101
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Dzialo MC, Park R, Steensels J, Lievens B, Verstrepen KJ. Physiology, ecology and industrial applications of aroma formation in yeast. FEMS Microbiol Rev 2017; 41:S95-S128. [PMID: 28830094 PMCID: PMC5916228 DOI: 10.1093/femsre/fux031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 206] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2017] [Accepted: 06/06/2017] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Yeast cells are often employed in industrial fermentation processes for their ability to efficiently convert relatively high concentrations of sugars into ethanol and carbon dioxide. Additionally, fermenting yeast cells produce a wide range of other compounds, including various higher alcohols, carbonyl compounds, phenolic compounds, fatty acid derivatives and sulfur compounds. Interestingly, many of these secondary metabolites are volatile and have pungent aromas that are often vital for product quality. In this review, we summarize the different biochemical pathways underlying aroma production in yeast as well as the relevance of these compounds for industrial applications and the factors that influence their production during fermentation. Additionally, we discuss the different physiological and ecological roles of aroma-active metabolites, including recent findings that point at their role as signaling molecules and attractants for insect vectors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria C Dzialo
- Laboratory for Genetics and Genomics, Centre of Microbial and Plant Genetics (CMPG), KU Leuven, Gaston Geenslaan 1, B-3001 Leuven, Belgium
- Laboratory for Systems Biology, VIB Center for Microbiology, Bio-Incubator, Gaston Geenslaan 1, 3001 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Rahel Park
- Laboratory for Genetics and Genomics, Centre of Microbial and Plant Genetics (CMPG), KU Leuven, Gaston Geenslaan 1, B-3001 Leuven, Belgium
- Laboratory for Systems Biology, VIB Center for Microbiology, Bio-Incubator, Gaston Geenslaan 1, 3001 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Jan Steensels
- Laboratory for Genetics and Genomics, Centre of Microbial and Plant Genetics (CMPG), KU Leuven, Gaston Geenslaan 1, B-3001 Leuven, Belgium
- Laboratory for Systems Biology, VIB Center for Microbiology, Bio-Incubator, Gaston Geenslaan 1, 3001 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Bart Lievens
- Laboratory for Process Microbial Ecology and Bioinspirational Management (PME&BIM), Department of Microbial and Molecular Systems, KU Leuven, Campus De Nayer, Fortsesteenweg 30A B-2860 Sint-Katelijne Waver, Belgium
| | - Kevin J Verstrepen
- Laboratory for Genetics and Genomics, Centre of Microbial and Plant Genetics (CMPG), KU Leuven, Gaston Geenslaan 1, B-3001 Leuven, Belgium
- Laboratory for Systems Biology, VIB Center for Microbiology, Bio-Incubator, Gaston Geenslaan 1, 3001 Leuven, Belgium
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102
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A Defensive Kicking Behavior in Response to Mechanical Stimuli Mediated by Drosophila Wing Margin Bristles. J Neurosci 2017; 36:11275-11282. [PMID: 27807168 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.1416-16.2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2016] [Accepted: 09/08/2016] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Mechanosensation, one of the fastest sensory modalities, mediates diverse behaviors including those pertinent for survival. It is important to understand how mechanical stimuli trigger defensive behaviors. Here, we report that Drosophila melanogaster adult flies exhibit a kicking response against invading parasitic mites over their wing margin with ultrafast speed and high spatial precision. Mechanical stimuli that mimic the mites' movement evoke a similar kicking behavior. Further, we identified a TRPV channel, Nanchung, and a specific Nanchung-expressing neuron under each recurved bristle that forms an array along the wing margin as being essential sensory components for this behavior. Our electrophysiological recordings demonstrated that the mechanosensitivity of recurved bristles requires Nanchung and Nanchung-expressing neurons. Together, our results reveal a novel neural mechanism for innate defensive behavior through mechanosensation. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT We discovered a previously unknown function for recurved bristles on the Drosophila melanogaster wing. We found that when a mite (a parasitic pest for Drosophila) touches the wing margin, the fly initiates a swift and accurate kick to remove the mite. The fly head is dispensable for this behavior. Furthermore, we found that a TRPV channel, Nanchung, and a specific Nanchung-expressing neuron under each recurved bristle are essential for its mechanosensitivity and the kicking behavior. In addition, touching different regions of the wing margin elicits kicking directed precisely at the stimulated region. Our experiments suggest that recurved bristles allow the fly to sense the presence of objects by touch to initiate a defensive behavior (perhaps analogous to touch-evoked scratching; Akiyama et al., 2012).
