Ferroptosis: process and function

Exploring cell death pathways in oral cancer: mechanisms, therapeutic strategies, and future perspectives

Oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) represents a significant global health challenge, characterized by aggressive progression and poor therapeutic response despite advances in treatment modalities. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of diverse cell death mechanisms in OSCC, encompassing traditional pathways (apoptosis, autophagy, and necrosis), newly characterized mechanisms (ferroptosis, pyroptosis, and necroptosis), and emerging pathways (cuproptosis, anoikis, parthanatos, and entosis). By examining the molecular basis of these pathways, particularly the crucial roles of p53 signaling and miRNA regulation, we highlight how their dysregulation contributes to treatment resistance and tumor progression. The review synthesizes recent evidence demonstrating the complex interplay between these ten distinct cell death mechanisms and their impact on the tumor microenvironment and immune response. We evaluate innovative therapeutic approaches that target these pathways, including novel small molecules, combination strategies, and immunomodulatory treatments that exploit specific cell death mechanisms to enhance therapeutic efficacy. Special attention is given to emerging personalized medicine strategies that consider individual tumor characteristics and cell death pathway profiles. By integrating current challenges with future research directions, this review provides a framework for developing more effective treatments that can leverage multiple cell death pathways to overcome therapy resistance and improve outcomes for oral cancer patients.

Simvastatin inhibits PD-L1 via ILF3 to induce ferroptosis in gastric cancer cells

The treatment of gastric cancer remains challenging, with immunotherapy serving as a critical component of the holistic approach to its treatment. The results of this study indicated that statins could decrease the serum levels of interleukin-enhancing binding factor 3 (ILF3) and programmed cell death ligand 1(PD-L1) in GC patients and improve their prognosis. Functional experiments demonstrated that simvastatin induced ferroptosis by inhibiting ILF3 in GC cells and enhanced the killing effect of activated CD8+ T cells on GC cells. The CUT&Tag assay revealed that, mechanistically, simvastatin inhibited ILF3 expression by reducing the acetylation level at residue site H3K14 in ILF3. Next-generation sequencing and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes analysis revealed that ILF3 regulated PD-L1 expression through the DEPTOR/mTOR signaling pathway. Overall, simvastatin induced ferroptosis in GC cells by inhibiting ILF3 expression while promoting the activation of CD8+ T cells to augment antitumor immune responses, thereby facilitating synergistic immunotherapy.

NELL2 suppresses epithelial-mesenchymal transition and induces ferroptosis via notch signaling pathway in HCC

Although various malignant tumors have been associated with the aberrant expression of Neural Epidermal Growth Factor-Like 2 (NELL2), its involvement in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) has not been previously documented. In this study, NELL2, recognized as a crucial tumor-suppressor gene, was found to be infrequently expressed in HCC. In vitro experiments demonstrated that the overexpression of NELL2 significantly inhibited the proliferation, migration, and invasion of liver cancer cells, whereas the suppression of NELL2 markedly enhanced these oncogenic properties. Further investigation revealed that NELL2 impedes epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) via the Notch signaling pathway. Inhibition of the Notch pathway reversed the increased tumor proliferation, migration, and invasion observed following the downregulation of NELL2 expression. Notably, gene enrichment analysis and in vitro studies indicated that NELL2 effectively induced ferroptosis in HCC cells, as evidenced by increased levels of cellular malondialdehyde (MDA), iron, and Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS), alongside decreased glutathione (GSH) levels. The blockade of the Notch signaling pathway substantially diminished NELL2's capacity to induce ferroptosis. In summary, our findings suggest that NELL2 modulates the Notch signaling pathway to inhibit EMT and promote ferroptosis. Consequently, NELL2 may serve as a novel therapeutic target, potentially functioning as a tumor suppressor gene in HCC.

Ferroptosis as the new approach to cancer therapy

Cancer is characterized by unregulated cell proliferation, evasion of apoptosis, and a propensity for metastasis, making it a leading cause of morbidity and mortality globally. Major challenges in cancer treatment include drug resistance and tumor heterogeneity, which hinder the clinical efficacy of existing therapies. To enhance treatment outcomes, it is essential to integrate emerging biological insights and technological advancements with conventional therapeutic strategies. Recent research has identified various forms of cell death, which can be classified as either regulated or unregulated. Regulated cell death involves specific biochemical and signaling pathways, while unregulated cell death occurs passively and uncontrollably. Apoptosis, the most extensively studied form of regulated cell death, is primarily mediated by the activation of caspase proteases. Nevertheless, the resistance of many tumors to apoptotic pathways has shifted focus towards non-apoptotic forms of cell death, such as ferroptosis. Ferroptosis is an iron-dependent form of regulated necrosis characterized by extensive membrane damage resulting from lipid peroxidation. Numerous preclinical studies have demonstrated that inducing ferroptosis can significantly reduce tumor growth across a variety of cancer types. For instance, in a study involving breast cancer models, the use of ferroptosis inducers such as erastin and RSL3 led to a marked decrease in tumor volume and weight. This review aims to explore the potential of ferroptosis as a novel therapeutic strategy in cancer treatment.

Cutting edge: ferroptosis in metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD) pathogenesis and therapy

Ferroptosis denotes a distinct form of controlled cell death marked by substantial iron buildup and significant lipid peroxidation, playing a crucial role in several disease processes linked to cell death. Given the liver's essential functions in iron and lipid metabolism and its vulnerability to oxidative damage, more research has investigated the correlation between ferroptosis and numerous hepatic diseases, including metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD), formerly known as non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). NAFLD has arisen as a worldwide public health concern due to elevated morbidity and high death rates. The pathogenesis of MASLD remains incompletely elucidated. Recent data suggests that ferroptosis is crucial in the pathophysiology of MASLD; nevertheless, the specific processes by which ferroptosis influences MASLD remain unclear. The present review summarizes the molecular processes of ferroptosis and its intricate regulatory networks, outlines the differing impacts of ferroptosis at different stages of MASLD, and examines possible approaches targeting ferroptosis for the therapy of MASLD, suggesting a novel approach for its management.

Time Series Imaging the Mitochondrial Microenvironment and Its Interactions with Lysosomes during Ferroptosis

In the realm of cutting-edge scientific inquiry, the development and application of integrated optical molecular probes for the simultaneous detection and tracing of mitochondrial microenvironments during ferroptosis, as well as the visualization of their interactions with lysosomes, stands as a pivotal advancement. In this work, we developed a probe, IMT, that integrates viscosity sensing with mitochondrial targeting, and used it in conjunction with commercial lysosome green tracers (LGT) to investigate mitochondrial-lysosome interactions (MLIs). This approach avoids the uneven labeling caused by subcellular microenvironment differences when using single-molecule dual-targeting probes. Using the developed IMT, we observed an increase in mitochondrial viscosity during erastin-induced ferroptosis and a decrease during ferrostatin-1-inhibited ferroptosis. Moreover, the time series imaging of the mitochondrial profile lighted by the IMT showed that the mitochondrial area, perimeter, aspect ratio, and mitochondrial form factor changed significantly as ferroptosis progressed. In addition, combined with LGT, we visualized the dynamic process of first contact and then separation between lysosomes and mitochondria during ferroptosis, confirming the complexity and variability of MLIs. This work not only enhances our understanding of the complex biochemical processes underlying ferroptosis but also opens new avenues for therapeutic intervention in diseases characterized by this form of cell death.

CHI3L1 mediates radiation resistance in colorectal cancer by inhibiting ferroptosis via the p53/SLC7A11 pathway

BACKGROUND

Radiotherapy is a key treatment for colorectal cancer (CRC), particularly rectal cancer; however, many patients are resistant to radiation. While it has been shown that CHI3L1 is associated with CRC progression, its specific function and regulatory mechanisms in radiation resistance remain unclear.

METHODS

The levels of CHI3L1 in CRC and normal tissue samples were obtained from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) and Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) datasets. To assess the effects of CHI3L1 on CRC cell proliferative, migratory, and invasive capacities, Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8) and Transwell assays were performed. Radiation resistance in CRC cells with varying CHI3L1 expression levels was evaluated through colony formation assay. Western blot and immunofluorescence analyses were conducted to explore the correlation between CHI3L1 and p53 expression levels. Ferroptosis was assessed by determining reactive oxygen species (ROS), malondialdehyde (MDA), and glutathione (GSH) concentrations in cells with different CHI3L1 expression levels, and a xenograft mouse model was used to identify the molecular mechanisms of ferroptosis in vivo.

RESULTS

Significant CHI3L1 upregulated was observed in CRC tissues and was associated with promotion of malignant cell behaviors. The number of colonies in CHI3L1-overexpressing groups was significantly greater than that in the control groups following radiation, indicating increased radiation resistance in the former group. Furthermore, CHI3L1 overexpression was associated with p53 downregulation and elevated p53 ubiquitination. Notably, CHI3L1 inhibited the ferroptosis of CRC cells by suppressing p53 expression through the p53/SLC7A11 signaling pathway.

