101
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Nielsen LB, McCormick SP, Pierotti V, Tam C, Gunn MD, Shizuya H, Young SG. Human apolipoprotein B transgenic mice generated with 207- and 145-kilobase pair bacterial artificial chromosomes. Evidence that a distant 5'-element confers appropriate transgene expression in the intestine. J Biol Chem 1997; 272:29752-8. [PMID: 9368045 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.272.47.29752] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
We reported previously that approximately 80-kilobase pair (kb) P1 bacteriophage clones spanning either the human or mouse apoB gene (clones p158 and p649, respectively) confer apoB expression in the liver of transgenic mice, but not in the intestine. We hypothesized that the absence of intestinal expression was due to the fact that these clones lacked a distant DNA element controlling intestinal expression. To test this possibility, transgenic mice were generated with 145- and 207-kb bacterial artificial chromosomes (BACs) that contained the human apoB gene and more extensive 5'- and 3'-flanking sequences. RNase protection, in situ hybridization, immunohistochemical, and genetic complementation studies revealed that the BAC transgenic mice manifested appropriate apoB gene expression in both the intestine and the liver, indicating that both BACs contained the distant intestinal element. To determine whether the regulatory element was located 5' or 3' to the apoB gene, transgenic mice were generated by co-microinjecting embryos with p158 and either the 5'- or 3'-sequences from the 145-kb BAC. Analysis of these mice indicated that the apoB gene's intestinal element is located 5' to the structural gene. Cumulatively, the transgenic mouse studies suggest that the intestinal element is located between -33 and -70 kb 5' to the apoB gene.
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Affiliation(s)
- L B Nielsen
- Gladstone Institute of Cardiovascular Disease, University of California, San Francisco, California 94141-9100, USA.
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102
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Allan CM, Taylor S, Taylor JM. Two hepatic enhancers, HCR.1 and HCR.2, coordinate the liver expression of the entire human apolipoprotein E/C-I/C-IV/C-II gene cluster. J Biol Chem 1997; 272:29113-9. [PMID: 9360987 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.272.46.29113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
We show that the liver-specific expression of all four genes in the human apolipoprotein (apo) E/C-I/C-IV/C-II gene cluster in transgenic mice is determined by the coordinate action of two distinct hepatic control regions (HCR). These enhancers are positioned 15 kilobases (kb) (HCR.1) and 26 kb (HCR.2) downstream of the apoE gene. To investigate the action of each HCR, transgenic mice were generated with a 70-kb human genomic fragment that contained the complete apoE gene cluster or with this fragment modified by the specific deletion of HCR.1, HCR.2, or both HCR domains. Hepatic expression of all four apolipoprotein genes was observed in transgenic mice in which either HCR.1 or HCR.2 was deleted, but no transgene expression was found in the liver in the absence of both HCR domains. The overall patterns of transgene expression suggested that HCR.2 was the dominant element for apoC-IV and apoC-II expression and that HCR.1 was dominant for the apoE/C-I expression. No liver-specific transcriptional activity was identified for the proximal promoter of any gene in the cluster; all liver-specific activity was associated with HCR.1 and HCR.2. Thus, the HCRs of the apoE gene cluster constitute unique regulatory domains for determining the requirements for apolipoprotein gene expression in the liver.
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Affiliation(s)
- C M Allan
- Gladstone Institute of Cardiovascular Disease, University of California, San Francisco, California 94141-9100, USA
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103
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Affiliation(s)
- A Faerman
- Institute of Animal Science, Agricultural Research Organization, Volcani Center, Bet Dagan, Israel
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104
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Sathasivam K, Baxendale S, Mangiarini L, Bertaux F, Hetherington C, Kanazawa I, Lehrach H, Bates GP. Aberrant processing of the Fugu HD (FrHD) mRNA in mouse cells and in transgenic mice. Hum Mol Genet 1997; 6:2141-9. [PMID: 9328479 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/6.12.2141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The puffer fish ( Fugu rubripes ) has a compact genome of 400 Mbp which is approximately 7.5-fold smaller than the human genome. It contains a similar number of genes but is deficient in intergenic, intronic and dispersed repetitive sequences. Fugu is becoming established as the model vertebrate genome for the identification and characterisation of novel human genes and conserved regulatory sequences. It has also been proposed that Fugu genes may provide natural mini-genes for the production of transgenic mice. We have used the Fugu homologue of the Huntington's disease (HD) gene to test this possibility. The human and Fugu HD genes cover 170 kb and 23 kb respectively and have previously been sequenced in their entirety. In Fugu tissue, the Fugu HD gene was found to be expressed as predicted from the gene sequence but three differentially spliced forms were also detected. Despite the absence of conserved promoter sequences, the Fugu promoter was found to be functional in mouse cells. We have generated mice transgenic for the Fugu HD gene and conducted a detailed expression analysis across the entire 10 kb transcript. This revealed the presence of many aberrant splice forms which would be incompatible with the production of the Fugu huntingtin protein. The Fugu HD gene is incorrectly processed in mouse cells both in vitro and in vivo which sheds doubt on the usefulness of Fugu genes for transgenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Sathasivam
- Division of Medical and Molecular Genetics, UMDS, Guy's Hospital, London SE1 9RT, UK
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105
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Hyodo-Taguchi Y, Winkler C, Kurihara Y, Schartl A, Schartl M. Phenotypic rescue of the albino mutation in the medakafish (Oryzias latipes) by a mouse tyrosinase transgene. Mech Dev 1997; 68:27-35. [PMID: 9431801 DOI: 10.1016/s0925-4773(97)00128-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Mutations of the tyrosinase gene are one common cause of a similar phenotype in all vertebrates, known as albinism. In an attempt to contribute to an understanding of the genetic hierarchy governing the development of pigmentation, we have used a mouse tyrosinase minigene under the control of its 5.2 kb upstream promoter region to rescue two different albino mutations in the medakafish, Oryzias latipes. Around hatching stages an almost perfect phenocopy of the wildtype pigmentation was obtained. Subsequent ectopic melanin overproduction indicated a possible incompatibility of the heterologous mouse promoter for stable expression during the entire ontogenesis. Like in some tyrosinase transgenic mouse lines a strong variegation effect was observed. The transgene-mediated pigmentation phenotype was obtained up to the eighth offspring generation. The phenotypic effects of the tyrosinase transgene in different albino mutant strains places the i3-locus upstream and the b-locus downstream of the tyrosinase locus i1 in the genetic hierarchy leading to wildtype pigmentation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Hyodo-Taguchi
- National Institute of Radiological Sciences, Division of Biology, Chiba, Japan
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106
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Bonifer C, Jägle U, Huber MC. The chicken lysozyme locus as a paradigm for the complex developmental regulation of eukaryotic gene loci. J Biol Chem 1997; 272:26075-8. [PMID: 9334168 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.272.42.26075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- C Bonifer
- Institut für Biologie III der Universität Freiburg, Schänzlestrasse 1, D-79104 Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany
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107
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Kioussis D, Festenstein R. Locus control regions: overcoming heterochromatin-induced gene inactivation in mammals. Curr Opin Genet Dev 1997; 7:614-9. [PMID: 9388777 DOI: 10.1016/s0959-437x(97)80008-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Differentiation of specific cell types during the development of mammals requires the selective silencing or activation of tissue-specific genes. Locus control regions (LCRs) are gene regulatory elements that act in cis to ensure that active transcriptional units are established in all cells of a given cell lineage. Over the past year, it has become clear that this process takes place at the level of chromatin remodelling, and that LCRs ensure that this decision is made by both alleles in every cell. Studies on LCRs and analysis of gene expression in transgenic mice at the single cell level has revealed that the breakdown in LCR function accompanying the deletion of specific sequences results in a phenomenon known as position effect variegation, described in detail in yeast and Drosophila. Thus, when located in close proximity to heterochromatin a transgene linked to a disabled LCR is randomly silenced in a proportion of cells. This finding implies that all subregions within an LCR are necessary to ensure the establishment of an open chromatin configuration of a gene even when the latter is located in a highly heterochromatic region.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Kioussis
- National Institute for Medical Research, Division of Molecular Immunology, London, UK.