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103
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Zhou Y, Loeza-Cabrera M, Liu Z, Aleman-Meza B, Nguyen JK, Jung SK, Choi Y, Shou Q, Butcher RA, Zhong W. Potential Nematode Alarm Pheromone Induces Acute Avoidance in Caenorhabditis elegans. Genetics 2017; 206:1469-1478. [PMID: 28495959 PMCID: PMC5500144 DOI: 10.1534/genetics.116.197293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2016] [Accepted: 05/04/2017] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
It is crucial for animal survival to detect dangers such as predators. A good indicator of dangers is injury of conspecifics. Here we show that fluids released from injured conspecifics invoke acute avoidance in both free-living and parasitic nematodes. Caenorhabditis elegans avoids extracts from closely related nematode species but not fruit fly larvae. The worm extracts have no impact on animal lifespan, suggesting that the worm extract may function as an alarm instead of inflicting physical harm. Avoidance of the worm extract requires the function of a cGMP signaling pathway that includes the cGMP-gated channel TAX-2/TAX-4 in the amphid sensory neurons ASI and ASK. Genetic evidence indicates that the avoidance behavior is modulated by the neurotransmitters GABA and serotonin, two common targets of anxiolytic drugs. Together, these data support a model that nematodes use a nematode-specific alarm pheromone to detect conspecific injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Zhou
- Department of BioSciences, Rice University, Houston, Texas 77005
| | | | - Zheng Liu
- Department of BioSciences, Rice University, Houston, Texas 77005
| | | | - Julie K Nguyen
- Department of BioSciences, Rice University, Houston, Texas 77005
| | - Sang-Kyu Jung
- Department of BioSciences, Rice University, Houston, Texas 77005
| | - Yuna Choi
- Department of BioSciences, Rice University, Houston, Texas 77005
| | - Qingyao Shou
- Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611
| | - Rebecca A Butcher
- Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611
| | - Weiwei Zhong
- Department of BioSciences, Rice University, Houston, Texas 77005
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104
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Olfactory coding from the periphery to higher brain centers in the Drosophila brain. BMC Biol 2017; 15:56. [PMID: 28666437 PMCID: PMC5493115 DOI: 10.1186/s12915-017-0389-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2017] [Accepted: 06/02/2017] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Odor information is processed through multiple receptor-glomerular channels in the first order olfactory center, the antennal lobe (AL), then reformatted into higher brain centers and eventually perceived by the fly. To reveal the logic of olfaction, it is fundamental to map odor representations from the glomerular channels into higher brain centers. RESULTS We characterize odor response profiles of AL projection neurons (PNs) originating from 31 glomeruli using whole cell patch-clamp recordings in Drosophila melanogaster. We reveal that odor representation from olfactory sensory neurons to PNs is generally conserved, while transformation of odor tuning curves is glomerulus-dependent. Reconstructions of PNs reveal that attractive and aversive odors are represented in different clusters of glomeruli in the AL. These separate representations are preserved into higher brain centers, where attractive and aversive odors are segregated into two regions in the lateral horn and partly separated in the mushroom body calyx. CONCLUSIONS Our study reveals spatial representation of odor valence coding from the AL to higher brain centers. These results provide a global picture of the olfactory circuit design underlying innate odor-guided behavior.
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105
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Schultzhaus JN, Saleem S, Iftikhar H, Carney GE. The role of the Drosophila lateral horn in olfactory information processing and behavioral response. JOURNAL OF INSECT PHYSIOLOGY 2017; 98:29-37. [PMID: 27871975 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinsphys.2016.11.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2016] [Revised: 11/16/2016] [Accepted: 11/17/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Animals must rapidly and accurately process environmental information to produce the correct behavioral responses. Reactions to previously encountered as well as to novel but biologically important stimuli are equally important, and one understudied region in the insect brain plays a role in processing both types of stimuli. The lateral horn is a higher order processing center that mainly processes olfactory information and is linked via olfactory projection neurons to another higher order learning center, the mushroom body. This review focuses on the lateral horn of Drosophila where most functional studies have been performed. We discuss connectivity between the primary olfactory center, the antennal lobe, and the lateral horn and mushroom body. We also present evidence for the lateral horn playing roles in innate behavioral responses by encoding biological valence to novel odor cues and in learned responses to previously encountered odors by modulating neural activity within the mushroom body. We describe how these processes contribute to acceptance or avoidance of appropriate or inappropriate mates and food, as well as the identification of predators. The lateral horn is a sexually dimorphic and plastic region of the brain that modulates other regions of the brain to ensure that insects produce rapid and effective behavioral responses to both novel and learned stimuli, yet multiple gaps exist in our knowledge of this important center. We anticipate that future studies on olfactory processing, learning, and innate behavioral responses will include the lateral horn in their examinations, leading to a more comprehensive understanding of olfactory information relay and resulting behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janna N Schultzhaus
- Department of Biology, Texas A&M University, 3258 TAMU, College Station, TX 77843-3258, United States
| | - Sehresh Saleem
- Department of Biology, Texas A&M University, 3258 TAMU, College Station, TX 77843-3258, United States
| | - Hina Iftikhar
- Department of Biology, Texas A&M University, 3258 TAMU, College Station, TX 77843-3258, United States
| | - Ginger E Carney
- Department of Biology, Texas A&M University, 3258 TAMU, College Station, TX 77843-3258, United States.