CONCLUSIONS

CHI3L1 overexpression promotes the proliferation, migration, invasion, and radiation resistance of CRC cells. Elevated CHI3L1 expression is associated with increased p53 ubiquitination and SLC7A11 upregulation. CHI3L1 promotes radiation resistance by suppressing ferroptosis in CRC cells through the p53/SLC7A11 axis.

Targeting HCG18 counteracts ferroptosis resistance via blocking the miR-30a-5p/RRM2/GSS pathway in hepatocellular carcinoma

Background: Finding effective strategies and novel targets for reversing drug resistance is one of the major frontiers in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) research. Ferroptosis is participate in the malignant progression and drug resistance of HCC. However, the underlying molecular mechanisms remail largely uninvestigated. Methods: HCC cell lines and xenografted nude mice were used as experimental models. Biological functions were investigated by various molecular biology experiments. An HCC population was used to reveal clinical significance. Results: In our study, HCG18 and RRM2 was found to be associated with unfavorable prognosis. HCG18 regulates RRM2 expression through competitively binding to miR-30a-5p, consequently impacting ferroptosis. RRM2 directly regulated GSS to increase GSH synthesis. The colony formation assay demonstrated that overexpression of HCG18 inhibited erastin-induced cell death. In addition, in vivo experiments have also confirmed that HCG18 can inhibit ferroptosis by regulating the expression of RRM2, thereby promoting HCC proliferation. Conclusion: Our study discovered a novel lncRNA HCG18, as a "switch-like" molecule of the axis of miR-30a-5p/RRM2/GSS, confers resistance to ferroptosis and holds promise as a potential target for ferroptosis-dependent therapy.

Ferroptosis and hyperoxic lung injury: insights into pathophysiology and treatment approaches

Hyperoxia therapy is a critical clinical intervention for both acute and chronic illnesses. However, prolonged exposure to high-concentration oxygen can cause lung injury. The mechanisms of hyperoxic lung injury (HLI) remain incompletely understood, and current treatment options are limited. Improving the safety of hyperoxia therapy has thus become an urgent priority. Ferroptosis, a novel form of regulated cell death characterized by iron accumulation and excessive lipid peroxidation, has been implicated in the pathogenesis of HLI, including diffuse alveolar damage, vascular endothelial injury, and bronchopulmonary dysplasia. In this review, we analyze the latest findings on ferroptosis and therapeutic strategies for HLI. Our aim is to provide new insights for the treatment of HLI and to facilitate the translation of these findings from bench to bedside.

The relationship between ferroptosis and respiratory infectious diseases: a novel landscape for therapeutic approach

Respiratory infectious diseases, particularly those caused by respiratory viruses, have the potential to lead to global pandemics, thereby posing significant threats to public and human health. Historically, the primary treatment for respiratory bacterial infections has been antibiotic therapy, while severe cases of respiratory viral infections have predominantly been managed by controlling inflammatory cytokine storms. Ferroptosis is a novel form of programmed cell death that is distinct from apoptosis and autophagy. In recent years, Recent studies have demonstrated that ferroptosis plays a significant regulatory role in various respiratory infectious diseases, indicating that targeting ferroptosis may represent a novel approach for the treatment of these conditions. This article summarized the toxic mechanisms underlying ferroptosis, its relationship with respiratory infectious diseases, the mechanisms of action, and current treatment strategies. Particular attentions were given to the interplay between ferroptosis and Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Epstein-Barr virus, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, dengue virus, influenza virus and herpes simplex virus type1infection. A deeper understanding of the regulatory mechanisms of ferroptosis in respiratory infections will not only advance our knowledge of infection-related pathophysiology but also provide a theoretical foundation for the development of novel therapeutic strategies. Targeting ferroptosis pathways represents a promising therapeutic approach for respiratory infections, with significant clinical and translational implications.

Biallelic FDXR mutations induce ferroptosis in a rare mitochondrial disease with ataxia

Biallelic mutations in the FDXR are known to cause rare mitochondrial diseases. However, the underlying pathogenic mechanisms remain elusive. This study investigated a patient affected by optic atrophy, ataxia, and peripheral neuropathy resulting from compound heterozygous mutations in FDXR. Structural abnormalities in mitochondria were observed in muscle and nerve tissues. Lymphoblastic cell lines (LCLs) and muscle samples from the patient exhibited signs of mitochondrial dysfunction, iron overload, oxidative stress, and lipid peroxidation. Dysregulation of the glutathione peroxidase-4 was noted in the LCLs. Furthermore, treatment with deferoxamine, N-acetyl-cysteine, and ferrostatin-1 effectively alleviated oxidative stress and cell death. Cortical neurons demonstrate that FDXR deficiency impacts the morphogenesis of neurites. Collectively, these findings suggest that ferroptosis plays a significant role in the pathogenesis of FDXR-associated diseases. Additionally, idebenone appeared to have protective effects against various cellular injuries induced by FDXR mutations, providing novel insights and therapeutic approaches for the treatment of FDXR-associated diseases.

Triptolide alleviates acute lung injury by reducing mitochondrial dysfunction mediated ferroptosis through the STAT3/p53 pathway

Acute lung injury (ALI) represents a severe clinical condition marked by intense pulmonary inflammation and complex pathogenic mechanisms. Triptolide, a potent anti-inflammatory agent derived from the plant Tripterygium wilfordii Hook. f., remains to be fully elucidated for its therapeutic efficacy in ALI. This study aimed to investigate the potential of triptolide in mitigating ALI by modulating ferroptosis and preserving mitochondrial function. Utilizing an ALI model induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) both in mice and BEAS-2B cells, we evaluated the impact of triptolide on lung injury, inflammatory cytokines, oxidative stress, and mitochondrial function. RNA sequencing, network pharmacology, molecular docking, and a thermal stability assay for cellular proteins (CETSA) were utilized to identify triptolide targets and pathways. Triptolide significantly alleviated LPS-induced pulmonary pathological changes, downregulated inflammatory cytokines including IL-6, IL-1β, and TNF-α, and reduced reactive oxygen species (ROS) and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels while increasing glutathione (GSH) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity. RNA sequencing revealed that triptolide upregulated SLC7A11 and inhibited ferroptosis. Network pharmacology and molecular docking identified the STAT3/p53 pathway as a key mediator of triptolide's action. CETSA confirmed that triptolide binds to and enhances the thermal stability of STAT3 and p53 proteins. This study is the first to elucidate that triptolide mitigates ALI by targeting the STAT3/p53 pathway, preserving mitochondrial function, and inhibiting ferroptosis. Collectively, these results propose that triptolide may serve as an effective therapeutic option for the treatment of ALI.

Systematic transcriptome-wide analysis and validation of tributyltin-induced differential changes in the liver with sex-specific effects

BACKGROUND

Tributyltin (TBT), a prevalent environmental antiseptic, contaminates seafood, fish, and drinking water, posing health risks. While TBT's hepatic toxicity is well-known, its sex-specific effects on liver function remain poorly understood.

METHODS

To address this gap, a comprehensive analysis was conducted utilizing the Toxicant Exposures and Responses by Genomic and Epigenomic Regulators of Transcription (TaRGET) dataset. Chromatin accessibility changes and transcriptomic alterations were analyzed via ATAC-seq and RNA-seq in liver tissues from TBT-exposed male and female mice. In vitro experiments were performed to validate the key bioinformatic findings.

RESULTS

TBT exposure induced significant chromatin accessibility changes and transcriptomic alterations in male liver compared to female counterparts. Notably, Signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) was identified as a central regulator among differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in male liver cells. Functional validation experiments confirmed that TBT-mediated downregulation of STAT3 impaired liver cell function and contributed to increased hepatotoxicity in males.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study highlights significant sex-dependent differences in TBT-induced hepatotoxicity and identifies STAT3 as a critical mediator in male liver cells, providing a novel perspective on the toxicology of TBT.