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108
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Ainscough JF, Koide T, Tada M, Barton S, Surani MA. Imprinting of Igf2 and H19 from a 130 kb YAC transgene. Development 1997; 124:3621-32. [PMID: 9342054 DOI: 10.1242/dev.124.18.3621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
A stringent test for imprint control elements is to examine their function at ectopic loci in transgenic experiments. Igf2 and H19 are part of a larger imprinting region and as a first step, we examined these reciprocally imprinted genes in transgenic experiments using a 130 kb YAC clone. After paternal inheritance, H19 was appropriately repressed and Igf2 was expressed, irrespective of copy number or genetic background. After maternal inheritance H19 was consistently expressed, albeit with some variability. The levels of H19 expression per copy of the transgene inversely correlated with Igf2 (-lacZ) expression in cis. The consistent imprinting of H19 from this YAC contrasts with the previously described imprinting of mini-H19 transgenes, which only occurs at multi-copy loci, is inconsistent, and is prone to genetic background effects. We propose a novel model in which silencing of the H19 gene is the default state and its activation after maternal inheritance is the key mechanistic event for imprinting in this region. In addition, in situ analysis of the Igf2-lacZ reporter indicates that additional mesoderm-specific enhancers are present within the YAC clone. No obvious phenotype was detected from the excess gene dosage of H19.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Chromosomes, Artificial, Yeast
- DNA Methylation
- Embryo, Mammalian/metabolism
- Enhancer Elements, Genetic
- Female
- Gene Dosage
- Genes, Reporter
- Genomic Imprinting
- Insulin-Like Growth Factor II/genetics
- Male
- Mesoderm/metabolism
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Inbred CBA
- Mice, Transgenic
- Models, Genetic
- Muscle Proteins/genetics
- Phenotype
- RNA, Long Noncoding
- RNA, Untranslated
- Transgenes
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Affiliation(s)
- J F Ainscough
- Wellcome/CRC Institute of Cancer and Developmental Biology, University of Cambridge, UK.
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109
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Frengen E, Wu C, de Jong PJ. Transfer of small YACs to E. coli as large circular plasmids. GENETIC ANALYSIS : BIOMOLECULAR ENGINEERING 1997; 14:55-9. [PMID: 9349942 DOI: 10.1016/s1050-3862(97)00012-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
We have designed a YAC circularization vector, pCIRC3, allowing enrichment of the YAC DNA by exonuclease digestion of the linear yeast chromosomes. Due to the presence of P1 replicon sequences in this vector, the circular YACs would replicate as PACs in Escherischia coli.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Frengen
- Biotechnology Centre of Oslo, University of Oslo, Norway.
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110
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Abstract
Tyrosinase is one of the key enzymes essential for melanogenesis. The control of its activity rests in part at the level of transcriptional regulation. The 5' promoter regions of the human, mouse, chicken, quail, snapping turtle, and frog tyrosinase sequences have been isolated and the mechanisms regulating the activity of these sequences are beginning to be elucidated. This review provides an update on the following aspects of tyrosinase gene regulation: basal promoter elements that determine the site of transcription initiation for RNA polymerase II; the cis-acting elements and DNA-binding factors that mediate melanocyte-specific expression of the tyrosinase gene; promoter elements involved in the temporal control of tyrosinase gene expression; additional elements that may be required to achieve wild-type levels of gene expression; and specific elements that may be required for modulation of tyrosinase gene expression in response to humoral factors or external stimuli that are known to influence the amounts of melanin synthesized by fully differentiated melanocytes. The wild type expression of tyrosinase is the result of the interaction of many different factors and it is becoming evident that certain elements and factors play more than one role in this process.
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Affiliation(s)
- C A Ferguson
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Medical School, University of Cape Town, Observatory, South Africa
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111
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Fujiwara Y, Miwa M, Takahashi R, Hirabayashi M, Suzuki T, Ueda M. Position-independent and high-level expression of human alpha-lactalbumin in the milk of transgenic rats carrying a 210-kb YAC DNA. Mol Reprod Dev 1997; 47:157-63. [PMID: 9136116 DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1098-2795(199706)47:2<157::aid-mrd5>3.0.co;2-l] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
The level of expression of transgenes in transgenic animals varies among lines, and is often much lower than that of endogenous genes (position effects). In order to surmount position effects and establish a more efficient production system of transgenic animals producing pharmaceutical proteins in their milk, transgenic rats carrying 210-kb YAC DNA containing the human alpha-lactalbumin gene were produced. Three transgenic lines transmitted the transgene to the next generation. They had one copy of the alpha-lactalbumin gene and secreted human alpha-lactalbumin in their milk at concentrations of 2.0-4.3 mg/ml. No position effect was seen. The transgene was expressed specifically in the mammary gland of the transgenic rats. The 210-kb region is thought to contain all the DNA elements required for proper expression of the human alpha-lactalbumin gene. The YAC carrying the human alpha-lactalbumin gene is a potential vector for the expression of foreign genes in the mammary gland.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Fujiwara
- YS New Technology Institute, Inc., Tochigi, Japan
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112
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Abstract
Techniques that allow modification of the mammalian genome have made a considerable contribution to many areas of biological science. Despite these achievements, challenges remain in two principal areas of transgenic technology, namely gene regulation and efficient transgenic livestock production. Obtaining reliable and sophisticated expression that rivals that of endogenous genes is frequently problematic. Transgenic science has played an important part in increasing understanding of the complex processes that underlie gene regulation, and this in turn has assisted in the design of transgene constructs expressed in a tightly regulated and faithful manner. The production of transgenic livestock is an inefficient process compared to that of laboratory models, and the lack of totipotential embryonic stem (ES) cell lines in farm animal species hampers the development of this area of work. This article highlights recent progress in efficient trans gene expression systems, and the current efforts being made to find alternative means of generating transgenic livestock.