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106
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Delventhal R, Menuz K, Joseph R, Park J, Sun JS, Carlson JR. The taste response to ammonia in Drosophila. Sci Rep 2017; 7:43754. [PMID: 28262698 PMCID: PMC5338342 DOI: 10.1038/srep43754] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2016] [Accepted: 01/26/2017] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Ammonia is both a building block and a breakdown product of amino acids and is found widely in the environment. The odor of ammonia is attractive to many insects, including insect vectors of disease. The olfactory response of Drosophila to ammonia has been studied in some detail, but the taste response has received remarkably little attention. Here, we show that ammonia is a taste cue for Drosophila. Nearly all sensilla of the major taste organ of the Drosophila head house a neuron that responds to neutral solutions of ammonia. Ammonia is toxic at high levels to many organisms, and we find that it has a negative valence in two paradigms of taste behavior, one operating over hours and the other over seconds. Physiological and behavioral responses to ammonia depend at least in part on Gr66a+ bitter-sensing taste neurons, which activate a circuit that deters feeding. The Amt transporter, a critical component of olfactory responses to ammonia, is widely expressed in taste neurons but is not required for taste responses. This work establishes ammonia as an ecologically important taste cue in Drosophila, and shows that it can activate circuits that promote opposite behavioral outcomes via different sensory systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- R. Delventhal
- Dept. of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, Yale University, P.O. Box 208103 New Haven, CT 06520-8103, USA
| | - K. Menuz
- Dept. of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, Yale University, P.O. Box 208103 New Haven, CT 06520-8103, USA
| | - R. Joseph
- Dept. of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, Yale University, P.O. Box 208103 New Haven, CT 06520-8103, USA
| | - J. Park
- Dept. of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, Yale University, P.O. Box 208103 New Haven, CT 06520-8103, USA
| | - J. S. Sun
- Dept. of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, Yale University, P.O. Box 208103 New Haven, CT 06520-8103, USA
| | - J. R. Carlson
- Dept. of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, Yale University, P.O. Box 208103 New Haven, CT 06520-8103, USA
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107
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Tao X, Lin HH, Lam T, Rodriguez R, Wang JW, Kubby J. Transcutical imaging with cellular and subcellular resolution. BIOMEDICAL OPTICS EXPRESS 2017; 8:1277-1289. [PMID: 28663828 PMCID: PMC5480543 DOI: 10.1364/boe.8.001277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2016] [Revised: 01/26/2017] [Accepted: 01/30/2017] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
We demonstrate transcutical structural and functional imaging of neurons labeled with genetically encoded red fluorescent proteins and calcium indicators in the living Drosophila brain with cellular and subcellular resolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaodong Tao
- W.M. Keck Center for Adaptive Optical Microscopy, Jack Baskin School of Engineering, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA
- Contributed equally
| | - Hui-Hao Lin
- Neurobiology Section, Division of Biological Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
- Contributed equally
| | - Tuwin Lam
- W.M. Keck Center for Adaptive Optical Microscopy, Jack Baskin School of Engineering, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA
| | - Ramiro Rodriguez
- W.M. Keck Center for Adaptive Optical Microscopy, Jack Baskin School of Engineering, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA
| | - Jing W Wang
- Neurobiology Section, Division of Biological Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Joel Kubby
- W.M. Keck Center for Adaptive Optical Microscopy, Jack Baskin School of Engineering, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA
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108
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Kim DH, Shin M, Jung SH, Kim YJ, Jones WD. A fat-derived metabolite regulates a peptidergic feeding circuit in Drosophila. PLoS Biol 2017; 15:e2000532. [PMID: 28350856 PMCID: PMC5369665 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.2000532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2016] [Accepted: 02/28/2017] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Here, we show that the enzymatic cofactor tetrahydrobiopterin (BH4) inhibits feeding in Drosophila. BH4 biosynthesis requires the sequential action of the conserved enzymes Punch, Purple, and Sepiapterin Reductase (Sptr). Although we observe increased feeding upon loss of Punch and Purple in the adult fat body, loss of Sptr must occur in the brain. We found Sptr expression is required in four adult neurons that express neuropeptide F (NPF), the fly homologue of the vertebrate appetite regulator neuropeptide Y (NPY). As expected, feeding flies BH4 rescues the loss of Punch and Purple in the fat body and the loss of Sptr in NPF neurons. Mechanistically, we found BH4 deficiency reduces NPF staining, likely by promoting its release, while excess BH4 increases NPF accumulation without altering its expression. We thus show that, because of its physically distributed biosynthesis, BH4 acts as a fat-derived signal that induces satiety by inhibiting the activity of the NPF neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Do-Hyoung Kim
- Department of Biological Sciences, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, South Korea
| | - Minjung Shin
- Department of Biological Sciences, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, South Korea
| | - Sung-Hwan Jung
- School of Life Sciences, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST), Gwangju, South Korea
| | - Young-Joon Kim
- School of Life Sciences, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST), Gwangju, South Korea
| | - Walton D. Jones
- Department of Biological Sciences, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, South Korea
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109
