mg Fe L^-1 with no flocculant addition. The PEF-UVA process was the best AOP/EAOP. The final leachate fulfilled the discharge limits into waterbodies.

Overcoming limitations in photochemical UVC/H2O2 systems using a mili-photoreactor (NETmix): Oxytetracycline oxidation

This study focuses on the intensification of a photochemical UVC/H₂O₂ system using a mili-photoreactor (NETmix) for a better and faster elimination of oxytetracycline (OTC) from urban wastewater. This mili-photoreactor comprises a network of small cylindrical chambers and prismatic transport channels sealed by a UVC transparent quartz slab allowing unique properties. Since light has a profound effect on the photochemical process, UVC photons distribution over the reaction medium was investigated using a multiple UVC lamp design (4, 6 or 11 W) allocated in parallel or perpendicular to the solution movement. In addition, the effect of other operating variables, such as oxidant dosage (100-900 mg L^-1), oxidant feed configuration (single entry or continuous multi-injection) and flow rate (50-100 L h^-1) was studied. A kinetic model able to describe the OTC oxidation by the UVC/H₂O₂ photochemical system in the mili-photoreactor was also developed. Moreover, matrix effect was evaluated by spiking OTC in a secondary effluent from an urban WWTP. In this case, OTC degradation was inhibited in about 2 to 3 times due to the presence of organic/inorganic substances (soluble and particulate), inherent to the real matrix, that act as scavenger of oxidant species and as UVC light filter. The NETmix mili-photoreactor presented high photochemical space time yield (PSTY) values when compared with a conventional tubular photoreactor. This highlights the NETmix capacity to enhance UVC/H₂O₂ processes through an homogeneous light distribution over the entire reaction medium.

Sulphur compounds removal from an industrial landfill leachate by catalytic oxidation and chemical precipitation: From a hazardous effluent to a value-added product

This study focused on the removal of sulphur compounds from a high-strength leachate of a hazardous industrial waste landfill. Firstly, sulphides (0.5 g L^-1) and sulphites (2.5 g L^-1) were catalytic oxidised at natural pH (8.7). Air or H₂O₂ were applied as oxidants and metals present in the leachate were used as catalysts. Distinct air flow rates and H₂O₂:sulphur molar ratios were tested. Concentrations of sulphide and sulphite lower than 1.0 mg L^-1 (emission limit value - ELV) were obtained after 5-h oxygenation or 1-min peroxidation under the best conditions, i.e. air flow rate of 1 L_air L_leachate^-1 min^-1 and H₂O₂:sulphur stoichiometric ratio. Aeration was considered unsafe since >33 volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and hydrogen sulphide (H₂S) were released to the atmosphere. Thus, only the H₂O₂-oxidised leachate pursued treatment. Sulphates (13 g L^-1) were removed by chemical precipitation as ettringite or barite applying different reactants contents and pH values. Without pH correction, sulphate contents below 2.0 g L^-1 (ELV) were achieved using a [Ca²⁺]:[Al³⁺]:[SO₄^2-] molar ratio of 12:4:3 (2-fold stoichiometry) and a [Ba²⁺]:[SO₄^2-] molar ratio of 1.0:1.0 (1-fold stoichiometry). The analysis of precipitates by X-ray diffraction (XRD) showed a three-phase ettringite (only 67% corresponding to ettringite itself) and single-phase barite. Barite precipitation proved to be more appealing since a value-added product was obtained and, furthermore, less reactants were required. After sulphur compounds removal using H₂O₂-driven catalytic oxidation and chemical precipitation through barite, the leachate was suitable for biological treatment, despite the high salinity, and a high fraction of the organic load (46%) could be biologically oxidised.

As(III) and Cr(VI) oxyanion removal from water by advanced oxidation/reduction processes-a review

Water pollution by human activities is a global environmental problem that requires innovative solutions. Arsenic and chromium oxyanions are toxic compounds, introduced in the environment by both natural and anthropogenic activities. In this review, the speciation diagrams of arsenic and chromium oxyanions in aqueous solutions and the analytical methods used for their detection and quantification are presented. Current and potential treatment methods for As and Cr removal, such as adsorption, coagulation/flocculation, electrochemical, ion exchange, membrane separation, phyto- and bioremediation, biosorption, biofiltration, and oxidative/reductive processes, are presented with discussion of their advantages, drawbacks, and the main recent achievements. In the last years, advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) have been acquiring high relevance for the treatment of water contaminated with organic compounds. However, these processes are also able to deal with inorganic contaminants, mainly by changing metal/metalloid oxidation state, turning these compounds less toxic or soluble. An overview of advanced oxidation/reduction processes (AO/RPs) used for As and Cr removal was carried out, focusing mainly on H₂O₂/UVC, iron-based and heterogeneous photocatalytic processes. Some aspects related to AO/RP experimental conditions, comparison criteria, redox mechanisms, catalyst immobilization, and process intensification through implementation of innovative reactors designs are also discussed. Nevertheless, further research is needed to assess the effectiveness of those processes in order to improve some existing limitations. On the other hand, the validation of those treatment methods needs to be deepened, namely with the use of real wastewaters for their future full-scale application. Graphical abstract ᅟ.