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Affiliation(s)
- E R Cameron
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Studies, Glasgow University Veterinary School.
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113
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Antoch MP, Song EJ, Chang AM, Vitaterna MH, Zhao Y, Wilsbacher LD, Sangoram AM, King DP, Pinto LH, Takahashi JS. Functional identification of the mouse circadian Clock gene by transgenic BAC rescue. Cell 1997; 89:655-67. [PMID: 9160756 PMCID: PMC3764491 DOI: 10.1016/s0092-8674(00)80246-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 527] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
As a complementary approach to positional cloning, we used in vivo complementation with bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) clones expressed in transgenic mice to identify the circadian Clock gene. A 140 kb BAC transgene completely rescued both the long period and the loss-of-rhythm phenotypes in Clock mutant mice. Analysis with overlapping BAC transgenes demonstrates that a large transcription unit spanning approximately 100,000 base pairs is the Clock gene and encodes a novel basic-helix-loop-helix-PAS domain protein. Overexpression of the Clock transgene can shorten period length beyond the wild-type range, which provides additional evidence that Clock is an integral component of the circadian pacemaking system. Taken together, these results provide a proof of principle that "cloning by rescue" is an efficient and definitive method in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- M P Antoch
- National Science Foundation Center for Biological Timing, Department of Neurobiology and Physiology, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, USA
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114
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Lien LL, Lee Y, Orkin SH. Regulation of the myeloid-cell-expressed human gp91-phox gene as studied by transfer of yeast artificial chromosome clones into embryonic stem cells: suppression of a variegated cellular pattern of expression requires a full complement of distant cis elements. Mol Cell Biol 1997; 17:2279-90. [PMID: 9121478 PMCID: PMC232077 DOI: 10.1128/mcb.17.4.2279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Identifying the full repertoire of cis elements required for gene expression in mammalian cells (or animals) is challenging, given the moderate sizes of many loci. To study how the human gp91-phox gene is expressed specifically in myeloid hematopoietic cells, we introduced yeast artificial chromosome (YAC) clones and derivatives generated in yeast into mouse embryonic stem cells competent to differentiate to myeloid cells in vitro or into mouse chimeras. Fully appropriate regulation was recapitulated with a 130-kb YAC containing 60 and 30 kb of 5' and 3' flanking sequences, respectively. Immunodetection of human gp91-phox protein revealed uniform expression in individual myeloid cells. The removal of upstream sequences led to decreased overall expression which reflected largely a variegated pattern of expression, such that cells were either "on" or "off," rather than pancellular loss of expression. The proportion of clones displaying marked variegation increased with progressive deletion. DNase I mapping of chromatin identified two hypersensitive clusters, consistent with the presence of multiple regulatory elements. Our findings point to cooperative interactions of complex regulatory elements and suggest that the presence of an incomplete set of elements reduces the probability that an open chromatin domain (or active transcriptional complex) may form or be maintained in the face of repressive influences of neighboring chromatin.
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Affiliation(s)
- L L Lien
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, Children's Hospital, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA
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115
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Jeffery G, Brem G, Montoliu L. Correction of retinal abnormalities found in albinism by introduction of a functional tyrosinase gene in transgenic mice and rabbits. BRAIN RESEARCH. DEVELOPMENTAL BRAIN RESEARCH 1997; 99:95-102. [PMID: 9088570 DOI: 10.1016/s0165-3806(96)00211-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
The factors that regulate normal retinal development remain obscure. However, it is known that elements in the retinal pigment epithelium are critical. When melanin is absent there is a reduction in rods, the central retina fails to develop fully and there is a systematic distortion in the chiasmatic projection to the brain. It has been demonstrated using transgenic mice that the chiasmatic abnormality is controlled by the tyrosinase gene, which is the key enzyme in melanin synthesis. Here we examine whether the two retinal deficits are regulated by this gene. We have examined the distribution of photoreceptors in an albino mouse strain in which a functional tyrosinase gene has been inserted and compared these transgenics with albino and wild type mice. In albinos, rod photoreceptors were reduced by approximately 30%, but were normal in the transgenics. Cone numbers were unchanged. Cell density in the ganglion cell layer was examined in transgenic rabbits, in which albinism had also been rescued with the tyrosinase gene. Normal rabbits have a steep gradient in cell density between central and peripheral retina. Cell density was abnormally low in the central retina in albinos, but normal in the transgenics. Hence, the tyrosinase gene is responsible for each of the retinal deficits associated with albinism. However, it is not clear whether this is due to the absence of melanin or whether the key agent is an associated cell product.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Jeffery
- Institute of Ophthalmology, University College London, UK.
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116
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Sutherland HG, Martin DI, Whitelaw E. A globin enhancer acts by increasing the proportion of erythrocytes expressing a linked transgene. Mol Cell Biol 1997; 17:1607-14. [PMID: 9032288 PMCID: PMC231886 DOI: 10.1128/mcb.17.3.1607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Enhancer elements have been shown to affect the probability of a gene establishing an active transcriptional state and suppress the silencing of reporter genes in cell lines, but their effect in transgenic mice has been obscured by the use of assays that do not assess expression on a cell-by-cell basis. We have examined the effect of a globin enhancer on the variegation of lacZ expression in erythrocytes of transgenic mice. Mice carrying lacZ driven by the alpha-globin promoter exhibit beta-galactosidase (beta-Gal) expression in only a very small proportion of embryonic erythrocytes. When the transgenic construct also contains the (alphaHS-40 enhancer, which controls expression of the alpha-globin gene, expression is seen in a high proportion of embryonic erythrocytes, although there are variations between transgenic lines which can be attributed to different sites of integration. Analysis of beta-Gal expression levels suggests that expressing cells in lines carrying only the alpha-globin promoter express as much beta-Gal as those in which the transgene also contains alphaHS-40. A marked decline in transgene expression occurs as mice age, which is mainly due to a decrease in the proportion of cells expressing the transgene. Thus, a globin enhancer can act to suppress variegation of a linked transgene; this result is consistent with a model in which enhancers act to establish and maintain an active domain without directly affecting the transcriptional rate.