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Retzke T, Thoma M, Hansson BS, Knaden M. Potencies of effector genes in silencing odor-guided behavior in Drosophila melanogaster. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2017; 220:1812-1819. [PMID: 28235908 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.156232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2017] [Accepted: 02/20/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The genetic toolbox in Drosophila melanogaster offers a multitude of different effector constructs to silence neurons and neuron populations. In this study, we investigated the potencies of several effector genes - when expressed in olfactory sensory neurons (OSNs) - to abolish odor-guided behavior in three different bioassays. We found that two of the tested effectors (tetanus toxin and Kir2.1) are capable of mimicking the Orco mutant phenotype in all of our behavioral paradigms. In both cases, the effectiveness depended on effector expression levels, as full suppression of odor-guided behavior was observed only in flies homozygous for both Gal4-driver and UAS-effector constructs. Interestingly, the impact of the effector genes differed between chemotactic assays (i.e. the fly has to follow an odor gradient to localize the odor source) and anemotactic assays (i.e. the fly has to walk upwind after detecting an attractive odorant). In conclusion, our results underline the importance of performing appropriate control experiments when exploiting the D. melanogaster genetic toolbox, and demonstrate that some odor-guided behaviors are more resistant to genetic perturbations than others.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tom Retzke
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Department of Evolutionary Neuroethology, Hans-Knoell-Straße 8, Jena 07745, Germany
| | - Michael Thoma
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Department of Evolutionary Neuroethology, Hans-Knoell-Straße 8, Jena 07745, Germany
| | - Bill S Hansson
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Department of Evolutionary Neuroethology, Hans-Knoell-Straße 8, Jena 07745, Germany
| | - Markus Knaden
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Department of Evolutionary Neuroethology, Hans-Knoell-Straße 8, Jena 07745, Germany
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110
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Green WW, Boyes K, McFadden C, Daghfous G, Auclair F, Zhang H, Li W, Dubuc R, Zielinski BS. Odorant organization in the olfactory bulb of the sea lamprey. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2017; 220:1350-1359. [PMID: 28183864 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.150466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2016] [Accepted: 01/27/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Olfactory sensory neurons innervate the olfactory bulb, where responses to different odorants generate a chemotopic map of increased neural activity within different bulbar regions. In this study, insight into the basal pattern of neural organization of the vertebrate olfactory bulb was gained by investigating the lamprey. Retrograde labelling established that lateral and dorsal bulbar territories receive the axons of sensory neurons broadly distributed in the main olfactory epithelium and that the medial region receives sensory neuron input only from neurons projecting from the accessory olfactory organ. The response duration for local field potential recordings was similar in the lateral and dorsal regions, and both were longer than medial responses. All three regions responded to amino acid odorants. The dorsal and medial regions, but not the lateral region, responded to steroids. These findings show evidence for olfactory streams in the sea lamprey olfactory bulb: the lateral region responds to amino acids from sensory input in the main olfactory epithelium, the dorsal region responds to steroids (taurocholic acid and pheromones) and to amino acids from sensory input in the main olfactory epithelium, and the medial bulbar region responds to amino acids and steroids stimulating the accessory olfactory organ. These findings indicate that olfactory subsystems are present at the base of vertebrate evolution and that regionality in the lamprey olfactory bulb has some aspects previously seen in other vertebrate species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Warren W Green
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Windsor, Windsor, ON, Canada N9B3P4
| | - Karl Boyes
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Windsor, Windsor, ON, Canada N9B3P4
| | - Charrie McFadden
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Windsor, Windsor, ON, Canada N9B3P4
| | - Gheylen Daghfous
- Groupe de Recherche en Activité Physique Adaptée, Département des sciences de l'activité physique, Université du Québec à Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada H3C3P8.,Groupe de Recherche sur le Système Nerveux Central, Département de neurosciences, Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada H3C3J7
| | - François Auclair
- Groupe de Recherche en Activité Physique Adaptée, Département des sciences de l'activité physique, Université du Québec à Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada H3C3P8.,Groupe de Recherche sur le Système Nerveux Central, Département de neurosciences, Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada H3C3J7
| | - Huiming Zhang
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Windsor, Windsor, ON, Canada N9B3P4
| | - Weiming Li
- Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
| | - Réjean Dubuc
- Groupe de Recherche en Activité Physique Adaptée, Département des sciences de l'activité physique, Université du Québec à Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada H3C3P8.,Groupe de Recherche sur le Système Nerveux Central, Département de neurosciences, Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada H3C3J7
| | - Barbara S Zielinski
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Windsor, Windsor, ON, Canada N9B3P4 .,Great Lakes Institute for Environmental Research, University of Windsor, Windsor, ON, Canada N9B3P4
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111
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Croft JR, Liu T, Camiletti AL, Simon AF, Thompson GJ. Sexual response of male Drosophila to honey bee queen mandibular pheromone: implications for genetic studies of social insects. J Comp Physiol A Neuroethol Sens Neural Behav Physiol 2017; 203:143-149. [DOI: 10.1007/s00359-017-1147-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2016] [Revised: 12/31/2016] [Accepted: 01/09/2017] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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112