Brown marine macroalgae as natural cation exchangers for toxic metal removal from industrial wastewaters: A review

The discharge of inadequately treated or untreated industrial wastewaters has greatly contributed to the release of contaminants into the environment, including toxic metals. Toxic metals are persistent and bioaccumulative, being their removal from wastewaters prior to release into water bodies of great concern. Literature reports the use of brown marine macroalgae for toxic metals removal from aqueous solutions as an economic and eco-friendly technique, even when applied to diluted solutions. Minor attention has been given to the application of this technique in the treatment of real wastewaters, which present a complex composition that can compromise the biosorption performance. Therefore, the main goal of this comprehensive review is to critically outline studies that: (i) applied brown marine macroalgae as natural cation exchanger for toxic metals removal from real and complex matrices; (ii) optimised the biosorption process in a fixed-bed column, which was further scaled-up to pilot plants. An overview of toxic metals sources, chemistry and toxicity, which are relevant aspects to understand and develop treatment techniques, is initially presented. The problem of water resources pollution by toxic metals and more specifically the participation of metal finishing industries in the environmental contamination are issues also covered. The current and potential decontamination methods are presented including a discussion of their advantages and drawbacks. The literature on biosorption was reviewed in detail, considering especially the ion exchange properties of cell wall constituents, such as alginate and fucoidan, and their role in metal sequestration. Besides that, a detailed description of biosorption process design, especially in continuous mode, and the application of mechanistic models is addressed.

Mineralization of humic acids (HAs) by a solar photo-Fenton reaction mediated by ferrioxalate complexes: commercial HAs vs extracted from leachates

The mineralization of bio-recalcitrant humic acids (HAs) by a solar photo-Fenton (SPF) process was investigated in aqueous system, in order to understand its abatement in real high-HA content matrices, such as sanitary landfill leachates. SPF reactions were performed in tubular photoreactors with CPCs at lab-scale (simulated solar light) and pilot-scale (natural sunlight). Considering the experimental conditions selected for this work, the formation of insoluble HA-Fe³⁺ complexes was observed. Thus, to avoid HA precipitation, oxalic acid (Ox) was added, since Fe³⁺-Ox complexes present a higher stability constant. The effect of different process variables on the performance of SPF reaction mediated by ferrioxalate complexes (SPFF) was assessed with excess of H₂O₂ (50-250 mg L^-1), at lab-scale: (i) pH (2.8-4.0); (ii) initial iron concentration (20-60 mg Fe³⁺ L^-1); (iii) iron-oxalate molar ratio (Fe³⁺-Ox of 1:3 and 1:6); (iv) temperature (20-40 °C); (v) UV irradiance (21-58 W_UV m^-2); and (vi) commercial-HA concentration (50-200 mg C L^-1). At the best lab conditions (40 mg Fe³⁺ L^-1, pH 2.8, 30 °C, 1.6 Fe³⁺-Ox molar ratio, 41 W_UV m^-2), commercial HAs' mineralization profile was also compared with HAs extracted from a sanitary landfill leachate, achieving 88 and 91% of dissolved organic carbon removal, respectively, after 3-h irradiation (8.7 kJ_UV L^-1). Both reactions followed the same trend, although a 2.1-fold increase in the reaction rate was observed for the leachate-HA experiment, due to its lower humification degree. At pilot-scale, under natural sunlight, 95% HA mineralization was obtained, consuming 42 mM of H₂O₂ and 5.9 kJ_UV L^-1 of accumulated UV energy. However, a pre-oxidation during 2.8 kJ_UV L^-1 (12 mM H₂O₂) was enough to obtain a biodegradability index of 89%, showing the strong feasibility to couple the SPFF process to a downstream biological oxidation, with low chemicals and energetic demands. Graphical abstract ᅟ.