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Affiliation(s)
- H G Sutherland
- Department of Biochemistry, The University of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
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117
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Wu M, Rinchik EM, Wilkinson E, Johnson DK. Inherited somatic mosaicism caused by an intracisternal A particle insertion in the mouse tyrosinase gene. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1997; 94:890-4. [PMID: 9023352 PMCID: PMC19609 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.94.3.890] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
A recessive, fully penetrant mutation (c(m1OR)) at the mouse albino locus that results in coat-color mottling has been characterized at the molecular level. Restriction mapping and DNA sequencing analyses provide evidence that mutants carry a 5.4-kb intracisternal A particle (IAP) element insertion upstream of the tyrosinase (Tyr) promoter. Northern blot analysis and reverse transcription-PCR results show that the tyrosinase gene is expressed at much lower levels in mutant than in wild-type mice. The mutant Tyr gene still retains the tissue-specific expression pattern, and the Tyr transcript is not initiated from the IAP long terminal repeat promoter. We propose that the IAP insertion isolates the promoter of the tyrosinase gene from upstream cis-acting regulatory elements, leading to a substantially decreased level of Tyr gene expression in mutants.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Wu
- Biology Division, University of Tennessee-Oak Ridge Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, 37831-8077, USA
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118
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Peterson KR, Clegg CH, Li Q, Stamatoyannopoulos G. Production of transgenic mice with yeast artificial chromosomes. Trends Genet 1997; 13:61-6. [PMID: 9055607 DOI: 10.1016/s0168-9525(97)01003-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Techniques are now available that allow the transfer of intact yeast artificial chromosome (YAC) DNA into transgenic mice. Coupled with the ability to perform mutagenesis on YAC sequences by homologous recombination in yeast, they enable the analysis of large genes or multigenic loci in vivo. This system has been used to study the developmental regulation of the human beta-globin locus.
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Affiliation(s)
- K R Peterson
- Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle 98195, USA.
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119
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FUJIWARA Y, MIWA M, TAKAHASHI RI, HIRABAYASHI M, SUZUKI T, UEDA M. Transgenic Animals with Various YAC Constructs: Preparation of 400 kb YAC DNA for Microinjection. J Reprod Dev 1997. [DOI: 10.1262/jrd.43.81] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Yoshihiro FUJIWARA
- YS New Technology Institute. Inc., 519 Shimoishibashi, Ishibashi-machi, Shimotsuga-gun, Tochigi 329-05, Japan
| | - Masami MIWA
- YS New Technology Institute. Inc., 519 Shimoishibashi, Ishibashi-machi, Shimotsuga-gun, Tochigi 329-05, Japan
| | - Ri-ichi TAKAHASHI
- YS New Technology Institute. Inc., 519 Shimoishibashi, Ishibashi-machi, Shimotsuga-gun, Tochigi 329-05, Japan
| | - Masumi HIRABAYASHI
- YS New Technology Institute. Inc., 519 Shimoishibashi, Ishibashi-machi, Shimotsuga-gun, Tochigi 329-05, Japan
| | - Takashige SUZUKI
- YS New Technology Institute. Inc., 519 Shimoishibashi, Ishibashi-machi, Shimotsuga-gun, Tochigi 329-05, Japan
| | - Masatsugu UEDA
- YS New Technology Institute. Inc., 519 Shimoishibashi, Ishibashi-machi, Shimotsuga-gun, Tochigi 329-05, Japan
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120
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Yull F, Binas B, Harold G, Wallace R, Clark AJ. Transgene rescue in the mammary gland is associated with transcription but does not require translation of BLG transgenes. Transgenic Res 1997; 6:11-7. [PMID: 9032973 DOI: 10.1023/a:1018444830518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Many transgenes, particularly those comprising cDNA sequences fail to be expressed when they are introduced into transgenic mice. We have previously shown that this problem can be overcome in the mammary gland by co-integrating a poorly expressed cDNA transgene, comprising the sheep beta-lactoglobulin promoter, with the efficiently expressed, unmodified beta-lactoglobulin gene. In this report we demonstrate that the transcription of the beta-lactoglobulin gene is associated with this effect because co-integration with a non-transcribed beta-lactoglobulin gene fails to rescue expression. By contrast, co-integration with a translationally inactivated beta-lactoglobulin transgene does rescue the expression of the second gene, but without the co-production of beta-lactoglobulin protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Yull
- Division of Molecular Biology, Roslin Institute, Midlothian, UK
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121
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Peterson KR. Production and analysis of transgenic mice containing yeast artificial chromosomes. GENETIC ENGINEERING 1997; 19:235-55. [PMID: 9193112 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4615-5925-2_13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- K R Peterson
- Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle 98195, USA
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122
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Bedell MA, Jenkins NA, Copeland NG. Mouse models of human disease. Part I: techniques and resources for genetic analysis in mice. Genes Dev 1997; 11:1-10. [PMID: 9000047 DOI: 10.1101/gad.11.1.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- M A Bedell
- Mammalian Genetics Laboratory, ABL-Basic Research Program, NCI-Frederick Cancer Research and Development Center, Frederick, Maryland 21702-1201, USA
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123
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Lee JT, Jaenisch R. A method for high efficiency YAC lipofection into murine embryonic stem cells. Nucleic Acids Res 1996; 24:5054-5. [PMID: 9016681 PMCID: PMC146328 DOI: 10.1093/nar/24.24.5054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
We describe a modified protocol for introducing yeast artificial chromosomes (YACs) into murine embryonic stem (ES) cells by lipofection. With a decreased DNA:cell ratio, increased concentration of condensing agents and altered culture conditions, this protocol reduces the requirement for YAC DNA to a few micrograms, improves the recovery of neomycin-resistant ES colonies and increases the yield of clones containing both flanking vector markers and insert. These modifications enable generation of sufficient 'intact' transgenic clones for biological analysis with a single experiment.
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Affiliation(s)
- J T Lee
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, Biology Department, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge 02142, USA.
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124
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Simpson K, Huxley C. A shuttle system for transfer of YACs between yeast and mammalian cells. Nucleic Acids Res 1996; 24:4693-9. [PMID: 8972855 PMCID: PMC146308 DOI: 10.1093/nar/24.23.4693] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The development of a system for shuttling DNA cloned as yeast artificial chromosomes (YACs) between yeast and mammalian cells requires that the DNA is maintained as extrachromosomal elements in both cell types. We have recently shown that circular YACs carrying the Epstein-Barr virus origin of plasmid replication (oriP) are maintained as stable, episomal elements in a human kidney cell line constitutively expressing the viral transactivator protein EBNA-1. Here, we demonstrate that a 90-kb episomal YAC can be isolated intact from human cells by a simple alkaline lysis procedure and shuttled back into Saccharomyces cerevisiae by spheroplast transformation. In addition, we demonstrate that the 90-kb YAC can be isolated intact from yeast cells. The ability to shuttle large, intact fragments of DNA between yeast and human cells should provide a powerful tool in the manipulation and analysis of functional regions of mammalian DNA.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Simpson
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Imperial College School of Medicine at St. Mary's, London, UK
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125
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Abstract
The expression of neuropeptides is largely tissue-specific and under strictly regulated and complex control. In view of the diversity of neuronal phenotypes, with concomitant plasticity of gene expression within any phenotype, it is obvious that there is coordinated activation and repression of genes. One of the central observations from these studies is that neuropeptide gene expression is dependent upon the combinatorial interaction of multiple transcription factors with the regulatory elements which determine mRNA synthesis. These factors mediate both tissue specific and stimulus inducible gene expression. We will illustrate some of the mechanisms that regulate neuropeptide gene expression utilizing our own studies on the rat preprotachykinin-A gene (rPPT) and, where appropriate, expand on the generality of these findings to other neuropeptide genes.