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Prieto-Godino LL, Rytz R, Cruchet S, Bargeton B, Abuin L, Silbering AF, Ruta V, Dal Peraro M, Benton R. Evolution of Acid-Sensing Olfactory Circuits in Drosophilids. Neuron 2017; 93:661-676.e6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2016.12.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2016] [Revised: 10/18/2016] [Accepted: 12/15/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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113
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Ramdya P, Schneider J, Levine JD. The neurogenetics of group behavior in Drosophila melanogaster. J Exp Biol 2017; 220:35-41. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.141457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
ABSTRACT
Organisms rarely act in isolation. Their decisions and movements are often heavily influenced by direct and indirect interactions with conspecifics. For example, we each represent a single node within a social network of family and friends, and an even larger network of strangers. This group membership can affect our opinions and actions. Similarly, when in a crowd, we often coordinate our movements with others like fish in a school, or birds in a flock. Contributions of the group to individual behaviors are observed across a wide variety of taxa but their biological mechanisms remain largely unknown. With the advent of powerful computational tools as well as the unparalleled genetic accessibility and surprisingly rich social life of Drosophila melanogaster, researchers now have a unique opportunity to investigate molecular and neuronal determinants of group behavior. Conserved mechanisms and/or selective pressures in D. melanogaster can likely inform a much wider phylogenetic scale. Here, we highlight two examples to illustrate how quantitative and genetic tools can be combined to uncover mechanisms of two group behaviors in D. melanogaster: social network formation and collective behavior. Lastly, we discuss future challenges towards a full understanding how coordinated brain activity across many individuals gives rise to the behavioral patterns of animal societies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pavan Ramdya
- Department of Biology and Bioengineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91106, USA
| | - Jonathan Schneider
- Department of Biology, University of Toronto at Mississauga, Mississauga, Ontario, CanadaL5L1C6
| | - Joel D. Levine
- Department of Biology, University of Toronto at Mississauga, Mississauga, Ontario, CanadaL5L1C6
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114
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Kim S, Tellez K, Buchan G, Lebestky T. Fly Stampede 2.0: A Next Generation Optomotor Assay for Walking Behavior in Drosophila Melanogaster. Front Mol Neurosci 2016; 9:148. [PMID: 28105003 PMCID: PMC5214522 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2016.00148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2016] [Accepted: 12/01/2016] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Optomotor behavior represents a stereotyped locomotor response to visual motion that is found in both vertebrate and invertebrate models. The Fly Stampede assay was developed to study an optomotor response in freely walking populations of Drosophila. Here we share optimized assay designs and software for production of a modified stampede assay that can be used for genetic screens, and improved tracking outputs for understanding behavioral parameters of visual-motion responses and arousal state of individual animals. Arousal state influences behavioral performance in the stampede assay. As proof of principle experiments we show parametric modulation of visual stimuli and startle stimuli in both wildtype and mutant flies for the type I family dopamine receptor Dop1R1 (DopR). DopR mutants are hyperactive and perform poorly in the stampede assay, suggesting a potential role in visual perception and/or arousal. The stampede assay creates an efficient platform for rapid screening of mutant animals or circuit manipulations for investigating attentional processes in Drosophila.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soomin Kim
- Department of Biology, Williams College Williamstown, MA, USA
| | - Kelly Tellez
- Department of Biology, Williams College Williamstown, MA, USA
| | - Graham Buchan
- Department of Biology, Williams College Williamstown, MA, USA
| | - Tim Lebestky
- Department of Biology, Williams College Williamstown, MA, USA
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115
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Wudarczyk OA, Kohn N, Bergs R, Goerlich KS, Gur RE, Turetsky B, Schneider F, Habel U. Chemosensory anxiety cues enhance the perception of fearful faces – An fMRI study. Neuroimage 2016; 143:214-222. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2016.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2016] [Revised: 08/12/2016] [Accepted: 09/01/2016] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
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Wu W, Li Z, Zhang S, Ke Y, Hou Y. Transcriptome response to elevated atmospheric CO 2 concentration in the Formosan subterranean termite, Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). PeerJ 2016; 4:e2527. [PMID: 27761326 PMCID: PMC5068368 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.2527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2016] [Accepted: 09/04/2016] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a pervasive chemical stimulus that plays a critical role in insect life, eliciting behavioral and physiological responses across different species. High CO2 concentration is a major feature of termite nests, which may be used as a cue for locating their nests. Termites also survive under an elevated CO2 concentration. However, the mechanism by which elevated CO2 concentration influences gene expression in termites is poorly understood. Methods To gain a better understanding of the molecular basis involved in the adaptation to CO2 concentration, a transcriptome of Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki was constructed to assemble the reference genes, followed by comparative transcriptomic analyses across different CO2 concentration (0.04%, 0.4%, 4% and 40%) treatments. Results (1) Based on a high throughput sequencing platform, we obtained approximately 20 GB of clean data and revealed 189,421 unigenes, with a mean length and an N50 length of 629 bp and 974 bp, respectively. (2) The transcriptomic response of C. formosanus to elevated CO2 levels presented discontinuous changes. Comparative analysis of the transcriptomes revealed 2,936 genes regulated among 0.04%, 0.4%, 4% and 40% CO2 concentration treatments, 909 genes derived from termites and 2,027 from gut symbionts. Genes derived from termites appears selectively activated under 4% CO2 level. In 40% CO2 level, most of the down-regulated genes were derived from symbionts. (3) Through similarity searches to data from other species, a number of protein sequences putatively involved in chemosensory reception were identified and characterized in C. formosanus, including odorant receptors, gustatory receptors, ionotropic receptors, odorant binding proteins, and chemosensory proteins. Discussion We found that most genes associated with carbohydrate metabolism, energy metabolism, and genetic information processing were regulated under different CO2 concentrations. Results suggested that termites adapt to ∼4% CO2 level and their gut symbionts may be killed under high CO2 level. We anticipate that our findings provide insights into the transcriptome dynamics of CO2 responses in termites and form the basis to gain a better understanding of regulatory networks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenjing Wu