Fluorene oxidation by solar-driven photo-Fenton process: toward mild pH conditions

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are on the list of priority pollutants to be eliminated from the environment due to their carcinogenic and mutagenic action, chemical stability, and resistance to biodegradation. The aim of this study was to evaluate the degradation of fluorene, a well-known PAH, in aqueous solutions (0.03 and 0.08 mg L^-1), by means of a solar-driven conventional (PF) and modified photo-Fenton mediated by ferrioxalate complexes (PFF). Photolysis was also employed for comparison purposes. PF reaction was evaluated at different pH values (2.8, 3.5, and 4.0) and iron concentrations (2, 5, 10, and 20 mg L^-1). On the other hand, PFF studies were conducted at mild pH conditions (4.0, 5.0, and 6.0) and iron content of 2 mg L^-1, keeping initial iron/oxalate molar ratio at 1:3. In both PF and PFF, the initial hydrogen peroxide/iron molar ratio was maintained at 5. In the presence of methanol as cosolvent for fluorene dissolution, the PF reaction was hampered and no consumption of H₂O₂ was observed during the reaction carried out at constant pH (2.8). This led to low degradation rates, similar to those achieved by photolysis. Under the same pH but using acetonitrile as cosolvent for fluorene dissolution, fluorene degradation was found to be proportional to the iron content used in the PF experiments. On the other hand, at an invariable iron concentration of 5 mg Fe²⁺ L^-1, the increase in pH was accompanied by a decrease in the molar fraction of the most photoactive iron complex (FeOH²⁺) and ferric hydroxides precipitation, leading to a reduction in the fluorene degradation rate. With regard to the PFF tests, similar fluorene degradation performance was achieved at pH 4 and 5, while at pH 6 iron precipitation became relevant and the degradation rate was slightly slower. PFF has shown to be more efficient than the PF under the same pH (4) and iron concentration (2 mg L^-1). Moreover, even at near neutral pH (6), fluorine degradation was shown to be feasible by using ferrioxalate complexes.

A facile method to prepare translucent anatase thin films in monolithic structures for gas stream purification

In the present work, a facile method to prepare translucent anatase thin films on cellulose acetate monolithic (CAM) structures was developed. A simple sol-gel method was applied to synthesize photoactive TiO₂ anatase nanoparticles using tetra-n-butyl titanium as precursor. The immobilization of the photocatalyst on CAM structures was performed by a simple dip-coating method. The translucent anatase thin films allow the UV light penetration through the CAM internal walls. The photocatalytic activity was tested on the degradation of n-decane (model volatile organic compound-VOC) in gas phase, using a tubular lab-scale (irradiated by simulated solar light) and pilot-scale (irradiated by natural solar light or UVA light) reactors packed with TiO₂-CAM structures, both equipped with compound parabolic collectors (CPCs). The efficiency of the photocatalytic oxidation (PCO) process in the degradation of n-decane molecules was studied at different operating conditions at lab-scale, such as catalytic bed size (40-160 cm), TiO₂ film thickness (0.435-0.869 μm), feed flow rate (75-300 cm³ min^-1), n-decane feed concentration (44-194 ppm), humidity (3 and 40%), oxygen concentration (0 and 21%), and incident UV irradiance (18.9, 29.1, and 38.4 W_UV m^-2). The decontamination of a bioaerosol stream was also evaluated by the PCO process, using Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Gram-negative) and Staphylococcus aureus (Gram-positive) as model bacteria. A pilot-scale unit was operated day and night, using natural sunlight and artificial UV light, to show its performance in the mineralization of n-decane air streams under real outdoor conditions. Graphical abstract Normally graphics abstract are not presented with captions/legend. The diagram is a collection of images that resume the work.

Insights on sulfamethoxazole bio-transformation by environmental Proteobacteria isolates

Although sulfonamide residues are frequently reported as freshwaters contaminants, information on the ability of native bacteria to modify these synthetic antibiotics is scarce. Our purpose was to investigate the potential of bacteria from different aquatic environments to cleave or transform sulfamethoxazole (SMX) and infer on their ability to reduce the toxicity of this antibiotic. From a collection of about 100 Proteobacteria, 47 strains previously isolated from drinking water, surface water, and wastewater grew in the presence of 200 μM_SMX, and were further studied. Out of these, 14 strains, mostly from mineral drinking water, transformed SMX into equimolar amounts of the lesser toxic derivative N⁴-acetyl-sulfamethoxazole. The highest percentage of SMX transformation was recorded for two strains affiliated to Pseudomonas mandelii. For P. mandelii McBPA4 higher SMX transformation rate and extent were observed in fed-batch (∼8 μM_SMX/h, 81%) than in batch conditions (∼5 μM_SMX/h, 25%), but similar specific transformation rates were found in both cultivation modes (∼20 μmol_SMX/g_{cell dry weight}/h), indicating the dependence of the process on the microbial load. These results evidence that the capacity to transform synthetic antibiotics may be common among bacteria and highlight the potential of environmental bacteria in attenuating the potential adverse effects of pollution with sulfonamides.