Ferroptosis and Charcot-Marie-Tooth Disease 1A: Emerging Evidence for a Pathogenic Association

Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease (CMT) is the most common hereditary peripheral neuropathy worldwide, presenting clinically as muscle weakness that progresses to impaired ambulation or quadriplegia with age. CMT1A, the most common subtype, is caused by a duplication in PMP22, encoding an essential membrane protein for Schwann cell myelin integrity. While the mechanisms of peripheral neurodegeneration in CMT1A are poorly understood, excessive oxidative stress, particularly lipid peroxidation, is a known pathological feature, and antioxidant therapy has reversed the CMT1A phenotype in a mouse model. For the first time, we define the pathogenic link between CMT1A and ferroptosis, a form of regulated cell death caused by excessive lipid peroxidation and hindered antioxidant defenses. Human-derived CMT1A fibroblasts showed greater susceptibility to RSL3, a pro-ferroptosis agent, compared with controls, alongside several ferroptosis markers, including elevated lipid peroxides and depleted GPX4, a critical anti-ferroptosis repressor. Similarly, transcriptomic analysis of human iPSC-derived Schwann cells revealed elevated ferroptosis activation and cellular stress markers in CMT1A. We propose that chronic, sublethal ferroptotic stress, mediated by lipid peroxide accumulation, depletes antioxidant defenses in CMT1A Schwann cells, leading to decompensation with age, manifesting as symptomatic disease. These results emphasize ferroptosis as a driver of CMT1A pathology, potentially revealing a new therapeutic path.

Vaccarin Ameliorates Renal Fibrosis by Inhibiting Ferroptosis via Nrf2/SLC7A11/GPX4 Signaling Pathway

Purpose

Vaccarin is a natural flavonoid glycoside with anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and nephroprotective effects. However, the effects of vaccarin on renal fibrosis (RF) and its molecular mechanisms remain unclear. This study aimed to investigate the effects of vaccarin on RF and its molecular mechanisms.

Methods

Network pharmacology was used to analyze the effect of vaccarin on RF, and molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulations were performed to assess the binding of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) to vaccarin. A mouse model of unilateral ureteral obstruction (UUO) was established in vivo, and human renal tubular epithelial (HK2) cells were induced with transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) and RSL3, respectively, as an in vitro model. The anti-fibrotic effect of vaccarin was observed by histopathological staining and determination of fibrous markers. Changes in oxidative stress and ferroptosis-related markers were detected by kits, Western blot (WB), qRT-PCR and immunofluorescence (IF). Finally, Nrf2 inhibitors were added to the in vitro model to observe the effects on fibrosis and ferroptosis.

Results

Vaccarin and RF cross genes are enriched for oxidative stress. Nrf2 binds stably to vaccarin. Both in vivo and in vitro experiments showed that vaccarin treatment reduced the expression of fibrosis markers, decreased the levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS), malondialdehyde (MDA), lipid peroxidation (LPO) and Fe2+, and increased glutathione (GSH) secretion. In addition, vaccarin down-regulated the expression of Long-chain acyl-CoA synthetase 4 (ACSL4), prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthase 2 (PTGS2) and NADPH oxidase 1 (NOX1), and up-regulated Nrf2 and its downstream solute transport family 7 member 11 (SLC7A11) and glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4) expression. Mechanistic studies indicated that vaccarin activated the Nrf2/SLC7A11/GPX4 pathway to inhibit ferroptosis, and this inhibition was effectively reversed by the Nrf2 inhibitor.

Conclusion

Vaccarin ameliorates RF by inhibiting ferroptosis via Nrf2/SLC7A11/GPX4 pathway.

Construction of a novel NIR-emissive rhodamine derivative for monitoring mitochondrial viscosity in ferroptosis

Ferroptosis, an iron-dependent programmed cell death mechanism, is mediated by distinct molecular pathways of lipid peroxidation caused by intracellular iron supplementation and glutathione synthesis inhibition that cause oxidative damage to the cell membrane. Monitoring viscosity changes of mitochondria is essential for a deeper understanding of ferroptosis, as mitochondria will be shrunk with increased membrane density and leading to drastic mitochondrial viscous changes during ferroptosis process. Thus, it is essential to explore novel and efficient fluorescent probes for monitoring viscosity in organisms. In this work, we designed and synthesized a mitochondria-targeting probe TJ-FRP for cellular viscosity measurement via fluorescence imaging method. To obtain this probe, we firstly developed a novel modifiable fluorescent π-extended xanthene dye TJ-FR by replacing the benzoic acid group with a strong electron-withdrawing perfluorobenzoic acid group at the 9-position of xanthene framework. The dye not only presents emission wavelength at 758 nm and a large stokes shift of 142 nm in water, but also the dye is low biotoxic, membrane permeable. By reaction with 4-aminobutyltriphenylphosphonium bromide, TJ-FR was converted to the mitochondria-targeting probe TJ-FRP. TJ-FRP was successfully applied for the imaging of viscosity in living cells. Especially, the probe can be applied for visualizing mitochondrial viscosity changes during various inducers-stimulated ferroptosis process in model cells. These findings suggest that this novel NIR fluorescent probe can serve as a powerful tool to monitor the viscosity in biological samples and may provide new insights for various diseases during ferroptosis.

Synergistic effects of dihydroartemisinin and cisplatin on inducing ferroptosis in gastric cancer through GPX4 inhibition

BACKGROUND

In the past several decades, cisplatin (DDP), in combination with other drugs, has been used as the mainstay chemotherapy drug for the treatment of gastric cancer (GC). However, the clinical application of DDP is restricted because of its toxic side effects, it is imperative to explore less toxic and more effective treatment strategies. Dihydroartemisinin (DHA) has been shown to exert potent anticancer effects through ferroptosis in multiple malignancies and has shown high efficacy and safety.

METHODS

Cell viability assay, live/dead staining assay, EDU proliferation assay, MitoTracker assay, BODIPY C11 assay and other cell assays in vitro were employed to observe DHA in combination with DDP inducing ferroptosis in GC. Subsequently, proteomic analysis integrated with database analysis and clinical sample detection were utilized to elucidate the mechanism of DHA inducing ferroptosis in GC both in vitro and in vivo.

RESULTS

In this study, we found that DHA combined with DDP can synergistically inhibit the proliferation, invasion and migration of GC cells and induce ferroptosis. Further studies have shown that DHA acts in combination with DDP to induce ferroptosis in GC cells by inhibiting GPX4 in vivo and in vitro.

CONCLUSION

In summary, this study is the first to report that DHA and DDP synergically promote ferroptosis in GC cells, the combination of DDP and DHA is a promising strategy from the perspective of toxicity of DDP, which may be a promising therapeutic approach.

Ferroptosis, from the virus point of view: opportunities and challenges

Ferroptosis is a new type of cell death, which is mainly dependent on the formation and accumulation of reactive oxygen species and lipid peroxides mediated by iron. It is distinct from other forms of regulation of cell death in morphology, immunology, biochemistry, and molecular biology. Various cell death mechanisms have been observed in many viral infections, and virus-induced cell death has long been considered as a double-edged sword that can inhibit or aggravate viral infections. However, understanding of the role of ferroptosis in various viral infections is limited. Special attention will be paid to the mechanisms of ferroptosis in mediating viral infection and antiviral treatment associated with ferroptosis. In this paper, we outlined the mechanism of ferroptosis. Additionally, this paper also review research on ferroptosis from the perspective of the virus, discussed the research status of ferroptosis in virus infection and classified and summarized research on the interaction between viral infections and ferroptosis.

Atorvastatin inhibits ischemia‒reperfusion-associated renal tubular cell ferroptosis by blocking the PGE2/EP4 signaling pathway

Renal ischemia‒reperfusion (I/R) injury is the main cause of acute kidney injury, and its pathological features are manifested primarily by renal tubular epithelial cell injury. The underlying mechanism involves ferroptosis of renal tubular epithelial cells. Atorvastatin (ATO) regulates ferroptosis, and this study explored its role in I/R-induced ferroptosis of renal tubular epithelial cells. We constructed a renal I/R rat model with bilateral renal pedicles using noninvasive arterial clips and placed HK-2 cells in hypoxia/reoxygenation (H/R) incubators to construct the cell model. The damage to rat kidney tissues and HK-2 cells was assessed using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining, and flow cytometry, and the presence of associated proteins was identified through western blotting. Administering ATO markedly lessened the acute kidney damage caused by I/R, decreased the levels of blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and creatinine (CRE), and prevented apoptosis in renal tubular epithelial cells. Treatment with ATO additionally suppressed the production of inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6) and markers linked to ferroptosis (Fe2+, ROS, MDA, ACSL4, and COX2), thereby reducing acute kidney damage associated with I/R. The expression of PGE2 in renal I/R injury is related to the degree of renal injury, and it mainly regulates ferroptosis by binding to EP4. ATO effectively inhibited the expression of PGE2 and EP4. Overall, this study revealed that ATO inhibited ferroptosis of renal tubular epithelial cells by blocking the PGE2/EP4 signaling pathway, thereby alleviating I/R-induced kidney injury.