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Integrated Pest Management in Agriculture, Guangdong Public Laboratory of Wild Animal Conservation and Utilization, Guangdong Institute of Applied Biological Resources , Guangzhou , Guangdong , China
| | - Zhiqiang Li
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Integrated Pest Management in Agriculture, Guangdong Public Laboratory of Wild Animal Conservation and Utilization, Guangdong Institute of Applied Biological Resources , Guangzhou , Guangdong , China
| | - Shijun Zhang
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Integrated Pest Management in Agriculture, Guangdong Public Laboratory of Wild Animal Conservation and Utilization, Guangdong Institute of Applied Biological Resources , Guangzhou , Guangdong , China
| | - Yunling Ke
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Integrated Pest Management in Agriculture, Guangdong Public Laboratory of Wild Animal Conservation and Utilization, Guangdong Institute of Applied Biological Resources , Guangzhou , Guangdong , China
| | - Yahui Hou
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Integrated Pest Management in Agriculture, Guangdong Public Laboratory of Wild Animal Conservation and Utilization, Guangdong Institute of Applied Biological Resources, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China; College of Forestry, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin, Heilongjiang, China
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117
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Clark JT, Ray A. Olfactory Mechanisms for Discovery of Odorants to Reduce Insect-Host Contact. J Chem Ecol 2016; 42:919-930. [PMID: 27628342 DOI: 10.1007/s10886-016-0770-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2016] [Revised: 08/25/2016] [Accepted: 09/08/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Insects have developed highly sophisticated and sensitive olfactory systems to find animal or plant hosts for feeding. Some insects vector pathogens that cause diseases in hundreds of millions of people and destroy billions of dollars of food products every year. There is great interest, therefore, in understanding how the insect olfactory system can be manipulated to reduce their contact with hosts. Here, we review recent advances in our understanding of insect olfactory detection mechanisms, which may serve as a foundation for designing insect control programs based on manipulation of their behaviors by using odorants. Because every insect species has a unique set of olfactory receptors and olfactory-mediated behaviors, we focus primarily on general principles of odor detection that potentially apply to most insects. While these mechanisms have emerged from studies on model systems for study of insect olfaction, such as Drosophila melanogaster, they provide a foundation for discovery of odorants to repel vector insects or reduce their host-seeking behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan T Clark
- Interdepartmental Neuroscience Program, University of California, Riverside, CA, 92521, USA
| | - Anandasankar Ray
- Interdepartmental Neuroscience Program, University of California, Riverside, CA, 92521, USA. .,Entomology Department, University of California, Riverside, CA, 92521, USA. .,Center for Disease Vector Research, University of California, Riverside, CA, 92521, USA.
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118
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Dublon IAN, Nilsson M, Balkenius A, Anderson P, Larsson MC. Scintillate: An open-source graphical viewer for time-series calcium imaging evaluation and pre-processing. J Neurosci Methods 2016; 273:120-127. [PMID: 27594088 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2016.08.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2016] [Revised: 08/01/2016] [Accepted: 08/17/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Calcium imaging is based on the detection of minute signal changes in an image time-series encompassing pre- and post-stimuli. Depending on the function of the elicited response, change may be pronounced, as in the case of a genetically encoded calcium-reporter protein, or subtle, as is the case in a bath-applied dye system. Large datasets are thus often acquired and appraised only during post-processing where specific Regions of Interest (ROIs) are examined. NEW METHOD The scintillate software provides a platform allowing for near instantaneous viewing of time-sequenced tiffs within a discrete GUI environment. Whole sequences may be evaluated. In its simplest form scintillate provides change in florescence (ΔF) across the entire tiff image matrix. Evaluating image intensity level differences across the whole image allows the user to rapidly establish the value of the preparation, without a priori ROI-selection. Additionally, an implementation of Independent Component Analysis (ICA) provides additional rapid insights into areas of signal change. RESULTS We imaged transgenic flies expressing Calcium-sensitive reporter proteins within projection neurons and moth mushroom bodies stained with a Ca2+ sensitive bath-applied dye. Instantaneous pre-stimulation background subtraction allowed us to appraise strong genetically encoded neuronal Ca2+ responses in flies and weaker, less apparent, responses within moth mushroom bodies. COMPARISON WITH EXISTING METHODS At the time of acquisition, whole matrix ΔF analysis alongside ICA is ordinarily not performed. We found it invaluable, minimising time spent with unresponsive samples, and assisting in optimisation of subsequent acquisitions. CONCLUSIONS We provide a multi-platform open-source system to evaluate time-series images.