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126
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Abstract
Polyethylene glycol (PEG)-induced cell fusion can be a useful method for the transfer of yeast artificial chromosomes (YACs) from yeast spheroplasts to mammalian cells in culture, although success varies between recipient cell types. Experiments aimed at determining optimum fusion conditions can also be very time-consuming. To minimize this difficulty, a reporter plasmid has been constructed that allows yeast-mammalian cell fusion rates to be determined within 3 d. The speed and sensitivity of the assay should allow a more systematic evaluation of cell lines for their capacity to fuse with yeast, and for rapid optimization of fusion parameters.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Markie
- Paediatric Research Unit, UMDS, Guy's Hospital, London.
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127
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Hamilton CM, Frary A, Lewis C, Tanksley SD. Stable transfer of intact high molecular weight DNA into plant chromosomes. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1996; 93:9975-9. [PMID: 8790442 PMCID: PMC38540 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.93.18.9975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 216] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
In conjunction with an enhanced system for Agrobacterium-mediated plant transformation, a new binary bacterial artificial chromosome (BIBAC) vector has been developed that is capable of transferring at least 150 kb of foreign DNA into a plant nuclear genome. The transferred DNA appears to be intact in the majority of transformed tobacco plants analyzed and is faithfully inherited in the progeny. The ability to introduce high molecular weight DNA into plant chromosomes should accelerate gene identification and genetic engineering of plants and may lead to new approaches in studies of genome organization.
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Affiliation(s)
- C M Hamilton
- Plant Science Center, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
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128
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Schedl A, Ross A, Lee M, Engelkamp D, Rashbass P, van Heyningen V, Hastie ND. Influence of PAX6 gene dosage on development: overexpression causes severe eye abnormalities. Cell 1996; 86:71-82. [PMID: 8689689 DOI: 10.1016/s0092-8674(00)80078-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 314] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Aniridia in man and Small eye in mice are semidominant developmental disorders caused by mutations within the paired box gene PAX6. Whereas heterozygotes suffer from iris hypoplasia, homozygous mice lack eyes and nasal cavities and exhibit brain abnormalities. To investigate the role of gene dosage in more detail, we have generated yeast artificial chromosome transgenic mice carrying the human PAX6 locus. When crossed onto the Small eye background, the transgene rescues the mutant phenotype. Strikingly, mice carrying multiple copies on a wild-type background show specific developmental abnormalities of the eye, but not of other tissues expressing the gene. Thus, at least five different eye phenotypes are associated with changes in PAX6 expression. We provide evidence that not only reduced, but also increased levels of transcriptional regulators can cause developmental defects.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Schedl
- MRC Human Genetics Unit, Western General Hospital, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
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129
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Buck KJ. Molecular genetic analysis of the role of GABAergic systems in the behavioral and cellular actions of alcohol. Behav Genet 1996; 26:313-23. [PMID: 8754254 DOI: 10.1007/bf02359387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Recent studies implicate the inhibitory neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) in many neurochemical actions of ethanol and a variety of behavioral responses to acute and chronic ethanol treatment. However, the molecular mechanisms responsible for genetic differences in initial neurochemical or behavioral sensitivity to ethanol, and adaptation following chronic or repeated ethanol administration, remain to be elucidated. Pharmacogenetic research will increasingly move toward mapping, cloning, identification, and functional analysis of the genes underlying the actions of ethanol. The approaches discussed here permit molecular analysis of both known and previously unknown genes regulating behavioral sensitivity to ethanol. The synthesis of molecular methods and behavioral genetics offers immediate hope for delineating the role of the GABA(A) receptor complex, and other determinants of GABAergic neurotransmission, in determining genetic variation in behavioral responses to ethanol.
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Affiliation(s)
- K J Buck
- Department of Medical Psychology, Oregon Health Sciences University, Portland 97201-3098, USA
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130
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Brem G, Besenfelder U, Aigner B, Müller M, Liebl I, Schütz G, Montoliu L. YAC transgenesis in farm animals: rescue of albinism in rabbits. Mol Reprod Dev 1996; 44:56-62. [PMID: 8722692 DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1098-2795(199605)44:1<56::aid-mrd6>3.0.co;2-s] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
The generation of transgenic mice with mammalian genes cloned in yeast artificial chromosomes (YACs) has generated great interest in the field of gene transfer into livestock. Many of the problems associated with standard transgenesis-such as lack of crucial regulator elements and position effects related to the integration site, which lead to variation in expression levels irrespective of the dose of the transgene-have been practically overcome. The large size of YAC-derived gene constructs (in excess of 1 Mb) facilitates the presence and transfer of all elements required for the faithful regulation of a gene. With the experiments discussed in this report, we have addressed the possibility of applying the obvious advantages of YAC transgenesis to farm animals. We have generated transgenic rabbits carrying a 250 kb YAC covering the mouse tyrosinase gene by pronuclear microinjection, and thus rescued the albino phenotype of the transgenic individuals. To date, this is the first demonstration of a successful transfer of large genetic units into the germ line of farm animals. This development might improve the occurrence of transgene expression at physiological levels and specific sites in livestock. YAC transgenesis therefore will be applied in genetic engineering, for example, in the production of pharmacologically interesting proteins encoded by large gene units and generating transgenic donors for xenotransplantation.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Brem
- Tierzucht und Genetik, VMU Wien Vienna, Austria
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131
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Abstract
Tyrosinase, the key enzyme in melanin synthesis, is expressed in pigment cells derived from both neural crest and neuroectoderm. The present study was performed to detect tyrosinase promoter activity and tyrosinase gene expression during murine brain development. Mouse tyrosinase 5' region (6.1 Kb) was used to direct lacZ expression in transgenic mice. During embryogenesis, the transgene reproduced tyrosinase expression in pigment cells but was also observed in embryonic neuroectoderm and migrating neural crest cells. Both tyrosinase and lacZ were detected in cell populations often organized in columnar arrangements and found throughout the entire neural tube, in the cranial region as well as in the spinal chord. In the developing brain, the highest density of positive cells was localized to ventricular and subventricular zones and to evaginations of the neural tube such as optic vesicle, pineal gland, and olfactory bulbs. These results demonstrate that tyrosinase promoter activity and tyrosinase expression are not restricted to differentiated pigment cells. We suggest that tyrosinase is a new marker for cell populations in the neural tube, and that expression is correlated to regions undergoing rapid cell proliferation.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Tief