The prognostic importance of the negative regulators of ferroptosis, GPX4 and HSPB1, in patients with colorectal cancer

The prognostic value of negative regulators of ferroptosis in patients with colorectal cancer (CRC) has not yet been fully elucidated. The present study performed a systematic in silico identification and selection of candidate negative regulators of ferroptosis using The Cancer Genome Atlas data cohort (n=367), followed by clinical validation through immunohistochemistry of samples from patients with CRC (n=166) and further in vitro evaluation. In silico analysis identified specific light-chain subunit of the cystine/glutamate antiporter, AIFM2, NFE2L2, FTH1, GLS2, glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4) and heat shock protein β-1 (HSPB1) genes as possible candidates. Furthermore, patients with high expression of GPX4 or HSPB1 exhibited significantly worse overall survival (OS) compared with those with low expression (P<0.01 for both). Immunohistochemical analysis revealed that both OS and recurrence-free survival (RFS) of patients with CRC and high GPX4 or HSPB1 expression were significantly worse compared with in patients with low expression (P<0.01 for all). Furthermore, multivariate analysis showed that high GPX4 and HSPB1 expression were independent risk factors for poor oncological outcome for OS and RFS (GPX4: RFS, P=0.03; HSPB1: OS, P=0.006 and RFS, P<0.0001). Moreover, the effects of GPX4 and HSPB1 small interfering RNAs on two CRC cell lines (DLD-1 and SW480) indicated that GPX4 and HSPB1 may exhibit important roles in attenuating the cytotoxic effect of 5-fluorouracil-based chemotherapy. In conclusion, the current study confirmed that GPX4 and HSPB1 may serve as substantial prognostic- and recurrence-predictive biomarkers in patients with CRC.

The role of ferritinophagy and ferroptosis in Alzheimer's disease

Iron is a crucial mineral element within human cells, serving as a pivotal cofactor for diverse biological enzymes. Ferritin plays a crucial role in maintaining iron homeostasis within the body through its ability to sequester and release iron. Ferritinophagy is a selective autophagic process in cells that specifically facilitates the degradation of ferritin and subsequent release of free iron, thereby regulating intracellular iron homeostasis. The nuclear receptor coactivator 4 (NCOA4) serves as a pivotal regulator in the entire process of ferritinophagy, facilitating its binding to ferritin and subsequent delivering to lysosomes for degradation, thereby enabling the release of free iron. The free iron ions within the cell undergo catalysis through the Fenton reaction, resulting in a substantial generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). This process induces lipid peroxidation, thereby stimulating a cascade leading to cellular tissue damage and subsequent initiation of ferroptosis. Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by progressive deterioration of emotional memory and cognitive function, accompanied by mental and behavioral aberrations. The pathology of the disease is characterized by aberrant deposition of amyloid β-protein (Aβ) and hyperphosphorylated tau protein. It has been observed that evident iron metabolism disorders and accumulation of lipid peroxides occur in AD, indicating a significant impact of ferritinophagy and ferroptosis on the pathogenesis and progression of AD. This article elucidates the process and mechanism of ferritinophagy and ferroptosis, investigating their implications in AD to identify novel targets for therapeutic intervention.

Jujuboside B inhibits proliferation and induces apoptosis and ferroptosis in colorectal cancer cells with potential involvement of the MAPK signaling pathway

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is one of the most prevalent and life-threatening malignancies worldwide. Jujuboside B (JUB) is a bioactive compound derived from the seeds of Ziziphus jujuba, known for its potential anticancer properties. The present study aimed to investigate the association of JUB with inhibiting the proliferation, apoptosis and ferroptosis of human CRC cells with mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway regulation. First, the human CRC HCT116 cell line was treated with different concentrations of JUB. Subsequently, cell viability was evaluated using MTT assay and colony formation was assessed using a colony formation assay. Flow cytometry was used to detect cell apoptosis and the levels of reactive oxygen species. Western blotting was utilized to assess the expression levels of apoptosis-related proteins, ferroptosis regulators and MAPK pathway-related proteins. In addition, biochemical assay kits were used to evaluate the levels of malondialdehyde, glutathione, total iron and ferrous iron. The results demonstrated that cell viability and colony formation were markedly decreased after JUB treatment, whilst the level of apoptosis was notably increased in a concentration-dependent manner. Using electron microscopy, cells treated with JUB exhibited typical apoptotic bodies, as well as mitochondrial swelling and cristae disruption, further demonstrating JUB-induced cell apoptosis. Western blot analysis indicated that JUB treatment markedly reduced the expression of B-cell lymphoma-2 (Bcl-2) but notably increased the expression of Bcl-2 associated X-protein and cleaved caspase-3. Additionally, JUB induced ferroptosis and inhibited the MAPK signaling pathway in CRC cells. Collectively, the findings of the present study suggest that JUB has the potential to inhibit CRC cell proliferation and induce apoptosis through regulating the MAPK pathway. Therefore, JUB may be a promising therapeutic agent for the treatment of CRC.

Ferroptosis: A New Direction in the Treatment of Intervertebral Disc Degeneration

Intervertebral disc degeneration (IVDD) is one of the most common musculoskeletal disorders in middle-aged and elderly people, and lower back pain (LBP) is the main clinical symptom [1, 2], which often causes significant pain and great economic burden to patients [3]. The current molecular mechanisms of IVDD include extracellular matrix degradation, cellular pyroptosis, apoptosis, necrotic apoptosis, senescence, and the newly discovered ferroptosis [4, 5], among which ferroptosis, as a new hot spot of research, has a non-negligible role in IVDD. Ferroptosis is an iron-dependent cell death caused by lipid peroxide accumulation [6]. Its main mechanism is cell death caused by lipid peroxidation by oxygen radicals due to iron overload and inhibition of pathways such as SLC7A11-GSH-GPX4. Currently, more and more studies have found a close relationship between IVDD and ferroptosis [7]. In the process of ferroptosis, the most important factors are abnormal iron metabolism, increased ROS, lipid peroxidation, and abnormal proteins such as GSH, GPX4, and system XC-. Our group has previously elucidated the pathogenesis of IVDD in terms of extracellular matrix degradation, myeloid cell senescence and pyroptosis, apoptosis, and inflammatory immunity. Therefore, this time, we will use ferroptosis as an entry point to discover the new mechanism of IVDD and provide guidance for clinical treatment.

Ferroptosis of T cell in inflammation and tumour immunity

Ferroptosis is an innovative concept defined as a distinct programmed cell death mode regulated by iron-dependent lipid peroxidation accumulation. This process is governed by numerous energy metabolites such as fatty acids, amino acids and glucose, as well as iron homeostasis. In recent years, increasing studies have been devoted to the crucial effects of ferroptosis in immune cells during the pathogenesis of diseases such as infections, tumours and autoimmune disorders. This review summarises the latest advancements in T-cell ferroptosis, addresses the key components and mechanism of ferroptosis in T cells during inflammatory conditions and tumour progression, and highlights the potential target for treating related diseases. KEY POINTS: Ferroptosis-related mechanisms significantly affect the biology of CD4+ T-cell subsets and are further involved in inflammatory diseases. Crosstalk between CD8+ T cells and tumour cells induces ferroptosis in the tumour microenvironment. Glutathione peroxidase 4 loss promotes regulatory T-cell ferroptosis to enhance anti-tumour immunity.

Role of circRNAs in regulating cell death in cancer: a comprehensive review

Despite multiple diagnostic and therapeutic advances, including surgery, radiation therapy, and chemotherapy, cancer preserved its spot as a global health concern. Prompt cancer diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis depend on the discovery of new biomarkers and therapeutic strategies. Circular RNAs (circRNAs) are considered as a stable, conserved, abundant, and varied group of RNA molecules that perform multiple roles such as gene regulation. There is evidence that circRNAs interact with RNA-binding proteins, especially capturing miRNAs. An extensive amount of research has presented the substantial contribution of circRNAs in various types of cancer. To fully understand the linkage between circRNAs and cancer growth as a consequence of various cell death processes, including autophagy, ferroptosis, and apoptosis, more research is necessary. The expression of circRNAs could be controlled to limit the occurrence and growth of cancer, providing a more encouraging method of cancer treatment. Consequently, it is critical to understand how circRNAs affect various forms of cancer cell death and evaluate whether circRNAs could be used as targets to induce tumor death and increase the efficacy of chemotherapy. The current study aims to review and comprehend the effects that circular RNAs exert on cell apoptosis, autophagy, and ferroptosis in cancer to investigate potential cancer treatment targets.

HMGB1 secretion by resveratrol in NSCLC: A pathway to ferroptosis-mediated platelet activation suppression

BACKGROUND

Cancer-associated venous thromboembolism (CAT) is a frequent and serious complication in cancer patients. Resveratrol, a natural compound with reported anti-tumor effects, is not fully understood in its role regarding CAT in lung cancer. This study aims to explore resveratrol's potential to diminish platelet activation induced by lung adenocarcinoma cells and uncover the underlying mechanisms.