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Affiliation(s)
- I A N Dublon
- Division of Chemical Ecology, Department of Plant Protection Biology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, P.O. Box 102, SE-230 53, Alnarp, Sweden.
| | - M Nilsson
- Lund University Bioimaging Center, Faculty of Medicine, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - A Balkenius
- Division of Chemical Ecology, Department of Plant Protection Biology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, P.O. Box 102, SE-230 53, Alnarp, Sweden
| | - P Anderson
- Division of Chemical Ecology, Department of Plant Protection Biology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, P.O. Box 102, SE-230 53, Alnarp, Sweden
| | - M C Larsson
- Division of Chemical Ecology, Department of Plant Protection Biology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, P.O. Box 102, SE-230 53, Alnarp, Sweden
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119
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Akasaka N, Higashikubo H, Ishii Y, Sakoda H, Fujiwara S. Polyamines in brown rice vinegar function as potent attractants for the spotted wing drosophila. J Biosci Bioeng 2016; 123:78-83. [PMID: 27591976 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiosc.2016.06.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2016] [Revised: 06/22/2016] [Accepted: 06/27/2016] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Vinegar produced by acetic acid bacteria is used as an attractant for fruit flies. Apple cider vinegar (ACV) and brown rice vinegar (BRV) are used as lures to detect Drosophila suzukii (also known as the spotted wing drosophila [SWD], a newly emerging invasive pest of soft-skinned fruits) and to capture Drosophila melanogaster, respectively. In the present study, we evaluated the attractiveness of BRV and ACV to SWD in laboratory trapping experiments using an upturned microcentrifuge tube with a pipette tip as a trap. We transferred SWD (approximately 20, 7-10 days old) to a glass vial containing a trap baited with BRV or ACV and counted the captured flies. BRV attracted more flies (52.88 ± 9.75%) than ACV (35.78 ± 7.47%) in 6 h. Based on high-performance liquid chromatography, we found that BRV contained greater amounts of putrescine (12.36 ± 0.44 μM) and spermidine (35.08 ± 4.34 μM) than ACV (putrescine, 0.31 ± 0.067 μM; spermidine, not detected). The attractiveness of ACV supplemented with putrescine (12 μM) and spermidine (35 μM) (68.56 ± 4.69%) was significantly higher than that of ACV, indicating that the enhanced attractiveness of BRV to SWD was accomplished by the additive effects of polyamines and other known attractive volatiles, such as acetic acid and acetoin. BRV is expected to be a powerful tool for the efficient management of SWD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naoki Akasaka
- Division of Bioscience Products, Marukan Vinegar Co. Ltd., 5-6 Koyo-cho West, Higashinada-ku, Kobe, Hyogo 658-0033, Japan; Institute of Applied Microbiology, Marukan Vinegar Co. Ltd., 5-6 Koyo-cho West, Higashinada-ku, Kobe, Hyogo 658-0033, Japan
| | - Haruka Higashikubo
- Department of Bioscience, Graduate School of Science and Technology, Kwansei Gakuin University, 2-1 Gakuen, Sanda, Hyogo 669-1337, Japan
| | - Yuri Ishii
- Department of Bioscience, Graduate School of Science and Technology, Kwansei Gakuin University, 2-1 Gakuen, Sanda, Hyogo 669-1337, Japan
| | - Hisao Sakoda
- Division of Bioscience Products, Marukan Vinegar Co. Ltd., 5-6 Koyo-cho West, Higashinada-ku, Kobe, Hyogo 658-0033, Japan; Institute of Applied Microbiology, Marukan Vinegar Co. Ltd., 5-6 Koyo-cho West, Higashinada-ku, Kobe, Hyogo 658-0033, Japan
| | - Shinsuke Fujiwara
- Department of Bioscience, Graduate School of Science and Technology, Kwansei Gakuin University, 2-1 Gakuen, Sanda, Hyogo 669-1337, Japan; Research Center for Intelligent Bio-Materials, Graduate School of Science and Technology, Kwansei-Gakuin University, Sanda, Hyogo 669-1337, Japan.