- Swiss Institute for Experimental Cancer Research ISREC, Epalinges, Switzerland
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132
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Festenstein R, Tolaini M, Corbella P, Mamalaki C, Parrington J, Fox M, Miliou A, Jones M, Kioussis D. Locus control region function and heterochromatin-induced position effect variegation. Science 1996; 271:1123-5. [PMID: 8599090 DOI: 10.1126/science.271.5252.1123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 254] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Human CD2 locus control region (LCR) sequences are shown here to be essential for establishing an open chromatin configuration. Transgenic mice carrying an hCD2 mini-gene attached only to the 3' CD2 transcriptional enhancer exhibited variegated expression when the transgene integrated in the centromere. In contrast, mice carrying a transgene with additional 3' sequences showed no variegation even when the latter integrated in centromeric positions. This result suggests that LCRs operate by ensuring an open chromatin configuration and that a short region, with no enhancer activity, functions in the establishment, maintenance, or both of an open chromatin domain.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Festenstein
- Division of Molecular Immunology, National Institute for Medical Research, The Ridgeway, London, UK
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133
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Gregorová S, Mnuková-Fajdelová M, Trachtulec Z, Capková J, Loudová M, Hoglund M, Hamvas R, Lehrach H, Vincek V, Klein J, Forejt J. Sub-milliMorgan map of the proximal part of mouse Chromosome 17 including the hybrid sterility 1 gene. Mamm Genome 1996; 7:107-13. [PMID: 8835526 DOI: 10.1007/s003359900029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
We have generated a high-resolution genetic map, 0.071 cM per backcross animal, of the 13 cM T-H2 region of the mouse Chromosome (Chr) 17. The map contains two phenotypic loci, T and Hst1, 12 RFLP markers, and 24 microsatellite loci. The Hst1 gene was mapped to a chromosomal interval contained within a single 580-kb YAC clone. The FFEH11 YAC is 0.44 cM long and carries, besides the Hst1 gene, five polymorphic DNA markers and recombination breakpoints of six backcross animals. Two candidate genes for Hst1 were identified based on their location and testicular expression. These are Tbp and D17Ph4e. The submilliMorgan map of the T-H2 region revealed significant clustering of (CA)n loci. The clustering, if shown to be a common feature in the mouse genome, may cause gaps in the physical map of the mouse genome.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Gregorová
- Institute of Molecular Genetics, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Prague
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134
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McCormick SP, Peterson KR, Hammer RE, Clegg CH, Young SG. Generation of transgenic mice from yeast artificial chromosome DNA that has been modified by gene targeting. Trends Cardiovasc Med 1996; 6:16-24. [DOI: 10.1016/1050-1738(95)00125-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
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135
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Melanitou E, Simmler MC, Heard E, Rougeulle C, Avner P. [25]Selected methods related to the mouse as a model system. Hum Mol Genet 1996. [DOI: 10.1016/s1067-2389(96)80058-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
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136
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Bungert J, Davé U, Lim KC, Lieuw KH, Shavit JA, Liu Q, Engel JD. Synergistic regulation of human beta-globin gene switching by locus control region elements HS3 and HS4. Genes Dev 1995; 9:3083-96. [PMID: 8543153 DOI: 10.1101/gad.9.24.3083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 158] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Proper tissue- and developmental stage-specific transcriptional control over the five genes of the human beta-globin locus is elicited in part by the locus control region (LCR), but the molecular mechanisms that dictate this determined pattern of gene expression during human development are still controversial. By use of homologous recombination in yeast to generate mutations in the LCR within a yeast artificial chromosome (YAC) bearing the entire human beta-globin gene locus, followed by injection of each of the mutated YACs into murine ova, we addressed the function of LCR hypersensitive site (HS) elements 3 and 4 in human beta-globin gene switching. The experiments revealed a number of unexpected properties that are directly attributable to LCR function. First, deletion of either HS3 or HS4 core elements from an otherwise intact YAC results in catastrophic disruption of globin gene expression at all erythroid developmental stages, despite the presence of all other HS elements in the YAC transgenes. If HS3 is used to replace HS4, gene expression is normal at all developmental stages. Conversely, insertion of the HS4 element in place of HS3 results in significant expression changes at every developmental stage, indicating that individual LCR HS elements play distinct roles in stage-specific beta-type globin gene activation. Although the HS4 duplication leads to alteration in the levels of epsilon- and gamma-globin mRNAs during embryonic erythropoiesis, total beta-type globin mRNA synthesis is balanced, thereby leading to the conclusion that all of the human beta-locus genes are competitively regulated. In summary, the human beta-globin HS elements appear to form a single, synergistic functional entity called the LCR, and HS3 and HS4 appear to be individually indispensable to the integrity of this macromolecular complex.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Bungert
- Department of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, and Cell Biology, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208-3500, USA
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137
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Dietrich WF, Copeland NG, Gilbert DJ, Miller JC, Jenkins NA, Lander ES. Mapping the mouse genome: current status and future prospects. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1995; 92:10849-53. [PMID: 7479896 PMCID: PMC40528 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.92.24.10849] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
The mouse is the best model system for the study of mammalian genetics and physiology. Because of the feasibility and importance of studying genetic crosses, the mouse genetic map has received tremendous attention in recent years. It currently contains over 14,000 genetically mapped markers, including 700 mutant loci, 3500 genes, and 6500 simple sequence length polymorphisms (SSLPs). The mutant loci and genes allow insights and correlations concerning physiology and development. The SSLPs provide highly polymorphic anchor points that allow inheritance to be traced in any cross and provide a scaffold for assembling physical maps. Adequate physical mapping resources--notably large-insert yeast artificial chromosome (YAC) libraries--are available to support positional cloning projects based on the genetic map, but a comprehensive physical map is still a few years away. Large-scale sequencing efforts have not yet begun in mouse, but comparative sequence analysis between mouse and human is likely to provide tremendous information about gene structure and regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- W F Dietrich
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
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138
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Rijnkels M, Kooiman PM, Krimpenfort PJ, de Boer HA, Pieper FR. Expression analysis of the individual bovine beta-, alpha s2- and kappa-casein genes in transgenic mice. Biochem J 1995; 311 ( Pt 3):929-37. [PMID: 7487953 PMCID: PMC1136091 DOI: 10.1042/bj3110929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