METHODS

Clinical data on coagulation function in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients were gathered. A549 human lung cancer cells and Lewis mouse lung cancer cells were employed to assess tumor-induced platelet activation and the impact of resveratrol on this process. Western blotting analyzed protein expression, electron microscopy examined extracellular vesicle (EV) morphology, flow cytometry measured platelet activation, reactive oxygen species (ROS), and exocrine protein expression, while ELISA quantified secretory proteins. Tumor control and platelet function were studied in tumor-bearing mice.

RESULTS

We identified that hematological profiles of NSCLC patients frequently manifest a hypercoagulable state relative to healthy controls and lung cancer cells could instigate platelet activation, yet resveratrol could attenuate this phenomenon induced by lung cancer. Resveratrol stimulates lung cancer cells to release HMGB1-enriched EVs, promoting platelet ferroptosis and inhibiting platelet activation through increased ROS, lipid peroxidation, and disrupted cystine transporters. In vivo studies confirm that resveratrol inhibits lung cancer cell growth and suppresses tumor-induced platelet activation in mice.

CONCLUSION

Our studies revealed that resveratrol alleviated lung cancer-induced ferroptosis associated platelet activation. This suggests a potential pharmacological approach for preventing and treating both lung cancer and CAT.

Emerging role of ferroptosis in ultraviolet radiation-driven skin photoaging: a narrative review

Photoaging is characterized by chronic inflammation in response to ultraviolet (UV) radiation. UV radiation causes skin cells to produce reactive oxygen species (ROS), which causes oxidative stress and inflammation. ROS can reversibly or irreversibly destroy different cellular compounds, including nucleic acids, proteins, free amino acids, lipids, lipoproteins, carbohydrates, and connective tissue macromolecules. Ferroptosis is a kind of programmed cell death caused by iron dependence and lipid peroxidation and has been recently discovered. Its occurrence is primarily related to iron metabolism, antioxidants, lipid peroxidation, and other processes. In addition, high levels of ROS can trigger oxidative stress, altering the redox balance within cells and thus initiating ferroptosis. Ferroptosis has been implicated in UV-driven skin photoaging. Moreover, UV radiation from sunlight can regulate numerous ferroptosis-linked genes. This review will focus on the function of ferroptosis in UV radiation-damaged skin cells. We hope to draw attention to the significance of ferroptosis regulation in the prevention and treatment of skin photoaging.

USP13 facilitates a ferroptosis-to-autophagy switch by activation of the NFE2L2/NRF2-SQSTM1/p62-KEAP1 axis dependent on the KRAS signaling pathway

Macroautophagy/autophagyis a lysosomal-regulated degradation process that participates incellular stress and then promotes cell survival or triggers celldeath. Ferroptosis was initially described as anautophagy-independent, iron-regulated, nonapoptotic cell death.However, recent studies have revealed that autophagy is positivelyassociated with sensitivity to ferroptosis. Nonetheless, themolecular mechanisms by which these two types of regulated cell death(RCD) modulate each other remain largely unclear. Here, we screened85 deubiquitinating enzymes (DUBs) and found that overexpression ofUSP13 (ubiquitin specific peptidase 13) could significantlyupregulate NFE2L2/NRF2 (NFE2 like bZIP transcription factor 2)protein levels. In addition, in 39 cases of KRAS-mutated lungadenocarcinoma (LUAD), we found that approximately 76% of USP13overexpression is positively correlated with NFE2L2 overexpression.USP13 interacts with and catalyzes the deubiquitination of thetranscription factor NFE2L2. Additionally, USP13 depletion promotesan autophagy-to-ferroptosis switch invitro andin xenograft tumor mouse models, through the activation of theNFE2L2-SQSTM1/p62 (sequestosome 1)-KEAP1 axis in KRAS mutant cellsand tumor tissues. Hence, targeting USP13 effectively switchedautophagy-to-ferroptosis, thereby inhibiting KRAS (KRASproto-oncogene, GTPase) mutant LUAD, suggesting the therapeuticpromise of combining autophagy and ferroptosis in the KRAS-mutantLUAD.Abbreviation: ACSL4: acyl-CoA synthetase long-chain family member 4; ACTB: actin beta; AL: autolysosomes; AP: autophagosomes; BCL2L1/BCL-xL: BCL2 like 1; CCK8: Cell Counting Kit-8; CQ: chloroquine; CUL3: cullin 3; DMSO: dimethyl sulfoxide; DOX: doxorubicin; DUB: deubiquitinating enzyme; Ferr-1: ferrostatin-1; GPX4: glutathione peroxidase 4; GSEA: gene set enrichment analysis; 4HNE: 4-hydroxynonenal; IKE: imidazole ketone erastin; KEAP1: kelch like ECH associated protein 1; KRAS: KRAS proto-oncogene, GTPase; LCSC: lung squamous cell carcinoma; IF: immunofluorescence; LUAD: lung adenocarcinoma; Lys05: Lys01 trihydrochloride; MAPK1/ERK2/p42: mitogen-activated protein kinase 1; MAPK3/ERK1/p44; MTOR: mechanistic target of rapamycin kinase; NFE2L2/NRF2: NFE2 like bZIP transcription factor, 2; NQO1: NAD(P)H quinone dehydrogenase 1; PG: phagophore; RCD: regulated cell death; RAPA: rapamycin; ROS: reactive oxygen species; SLC7A11/xCT: solute carrier family 7 member 11; SQSTM1/p62: sequestosome 1; TEM: transmission electron microscopy; TUBB/beta-tubulin: tubulin, beta; UPS: ubiquitin-proteasome system; USP13: ubiquitin specific peptidase 13.

Downregulation of SLC7A11 by Bis(4-Hydroxy-3,5-Dimethylphenyl) Sulfone Induces Ferroptosis in Hepatocellular Carcinoma Cell

The progression of tumors has been demonstrated to have a strong correlation with ferroptosis. Bis(4-hydroxy-3,5-dimethylphenyl) sulfone (TMBPS) has been shown to effectively inhibit the proliferation of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), but its underlying mechanism is not clear. In this study, ferrostatin-1 (Fer-1) was employed to explore whether the death of HCC cells caused by TMBPS is related to ferroptosis. The intracellular lipid peroxides, Fe2+, malondialdehyde (MDA), GSH/GSSG, mitochondrial morphology, and potential of HCC cells were detected after TMBPS treatment. The target of TMBPS was predicted by the molecular docking approach and verified via quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR), western blot, and cellular heat transfer assay (CETSA). Our results revealed that Fer-1 effectively reversed the cell death induced by TMBPS in HCC cells. Treatment with TMBPS induced typical ferroptosis features, including increased levels of intracellular lipid peroxides, Fe2+, and MDA, along with a decreased GSSH/GSH ratio and mitochondrial potential. These effects were reversed by overexpressing SLC7A11. These findings suggest that the cell death triggered by TMBPS in HCC cells is linked to ferroptosis, potentially mediated through the inhibition of SLC7A11 expression.

FABP3 promotes cell apoptosis and oxidative stress by regulating ferroptosis in lens epithelial cells

The purpose of this study is to investigate FABP3's biological function and potential mechanism in cataract. Treatment of H2O2 raised FABP3 expression. H2O2 decreased cell viability, enhanced apoptosis, promoted Bax and cleaved caspase-3 expression, inhibited Bcl-2 expression, enhanced the levels of IL-6, IL-1β, and TNF-α, raised MDA level, and decreased SOD and GSH levels in HLE-B3 cells. However, the effects of H2O2 on cell viability, apoptosis, inflammatory cytokines, and oxidative stress were reversed by FABP3 knockdown and aggravated by FABP3 overexpression. H2O2 increased the levels of lipid hydroperoxides and Fe2+, but reduced the expression of GPX4, SLC7A11, and Ferritin protein. Nevertheless, knockdown of FABP3 reversed the changes of lipid hydroperoxides, Fe2+, GPX4, SLC7A11, and Ferritin protein, and FABP3 overexpression caused the opposite results. In addition, the inhibition of FABP3 knockdown on cell apoptosis, inflammation, and oxidative stress was reversed by ferroptosis inducer (erastin), and the promotion of FABP3 overexpression on cell apoptosis, inflammation, and oxidative stress was reversed by ferroptosis inhibitor (Fer-1). Taken together, knockdown of FABP3 in lens epithelial cells treated with H2O2 restrained apoptosis, inflammation, and oxidative stress through regulating ferroptosis, suggesting that FABP3 might be a potential target for cataract treatment.

Gestational exposure to nanoplastics disrupts fetal development by promoting the placental aging via ferroptosis of syncytiotrophoblast

Micro(nano)plastics (MNPs), are emerging environmental pollutants that have garnered widespread attention. Epidemiological and animal studies have shown that MNPs exposure during pregnancy is associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes, such as intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) and miscarriage. However, the underlying mechanisms remain poorly understood. In this study, we found that exposure to a high dose (1 μg·mL-1) of 100 nm polystyrene nanoparticles (NPs) from gestational day (GD) 0 to GD17 significantly decreased fetal weight and increased the number of resorptions compared to the control group. Moreover, fetal weight was significantly lower in the high-dose group than in the low-dose (0.1 μg·mL-1) group. Meanwhile, ferroptosis and senescence were observed in placentas from mice exposed to high dose of NPs. In vitro experiments using human syncytiotrophoblast (STB) cells differentiated from BeWo cells, we found that NPs caused ferroptosis and senescence in STB cells. Subsequent investigations revealed that the inhibition of the ferroptosis signaling by ferrostain-1 (Fer-1) or deferiprone (DFP) ameliorated senescence induced by NPs in human STB cells. Furthermore, alleviating placental senescence using Fer-1 significantly improves fetal weight loss caused by NPs exposure during pregnancy in mice. Taken together, our results demonstrated that NPs exposure during pregnancy activated the ferroptosis pathway in placental STB, resulting in senescence of STB, which may attribute to the NPs-induced IUGR. This study not only elucidated the mechanistic link between NPs exposure and adverse pregnancy outcomes but also highlighted the necessity for targeted interventions to protect fetal health, underscoring the broader implications for environmental and public health policy.

Knockdown of VDAC1 Promotes Ferroptosis in Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma

Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) is a prevalent subtype of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (NHL). Ferroptosis is a novel form of cell death involved in multiple tumor development. However, the relationship between ferroptosis-related genes and DLBCL has not been extensively studied. The GSE95290 dataset was downloaded from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database and merged with genes associated with ferroptosis to screen differentially expressed genes (DEGs). Hub genes were identified by constructing a protein-protein interaction (PPI) network. The messenger RNA (mRNA) expressions of hub genes were subsequently detected in vitro using reverse transcriptase quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR). The impact of voltage dependent anion channel 1 (VDAC1) on the proliferation, apoptosis, and ferroptosis of DLBCL was evaluated using Cell Counting Kit-8, flow cytometry, and relevant ferroptosis assays, respectively. Six highly expressed hub genes were identified, all of which could be used as diagnostic biomarkers for DLBCL. In vitro studies revealed that suppressing VDAC1 expression inhibited DLBCL cell proliferation and promoted apoptosis. Furthermore, knockdown of VDAC1 promoted ferroptosis in DLBCL cells and xenograft tumor models, resulting in elevated levels of malondialdehyde (MDA) and iron and increased protein levels of Acyl-CoA synthetase long-chain family 4 (ACSL4) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX2). Conversely, glutathione (GSH) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) levels were reduced, accompanied by decreased protein levels of glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4) and ferritin heavy chain1 (FTH1). VDAC1 knockdown induces ferroptosis in DLBCL, which provides new insights into the pathogenic mechanisms of DLBCL.

Navigating the Complex Pathogenesis of Acute Kidney Injury: Exploring Macrophage Dynamics, Mitochondrial Dysfunction, and Ferroptosis Pathways

Acute kidney injury, a rapid decline in kidney function coupled with physiological and homeostatic perturbations, is an independent risk factor for both short-term and long-term health outcomes. As incidence of acute kidney injury continues to rise globally, the significant clinical and economic challenge of acute kidney injury underscores the need for its prompt recognition and application of novel and germane strategies to reduce its severity and facilitate recovery. Understanding the multifaceted cascade of events engaged in pathogenesis of acute kidney injury is pivotal for the development of effective preventive and therapeutic strategies. To facilitate an in-depth discussion on emerging therapeutic targets, this review will examine the role of macrophages in kidney injury and repair, explore the alterations in mitochondrial biogenesis dynamics induced by acute kidney injury, and provide insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying the contribution of ferroptosis to kidney injury.

PTPN9 promotes melanoma progression by regulating the ferroptosis pathway

In recent years, there has been a gradual increase in the incidence and mortality rates of melanoma, posing a significant threat to human health and life. Protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPNs) have been implicated in the progression of various human cancers, including breast, lung, and cervical cancer. To investigate PTPN9 expression in melanoma, impacting the disease's survival and prognosis. Our study, which involved an analysis of The Cancer Genome Atlas database and immunohistochemical staining of pathological sections, identified an upregulation of PTPN9 expression in melanoma, impacting the disease's survival and prognosis. At the cellular level, we investigated the effects of PTPN9 on the proliferation, invasion, and metastasis of A375 and SK-MEL-28 cells. Through various experimental techniques such as Western blot protein detection, electron microscopy, and oil red O staining, we observed that PTPN9 potentially contributes to the development of skin cutaneous melanoma (SKCM) by regulating ferroptosis-related proteins ACSL4, FTH1, and P53, thereby influencing lipid metabolism. The results of this study highlight the unique role of PTPN9 in SKCM and suggest its potential as a biomarker for the disease.

Advances in cuproptosis harnessing copper-based nanomaterials for cancer therapy

Cuproptosis, a newly identified programmed cell death form, is characterized by excessive copper accumulation in cells, resulting in mitochondria damage and toxic protein stress, ultimately causing cell death. Given the considerable therapeutic promise of copper toxicity in cancer treatment, copper-based nanomaterials that induce copper death have attracted interest as a promising approach for tumor therapy. This review comprehensively introduces the mechanisms of cuproptosis and the associated regulatory genes, including both positive and negative regulatory regulators, and systematically summarizes the application of various nanoparticles in inducing cuproptosis, ranging from inorganic copper compounds to delivery systems. These nanoparticles offer significant advantages, such as improving copper absorption, extending the duration of effectiveness, enhancing the precision of copper release, increasing biocompatibility, and serving as enhancers in combination therapy. In conclusion, the authors present a detailed overview and insights into the current research directions of nanoplatforms that facilitate copper-induced cancer treatment, establishing a foundation for the future development of effective nanomedicines that induce cuproptosis and offering new possibilities and treatment strategies for tumor therapy.

Alpha-Lipoic Acid Reduces Neuroinflammation and Oxidative Stress Induced by Dapsone in an Animal Model

Background/Objectives: Chronic treatment with dapsone (DDS) has been linked to adverse reactions involving all organ systems, such as dapsone hypersensitivity syndrome, methemoglobinemia and hemolytic anemia, besides neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration due to iron accumulation and oxidative stress. These effects probably occur due to the presence of its toxic metabolite DDS-NOH, which can generate reactive oxygen species (ROS) and iron overload. In this sense, antioxidant compounds with chelating properties, such as alpha-lipoic acid (ALA), may be an interesting adjuvant therapy strategy in treating or preventing these effects. Thus, the aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of ALA on oxidative and neuroinflammatory changes caused by DDS treatment in the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus of mice. Materials and Methods:Mus musculus male mice that were pre-treated with DDS (40 mg/kg) and post-treated with ALA (25 mg/kg) underwent analyses for oxidative stress, antioxidant capacity, cytokine expression and microglial/astrocytic activity. Results: DDS did not activate macrophages/microglia or astrocytes in the prefrontal cortex but induced their activation in the hippocampus. ALA stimulated a protective microglial profile and reduced astrocyte reactivity, especially in the hippocampus. DDS increased the pro-inflammatory cytokine IL-1β and reduced brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), effects reversed by ALA. DDS also reduced antioxidant capacity (TEAC, GSH, SOD, CAT) and increased oxidative damage (lipid peroxidation, iron accumulation), while ALA restored antioxidant levels and reduced oxidative stress. Conclusions: ALA was able to reduce the effects of DDS, such as reducing microglial and astrocytic activation, as well as to decrease the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines and increase BDNF, in addition to increasing antioxidant capacity and reducing oxidative damage caused by iron accumulation. Therefore, ALA is considered a useful and promising therapeutic alternative for the treatment of diseases related to oxidative stress and neuroinflammation.