To identify cis-acting regulatory elements involved in the regulation of expression of the casein genes, the bovine beta-, alpha s2- and kappa-casein genes were isolated from cosmid libraries and introduced into the murine germline. Bovine casein expression was analysed at the RNA and protein level. The bovine beta-casein gene, including 16 kb of 5'- and 8 kb of 3'-flanking region, appeared to be expressed in all 12 transgenic mouse lines analysed. In 50% of these lines expression levels in milk exceeded 1 mg/ml. Three lines displayed expression levels comparable with or well above (20 mg/ml) the beta-casein levels in bovine milk. Transgene expression was restricted to the mammary gland. Strong induction of expression occurred at parturition and thus resembled the bovine rather than the murine pattern. In spite of this high-level tissue-specific and developmentally regulated expression, beta-casein expression levels were integration-site-dependent, suggesting that not all elements involved in regulation of expression were included in this beta-casein clone. Neither the bovine alpha s2- nor the kappa-casein gene, including 8 kb and 5 kb of 5'- and 1.5 kb and 19 kb of 3'-flanking sequences respectively, were properly expressed in transgenic mice. However, they were transcribed in stably transfected mouse mammary epithelial cells. This indicates that regulatory elements required for high-level, mammary gland-specific expression are not present in the alpha s2- and kappa-casein clones used in this study and are probably located elsewhere in the casein gene locus.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Rijnkels
- Medical Biotechnology Department, Leiden Institute of Chemistry, Leiden University, The Netherlands
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139
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Kusaba H, Kohno K, Asakuno K, Kuwano M, Okumura K, Green ED, Schlessinger D, Wada M. Functional expression of yeast artificial chromosome-human multidrug resistance genes in mouse cells. Genome Res 1995; 5:245-58. [PMID: 8593612 DOI: 10.1101/gr.5.3.245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Multidrug resistance (MDR) genes, which are ATP-binding cassette family genes, encode the cell surface glycoprotein, P-glycoprotein, which functions as an energy-dependent drug efflux pump. Two relevant human genes, PGY1 and PGY3, are located on human chromosome 7, and three relevant mouse genes, mdr1a, mdr1b, and mdr2, are located on mouse chromosome 5. An LMD1 cell line was established after the transfer of a 580-kb yeast artificial chromosome (YAC) clone carrying the human MDR locus into mouse L cells; the cell line was shown to have stably integrated YAC DNA in an apparent intact form. Using LMD1 cells as the parental cell line, five vincristine-resistant sublines, designated LMD1-V50, LMD1-V100, LMD1-V200, LMD1-V500, and LMD1-V1000, were isolated by exposure to increasing concentrations of the drug. LMD1-V50, LMD1-V100, LMD1-V200, LMD1-V500, and LMD1-V1000 showed 3-, 7-, 13-, 45-, and 110-fold higher resistance to the cytotoxic effects of vincristine, respectively, than their parental counterpart, LMD1. Immunofluorescence, Western blot, and Northern blot analyses revealed that the human PGY1 gene or its product was overexpressed, accompanied by gene amplification. The human PGY3 gene was also overexpressed in the LMD1-V20, LMD1-V100, and LMD1-V1000 cell lines. Southern blot and fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) analyses demonstrated that although essentially the entire YAC DNA was integrated in mouse genome and amplified, the endogenous mouse mdr genes were not amplified in these drug-resistant cell lines. Similar results were obtained by the analyses of vincristine-resistant cell lines isolated from four independent subclones of LMD1 cells. Thus, in contrast to their mouse counterparts, the integrated human MDR genes retained susceptibility to both gene activation and amplification, during the selection of drug-resistant mouse cell lines. The possibility that transferred YACs may retain regulatory properties observed in the cells of origin, and may have a chromatin structure that favors augmented expression, is discussed.
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MESH Headings
- ATP Binding Cassette Transporter, Subfamily B
- ATP Binding Cassette Transporter, Subfamily B, Member 1/biosynthesis
- ATP Binding Cassette Transporter, Subfamily B, Member 1/genetics
- ATP-Binding Cassette Transporters/biosynthesis
- ATP-Binding Cassette Transporters/genetics
- Animals
- Base Sequence
- Blotting, Western
- Chromosomes, Artificial, Yeast
- Chromosomes, Human, Pair 7
- Drug Resistance, Multiple/genetics
- Drug Resistance, Neoplasm/genetics
- Gene Expression
- Humans
- In Situ Hybridization, Fluorescence
- KB Cells/drug effects
- KB Cells/metabolism
- L Cells/drug effects
- L Cells/metabolism
- Mice
- Molecular Sequence Data
- Polymerase Chain Reaction
- Recombinant Fusion Proteins/biosynthesis
- Recombinant Fusion Proteins/genetics
- Vincristine/pharmacology
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Affiliation(s)
- H Kusaba
- Department of Biochemistry, Kyushu University School of Medicine, Fukuoka, Japan
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140
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Knotts S, Rindt H, Robbins J. Position independent expression and developmental regulation is directed by the beta myosin heavy chain gene's 5' upstream region in transgenic mice. Nucleic Acids Res 1995; 23:3301-9. [PMID: 7667107 PMCID: PMC307192 DOI: 10.1093/nar/23.16.3301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Transgenic mice generated with constructs containing 5.6 kb of the beta myosin heavy chain (MyHC) gene's 5' flanking region linked to the cat reporter gene express the transgene at high levels. In all 47 lines analyzed, tissue-specific accumulation of chloramphenicol acetyltransferase was found at levels proportional to the number of integrated transgene copies. Deletion constructs containing only 0.6 kb of 5' upstream region showed position effects in transgenic mice and did not demonstrate copy number dependence although transgene expression remained muscle-specific. The 5.6 kb 5' upstream region conferred appropriate developmental control of the transgene to the cardiac compartment and directs copy number dependent and position independent expression. Lines generated with a construct in which three proximal cis-acting elements were mutated showed reduced levels of transgene expression, but all maintained their position independence and copy number dependence, suggesting the presence of distinct regulatory mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Knotts
- Department of Pediatrics, Children's Hospital Research Foundation, Cincinnati, OH 45229-3039, USA
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141
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Buck KJ. Strategies for mapping and identifying quantitative trait loci specifying behavioral responses to alcohol. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 1995; 19:795-801. [PMID: 7485822 DOI: 10.1111/j.1530-0277.1995.tb00949.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Most responses to alcohol in both humans and animals are heritable, and this genetic sensitivity to ethanol is determined by multiple genes. However, the number of genes, their identities, and just how they determine susceptibility to the actions of alcohol are unknown. Herein, we describe a multistage strategy for mapping quantitative trait loci (QTLs) using recombinant inbred strains and F2 mice. Precise mapping of the chromosome positions of these QTLs should increase our understanding of the genetic causes for individual differences in behavioral sensitivity to alcohol by (1) identifying genomic markers associated with sensitivity to alcohol, (2) allowing the genes specifying behavior to be cloned by position, and (3) elucidating "candidate" genes demonstrating linkage to markers associated with behavioral responses to alcohol. Syntenic conservation between the mouse and human genomes should facilitate the eventual mapping and cloning of human homologs of these QTLs. Ultimately, cloning of these genes may allow the development of gene therapies or other therapeutic interventions for management or prevention of alcoholism and alcohol abuse.