Echinococcus granulosus-Induced Liver Damage Through Ferroptosis in Rat Model

(1) Background: Cystic echinococcosis (CE) is an Echinococcus granulosus-induced worldwide parasitic zoonosis and is a recognized public health and socio-economic concern. The liver is the major target organ for CE's infective form protoscolex (PSCs), which causes serious liver damage and endangers the host's life. Reports show that PSC infection causes liver cell Fe2+ metabolism disorder and abnormal deposition of Fe2+ in liver cells and results in liver cell death. However, whether PSC-induced liver cell death is associated with ferroptosis remains to be clarified. (2) Methods: Using both an in vivo rat model and an in vitro co-culture of PSCs and the cell system, we studied the histopathological progress of PSCs infection and the cytopathogenesis of PSC-induced cell death in the liver. Hepatic-injury-related ferroptosis signaling pathways were identified by proteomics analysis at various stages of PSCs infection, and physiological and the biochemical indexes and expression of pathway proteins related to hepatic ferroptosis were studied. Ferrostatin-1, a ferroptosis inhibitor, was employed for in vivo interference with early protoscolices infection in rats, and the effects of the inhibition of hepatocyte ferroptosis on hepatocyte injury and the generation of fibrotic cysts were investigated. Additionally, PSCs were exposed to in vitro co-culture with BRL, a rat hepatocyte line, to clarify the direct influences of PSCs on BRL ferroptosis. (3) Results: The results of our in vivo studies revealed that PSCs infection induced Fe2+ enrichment in liver cells surrounding the PSCs cysts, cellular oxidation, and liver tissue damage along with the prolongation of PSCs parasitism. The results of our in vitro studies verified the ability of PSCs to directly induce ferroptosis, the formation of fibrotic cysts, and alteration of the iron metabolism of liver cells. The analysis of KEGG signaling pathways revealed that ferroptosis- and ROS-related pathways were significantly induced with PSCs infection. Using Ferrostatin-1 effectively blocked ferroptosis, reversed Fe2+ content, reduced liver cell oxidation, and reduced PSC-induced fibrosis cysts. (4) Conclusions: Our study reveals the histopathological progress of PSC infection and the cytopathogenesis of PSC-induced ferroptosis. Ferrostatin-1 effectively blocked PSCs infection and PSC-induced cell death in vivo and in vitro. Accordingly, the inhibition of PSC-induced hepatocyte ferroptosis may be an effective method in the control of Echinococcus granulosus infection and should be seriously considered in clinical studies.

The Inflammasome: A Promising Potential Therapeutic Target for Early Brain Injury Following Subarachnoid Hemorrhage

Subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH), a severe cerebrovascular disorder, is principally instigated by the rupture of an aneurysm. Early brain injury (EBI), which gives rise to neuronal demise, microcirculation impairments, disruption of the blood-brain barrier, cerebral edema, and the activation of oxidative cascades, has been established as the predominant cause of mortality among patients with SAH. These pathophysiological processes hinge on the activation of inflammasomes, specifically the nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3)and absent in melanoma 2 (AIM2) inflammasomes. These inflammasomes assume a crucial role in downstream intracellular signaling pathways and hold particular significance within the nervous system. The activation of inflammasomes can be modulated, either by independently regulating these two entities or by influencing their engagement at specific target loci within the pathway, thereby attenuating EBI subsequent to SAH. Although certain clinical instances lend credence to this perspective, more in-depth investigations are essential to ascertain the optimal treatment regimen, encompassing dosage, timing, administration route, and frequency. Consequently, targeting the ensuing early brain injury following SAH represents a potentially efficacious therapeutic approach.

The Role of tRNA-Derived Small RNAs (tsRNAs) in Regulating Cell Death of Cardiovascular Diseases

Transfer RNA is a class of non-coding RNA that plays a role in amino acid translocation during protein synthesis. After specific modification, the cleaved fragment is called tRNA-derived small RNA. The advancement of bioinformatics technology has led to an increase in the visibility of small RNA derived from tRNA, and their functions in biological processes are being revealed. These include gene silencing, transcription and translation, epigenetics, and cell death. These properties have led to the implication of tsRNAs in various diseases. Although the current research mainly focuses on the role of tRNA-derived small RNA in cancer, there is mounting evidence that they are also strongly associated with cardiovascular disease, including cardiac hypertrophy, atrial fibrillation, heart failure, and myocarditis. Therefore, the regulatory role of tRNA-derived small RNA in cardiovascular disease will become an emerging therapeutic strategy. This review succinctly summarizes the characteristics, classification, and regulatory effect of tsRNA. By exploring the mechanism of tsRNA, it will provide a new tool for the diagnosis and prognosis of cardiovascular disease.

Targeting pancreatic cancer glutamine dependency confers vulnerability to GPX4-dependent ferroptosis

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) relies heavily on glutamine (Gln) utilization to meet its metabolic and biosynthetic needs. How epigenetic regulators contribute to the metabolic flexibility and PDAC's response and adaptation to Gln scarcity in the tumor milieu remains largely unknown. Here, we elucidate that prolonged Gln restriction or treatment with the Gln antagonist, 6-diazo-5-oxo-L-norleucine (DON), leads to growth inhibition and ferroptosis program activation in PDAC. A CRISPR-Cas9 screen identifies an epigenetic regulator, Paxip1, which promotes H3K4me3 upregulation and Hmox1 transcription upon DON treatment. Additionally, ferroptosis-related repressors (e.g., Slc7a11 and Gpx4) are increased as an adaptive response, thereby predisposing PDAC cells to ferroptosis upon Gln deprivation. Moreover, DON sensitizes PDAC cells to GPX4 inhibitor-induced ferroptosis, both in vitro and in patient-derived xenografts (PDXs). Taken together, our findings reveal that targeting Gln dependency confers susceptibility to GPX4-dependent ferroptosis via epigenetic remodeling and provides a combination strategy for PDAC therapy.

Decreased miR-128-3p in serum exosomes from polycystic ovary syndrome induces ferroptosis in granulosa cells via the p38/JNK/SLC7A11 axis through targeting CSF1

Increasing evidence suggests that non-coding small RNAs (miRNAs) carried by exosomes (EXOs) play important roles in the development and treatment of polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). In this study, we demonstrate that PCOS mouse serum-derived EXOs promote granulosa cells (GCs) ferroptosis, and induce the occurrence of a PCOS-like phenotype in vivo. Notably, EXO miRNA sequencing combined with in vitro gain- and loss-of-function assays revealed that miR-128-3p, which is absent in the serum-derived EXOs of mice with PCOS, regulates lipid peroxidation and GC sensitivity to ferroptosis inducers. Mechanistically, overexpression of CSF1, a direct target of miR-128-3p, reversed the anti-ferroptotic effect of miR-128-3p. Conversely, ferroptosis induction was mitigated in CSF1-downregulated GCs. Furthermore, we demonstrated that miR-128-3p inhibition activates the p38/JNK pathway via CSF1, leading to NRF2-mediated down-regulation of SLC7A11 transcription, which triggers GC iron overload. Moreover, intrathecal miR-128-3p AgomiR injection into mouse ovaries ameliorated PCOS-like characteristics and restored fertility in letrozole-induced mice. The study reveals the pathological mechanisms of PCOS based on circulating EXOs and provides the first evidence of the roles of miR-128-3p and CSF1 in ovarian GCs. This discovery is expected to provide promising therapeutic targets for the treatment of PCOS.

FADS1 inhibition protects retinal pigment epithelium cells from ferroptosis in age related macular degeneration

PURPOSE

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is the leading cause of vision loss among the elderly individuals. Retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) ferroptosis is a significant pathogenetic component in AMD. This study aims to elucidate the role and mechanisms of fatty acid desaturase 1 (FADS1) in ferroptosis as well as AMD progression.

METHODS

An integrated bioinformatics analysis based on the array of data from the GEO database was conducted to identify candidates involved in ferroptosis during AMD. Subsequently, cellular and mouse models of AMD were developed using sodium iodate (NaIO3) to confirm the altered expression of FADS1. After treatment with a FADS1 inhibitor, cell survival, lipid peroxidation, and indicators of AMD were assessed in vitro and in vivo models. Further, immunofluorescence, immunohistochemistry, and swept-source OCT imaging were performed to assess the impacts of pharmacological inhibition of transcription factor specificity protein 1 (Sp1) on FADS1 and ferroptosis.

RESULTS

FADS1 expression was upregulated in AMD patients and in vitro and in vivo models of AMD. Its pharmacological inhibition had decreased mitochondrial ROS formation, lipid peroxidation, and ferroptosis as well as increased RPE cell function in ARPE-19 cells and C57BL/6J mouse models of AMD. Mechanistically, Sp1 was identified as a key transcription factor of FADS1. Moreover, Sp1 inhibition downregulated FADS1 expression consequently attenuating FADS1-mediated ferroptosis as well as AMD phenotypes.

CONCLUSION

For the first time, we demonstrated that Sp1 regulates FADS1-mediated ferroptosis in RPE cells. Our findings provide novel insights into the progression and treatment of AMD.

The emerging role and therapeutical implications of ferroptosis in wound healing

Wound healing is a complex biological process involving multiple steps, including hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling. A novel form of regulated cell death, ferroptosis, has garnered attention because of its involvement in these processes. Ferroptosis is characterized by the accumulation of lipid peroxides and is tightly regulated by lipid metabolism, iron metabolism, and the lipid-peroxide repair network, all of which exert a significant influence on wound healing. This review highlights the current findings and emerging concepts regarding the multifaceted roles of ferroptosis throughout the stages of normal and chronic wound healing. Additionally, the potential of targeted interventions aimed at modulating ferroptosis to improve wound-healing outcomes is discussed.