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Affiliation(s)
- K J Buck
- Department of Medical Psychology, Oregon Health Sciences University, Portland 97201-3098, USA
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142
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Abstract
Advances in yeast artificial chromosome (YAC) technologies over the past decade have enabled the precise identification and manipulation of large genomic regions (>100 kb) of DNA. Introduction of YACs into the mouse germline has now been accomplished through transfection of mouse embryonic stem cells as well as through pronuclear microinjection, allowing the efficient transfer defined genomic loci into mice. YAC transgenics will have a profound impact on the development of transgenic mice as bioreactors and as models of human disease, and on the functional analysis of higher order genomic structure.
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Affiliation(s)
- B T Lamb
- Department of Gynecology and Obsterics, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21287-2501, USA
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143
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Levy-Wilson B. Transcriptional control of the human apolipoprotein B gene in cell culture and in transgenic animals. PROGRESS IN NUCLEIC ACID RESEARCH AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 1995; 50:161-90. [PMID: 7754033 DOI: 10.1016/s0079-6603(08)60814-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- B Levy-Wilson
- Palo Alto Medical Foundation Research Institute, California 94301, USA
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144
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Bonifer C, Yannoutsos N, Krüger G, Grosveld F, Sippel AE. Dissection of the locus control function located on the chicken lysozyme gene domain in transgenic mice. Nucleic Acids Res 1994; 22:4202-10. [PMID: 7937146 PMCID: PMC331921 DOI: 10.1093/nar/22.20.4202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
The entire chicken lysozyme gene locus including all known cis-regulatory sequences and the 5' and 3' matrix attachment sites defining the borders of the DNase I sensitive chromatin domain, is expressed at a high level and independent of its chromosomal position in macrophages of transgenic mice. It was concluded that the lysozyme gene locus carries a locus control function. We analysed several cis-regulatory deletion mutants to investigate their influence on tissue specificity and level of expression. Position independent expression of the gene is lost whenever one of the upstream tissue specific enhancer regions is deleted, although tissue specific expression is usually retained. Deletion of the domain border fragments has no influence on copy number dependency of expression. However, without these regions an increased incidence of ectopic expression is observed. This suggests that the domain border fragments may help to suppress transgene expression in inappropriate tissues. We conclude, that position independent expression of the lysozyme gene is not controlled by a single specific region of the locus but is the result of the concerted action of several tissue specific upstream regulatory DNA elements with the promoter.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Bonifer
- Institut für Biologie III, Universität Freiburg, Germany
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145
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Ganss R, Schmidt A, Schütz G, Beermann F. Analysis of the mouse tyrosinase promoter in vitro and in vivo. PIGMENT CELL RESEARCH 1994; 7:275-8. [PMID: 7885998 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0749.1994.tb00627.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
The restricted expression of the tyrosinase gene in cells producing pigment suggests the presence of cis-regulatory elements and trans-acting tissue-specific factors. Since 270 bp upstream of the transcriptional start site contain sufficient information for tissue-specific and developmentally regulated expression, we confined our analyses to this region. In this article, we discuss the recent results we have obtained on the regulation of the mouse tyrosinase gene expression demonstrating the existence of one negative and two positive-acting elements in vitro. We have evidence that the positive elements do not determine pigment production in vivo but rather modulate transcription of the mouse tyrosinase gene.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Ganss
- Division Molecular Biology of the Cell I, German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg
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146
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Abstract
Embryonic stem cells have become versatile genetic vehicles. Two-step recombination protocols have been used to modify endogenous mouse genes, and yeast artificial chromosomes containing human genes have been transmitted into the mouse germline. Recently, it has become possible to evaluate homozygous deficiencies in specific developmental compartments either through the use of chimeras or by activating recombination in vivo using potent recombinases.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Ramírez-Solis
- Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas 77030
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147
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McCormick S, Linton M, Hobbs H, Taylor S, Curtiss L, Young S. Expression of human apolipoprotein B90 in transgenic mice. Demonstration that apolipoprotein B90 lacks the structural requirements to form lipoprotein. J Biol Chem 1994. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(19)51079-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
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148
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Maule JC, Porteous DJ, Brookes AJ. An improved method for recovering intact pulsed field gel purified DNA, of at least 1.6 megabases. Nucleic Acids Res 1994; 22:3245-6. [PMID: 8065943 PMCID: PMC310304 DOI: 10.1093/nar/22.15.3245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- J C Maule
- MRC Human Genetics Unit, Western General Hospital, Edinburgh, UK
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149
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Porter SD, Meyer CJ. A distal tyrosinase upstream element stimulates gene expression in neural-crest-derived melanocytes of transgenic mice: position-independent and mosaic expression. Development 1994; 120:2103-11. [PMID: 7925014 DOI: 10.1242/dev.120.8.2103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
We have assessed the importance of a melanocyte-specific DNase I hypersensitive site and matrix attachment region situated 15 kb upstream of the mouse tyrosinase gene by analysis in transgenic mice. Transgenes containing all, part, or none of this region linked to the tyrosinase promoter and human tyrosinase cDNA were introduced into genetically albino mice, and pigmentation and transgene message levels were analyzed in the resulting transgenic lines. The effect of the upstream region was to enhance significantly gene expression in melanocytes, and to provide position-independent expression of the transgene. Two exceptions to complete position independence were seen; these lines displayed a mosaic expression pattern in which the transgene was expressed fully in some melanocyte clones but less so in others, resulting in transverse stripes of colours ranging from near white to dark grey. Unexpectedly, pigmentation in the eye of all transgenic lines containing the upstream region was nonuniform, in that the neural-crest-derived melanocytes of the choroid and anterior iris contained significantly more pigment than those derived from the optic cup (retinal pigment epithelium and posterior iris). Transgenes containing a small part or none of the upstream region were expressed poorly and in a position-dependent manner; of those lines that were visibly pigmented, expression was equal in the neural crest and optic-cup-derived cells of the eye.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
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Affiliation(s)
- S D Porter
- Department of Pathology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
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150
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Abstract
Modern molecular genetic and genomic approaches are revolutionizing the study of behavior in the mouse. "Reverse genetics" (from gene to phenotype) with targeted gene transfer provides a powerful tool to dissect behavior and has been used successfully to study the effects of null mutations in genes implicated in the regulation of long-term potentiation and spatial learning in mice. In addition, "forward genetics" (from phenotype to gene) with high-efficiency mutagenesis in the mouse can uncover unknown genes and has been used to isolate a behavioral mutant of the circadian system. With the recent availability of high-density genetic maps and physical mapping resources, positional cloning of virtually any mutation is now feasible in the mouse. Together, these approaches permit a molecular analysis of both known and previously unknown genes regulating behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- J S Takahashi
- Department of Neurobiology and Physiology, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208
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