Development of a Highly Selective Ferroptosis Inducer Targeting GPX4 with 2-Ethynylthiazole-4-carboxamide as Electrophilic Warhead

A highly selective ferroptosis inducer with drug-like properties can significantly advance the research on inducing ferroptosis for anticancer treatment. We previously reported a highly active GPX4 inhibitor 26a, but its activity and stability need further improvement. In this work, a novel GPX4 inhibitor (R)-9i with more potent cytotoxicity (IC50 = 0.0003 μM against HT1080) and ferroptosis selectivity (selectivity index = 24933) was gained via further electrophilic warhead screening and structure-based optimization. The cellular thermal shift assay (CETSA) indicated that (R)-9i could stabilize GPX4 with a Tm value of 6.2 °C. Furthermore, (R)-9i showed strong binding affinity against GPX4 (KD = 20.4 nM). More importantly, (R)-9i has more favorable pharmacokinetic properties than 26a, which endowed (R)-9i with potential in antitumor research and as a tool drug for further study of ferroptosis. Associated with these, (R)-9i treatment significantly inhibited tumor growth in the xenograft tumor mouse model without detectable toxicity.

Synergistic Anti-Ferroptosis with a Minimalistic, Peroxide-Triggered Carbon Monoxide Donor for Parkinson's Disease

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a debilitating neurodegenerative disease, with current treatments primarily focusing on improving dopaminergic activity, providing symptomatic relief but failing to halt disease progression. Ferroptosis drives PD pathogenesis and is a potential therapeutic target. Herein, we introduce a novel peroxide-activated carbon monoxide (CO) donor, PCOD, featuring a streamlined structure designed to potentially enhance blood-brain barrier (BBB) penetration and optimize therapeutic outcomes. PCOD releases CO upon activation by nucleophilic peroxides, e.g., ONOO- and H2O2. This mechanism provides a potent strategy against ferroptosis: first, scavenging peroxides that generate oxidative radicals involved in ferroptosis, and second, CO is proposed to inhibit Fenton chemistry through coordination to Fe2+. In MPTP-treated mice, PCOD prevents dopaminergic neuron loss in the substantia nigra and alleviates PD symptoms. This peroxide-triggered CO release offers a promising and innovative strategy to combat ferroptosis and neurodegeneration in PD.

Superparamagnetic nanoparticles as potential drug delivery systems for the treatment of Duchenne muscular dystrophy

This study aims to use superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs), specifically magnetite (Fe3O4), to deliver deflazacort (DFZ) and ibuprofen (IBU) to Duchenne muscular dystrophy-affected (DMD) mouse muscles using an external magnetic field. The SPIONs are synthesized by the co-precipitation method, and their surfaces are functionalized with L-cysteine to anchor the drugs, considering that the cysteine on the surface of the SPIONs in the solid state dimerizes to form the cystine molecule, creating the Fe3O4-(Cys)2-DFZ and Fe3O4-(Cys)2-IBU systems for in vivo tests. The Fe3O4 nanoparticles (NPs) were characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), Raman spectroscopy, powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), dynamic light scattering (DLS), and magnetic measurements. The results show that the SPIONs have an average crystallite size of about 8 nm in the solid state and a hydrodynamic size of about 120 nm, which is suitable for biological applications in aqueous dispersion. The nanoparticles exhibit superparamagnetic behavior at room temperature and spherical-close morphology. In addition, vibrational modes characteristic of the functional groups of the molecules anchored to the surface of the SPIONs are identified. Data from blood tests of mdx mice after seven consecutive days of treatment with nanoparticles confirm the non-toxic nature of the system and show an improvement in DMD, with normal levels of liver and kidney enzymes and a decrease in creatine kinase protein.

CAV1 promotes epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and chronic renal allograft interstitial fibrosis by activating the ferroptosis pathway

Background

Chronic allograft dysfunction (CAD) stands as a critical factor that limits the long-term viability of transplanted kidneys. Ferroptosis is an iron-dependent form of programmed cell death increasingly linked to chronic fibrosis. However, the mechanism by which ferroptosis contributes to the onset and progression of CAD remains unclear.

Methods

This study analyzed transcriptome data from renal transplant biopsy samples in the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO), through clinical samples, animal models, and cell experiments, this study investigated the mechanism by which Caveolin-1 (CAV1) promotes CAD through the regulation of the ferroptosis pathway.

Results

The elevated levels of CAV1 were found to positively correlate with CAD incidence. Clinical and animal model validation confirmed heightened CAV1 expression in CAD. In vitro experiments demonstrated that CAV1 can directly promote chronic renal allograft interstitial fibrosis by regulating ferroptosis in renal tubular epithelial cells; additionally, it can promote epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) by secreting Interleukin- 6 (IL-6), thereby further contributing to CAD.

Conclusion

CAV1 plays a critical role in the development of CAD by promoting EMT and chronic renal allograft interstitial fibrosis through the ferroptosis pathway. Adjusting ferroptosis by altering the expression abundance of CAV1 may become an important method for the prevention and treatment of CAD in the future.

SIRT6 inhibits endoplasmic reticulum stress-mediated ferroptosis by activating Nrf2/HO-1 signaling to alleviate osteoarthritis

OBJECTIVE

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a prevalent joint disease featured by articular cartilage destruction, causing a huge socio-economic burden worldwide. Repressing endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS)-mediated ferroptosis can alleviate the progression of OA. Sirtuin 6 (SIRT6) has been shown to suppress OA, but whether SIRT6 can regulate ferroptosis in OA through ERS remains unclear.

METHODS

In this study, both in vivo and in vitro models of OA were constructed. Micro-CT scans and three-dimensional reconstruction were used to observe the structural injury of knee joint in mice. H&E, TB, SOFG and TUNEL staining were employed to conduct pathological examination of cartilage tissues. The levels of inflammatory factors were analyzed using ELISA. Besides, ERS was assessed by detecting the levels of ERS-related proteins using immunohistochemistry, immunoblotting and immunofluorescence staining. Iron deposition in cartilage tissues was tested by prussian blue staining. Moreover, the contents of intracellular ROS, lipid ROS and Fe2+ were evaluated in IL-1β-stimulated C28/I2 cells. Finally, ML385 (an inhibitor of Nrf2) or tunicamycin (an agonist of ERS) was added to C28/I2 cells to elucidate the exact mechanism.

RESULTS

SIRT6 upregulation reduced the structural injury and inflammation in cartilage tissues of OA mice. ERS and ferroptosis were inhibited by SIRT6 overexpression in cartilage tissues of OA mice and C28/I2 cells exposed to IL-1β. Additionally, SIRT6 upregulation activated Nrf2/HO-1 signaling, as evidenced by elevated nuclear Nrf2 and HO-1 expression. Further, ML385 treatment attenuated the impacts of SIRT6 overexpression on inflammation, ERS and ferroptosis in C28/I2 cells under IL-1β conditions. Particularly, tunicamycin intervention blocked the effects of SIRT6 upregulation on ferroptosis in IL-1β-treated C28/I2 cells.

CONCLUSIONS

Collectively, SIRT6 inhibits ERS-medicated ferroptosis through activation of Nrf2/HO-1 pathway in chondrocytes to alleviate OA.

Four-pronged reversal of chemotherapy resistance by mangiferin amphiphile

Despite significant advances in diverse cancer treatment methods, chemotherapy remains the primary approach, and the development of chemoresistance is still a persistent problem during treatment. Here, we developed a derivative of the natural product mangiferin as a carrier for delivering chemotherapeutic drug, aiming to overcome drug resistance through a distinctive four-pronged strategy, including modulation of inflammatory tumor microenvironment (TME), induction of ferroptosis, deep tumor penetration, and the combinatory anticancer effects. After clarifying the promotion effects of the cancer associated fibroblasts (CAFs) in chemoresistance, and leveraging our previous elucidation of the anti-inflammatory and ferroptosis-inducing ability of mangiferin, we synthesized mangiferin amphiphile (MMF) and developed a self-assembled carrier-free nanomedicine, named MP, through the self-assembly of MMF and the representative chemotherapeutic drug paclitaxel (PTX). MP possessed a particle size of approximately 68 nm with compact filamentous nanostructures. MP demonstrated efficient tumor-targeting and deep tumor penetration abilities. Furthermore, MP effectively suppressed glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4) expression to induce ferroptosis, mitigated the activation of IL-6/STAT3 pathway to deactivate CAFs within the inflammatory TME, and exhibited robust anti-cancer effects against PTX-resistant breast cancer both in vitro and in vivo. This mangiferin derivative represents a promising "all-in-one" nanocarrier for delivering chemotherapeutic drugs, offering a green, safe, and convenient self-assembled carrier-free nanomedicine to effectively overcome drug resistance.