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Park JY, Dus M, Kim S, Abu F, Kanai MI, Rudy B, Suh GSB. Drosophila SLC5A11 Mediates Hunger by Regulating K(+) Channel Activity. Curr Biol 2016; 26:1965-1974. [PMID: 27397890 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2016.05.076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2016] [Revised: 05/10/2016] [Accepted: 05/31/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Hunger is a powerful drive that stimulates food intake. Yet, the mechanism that determines how the energy deficits that result in hunger are represented in the brain and promote feeding is not well understood. We previously described SLC5A11-a sodium/solute co-transporter-like-(or cupcake) in Drosophila melanogaster, which is required for the fly to select a nutritive sugar over a sweeter nonnutritive sugar after periods of food deprivation. SLC5A11 acts on approximately 12 pairs of ellipsoid body (EB) R4 neurons to trigger the selection of nutritive sugars, but the underlying mechanism is not understood. Here, we report that the excitability of SLC5A11-expressing EB R4 neurons increases dramatically during starvation and that this increase is abolished in the SLC5A11 mutation. Artificial activation of SLC5A11-expresssing neurons is sufficient to promote feeding and hunger-driven behaviors; silencing these neurons has the opposite effect. Notably, SLC5A11 transcript levels in the brain increase significantly when flies are starved and decrease shortly after starved flies are refed. Furthermore, expression of SLC5A11 is sufficient for promoting hunger-driven behaviors and enhancing the excitability of SLC5A11-expressing neurons. SLC5A11 inhibits the function of the Drosophila KCNQ potassium channel in a heterologous expression system. Accordingly, a knockdown of dKCNQ expression in SLC5A11-expressing neurons produces hunger-driven behaviors even in fed flies, mimicking the overexpression of SLC5A11. We propose that starvation increases SLC5A11 expression, which enhances the excitability of SLC5A11-expressing neurons by suppressing dKCNQ channels, thereby conferring the hunger state.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin-Yong Park
- Skirball Institute of Biomolecular Medicine, New York University School of Medicine, 540 First Avenue, New York, NY 10016, USA; Neuroscience Institute, New York University School of Medicine, 540 First Avenue, New York, NY 10016, USA; Department of Cell Biology, New York University School of Medicine, 540 First Avenue, New York, NY 10016, USA
| | - Monica Dus
- Skirball Institute of Biomolecular Medicine, New York University School of Medicine, 540 First Avenue, New York, NY 10016, USA; Neuroscience Institute, New York University School of Medicine, 540 First Avenue, New York, NY 10016, USA; Department of Cell Biology, New York University School of Medicine, 540 First Avenue, New York, NY 10016, USA
| | - Seonil Kim
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, New York University School of Medicine, 540 First Avenue, New York, NY 10016, USA
| | - Farhan Abu
- Skirball Institute of Biomolecular Medicine, New York University School of Medicine, 540 First Avenue, New York, NY 10016, USA; Neuroscience Institute, New York University School of Medicine, 540 First Avenue, New York, NY 10016, USA; Department of Cell Biology, New York University School of Medicine, 540 First Avenue, New York, NY 10016, USA
| | - Makoto I Kanai
- Skirball Institute of Biomolecular Medicine, New York University School of Medicine, 540 First Avenue, New York, NY 10016, USA; Neuroscience Institute, New York University School of Medicine, 540 First Avenue, New York, NY 10016, USA; Department of Cell Biology, New York University School of Medicine, 540 First Avenue, New York, NY 10016, USA
| | - Bernardo Rudy
- Neuroscience Institute, New York University School of Medicine, 540 First Avenue, New York, NY 10016, USA; Department of Physiology and Neuroscience , New York University School of Medicine, 540 First Avenue, New York, NY 10016, USA
| | - Greg S B Suh
- Skirball Institute of Biomolecular Medicine, New York University School of Medicine, 540 First Avenue, New York, NY 10016, USA; Neuroscience Institute, New York University School of Medicine, 540 First Avenue, New York, NY 10016, USA; Department of Cell Biology, New York University School of Medicine, 540 First Avenue, New York, NY 10016, USA.
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121
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Sachse S, Beshel J. The good, the bad, and the hungry: how the central brain codes odor valence to facilitate food approach in Drosophila. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2016; 40:53-58. [PMID: 27393869 DOI: 10.1016/j.conb.2016.06.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2016] [Revised: 05/19/2016] [Accepted: 06/22/2016] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
All animals must eat in order to survive but first they must successfully locate and appraise food resources in a manner consonant with their needs. To accomplish this, external sensory information, in particular olfactory food cues, need to be detected and appropriately categorized. Recent advances in Drosophila point to the existence of parallel processing circuits within the central brain that encode odor valence, supporting approach and avoidance behaviors. Strikingly, many elements within these neural systems are subject to modification as a function of the fly's satiety state. In this review we describe those advances and their potential impact on the decision to feed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silke Sachse
- Department of Evolutionary Neuroethology, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany
| | - Jennifer Beshel
- Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, NY, United States.
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122
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Reisenman CE, Lei H, Guerenstein PG. Neuroethology of Olfactory-Guided Behavior and Its Potential Application in the Control of Harmful Insects. Front Physiol 2016; 7:271. [PMID: 27445858 PMCID: PMC4928593 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2016.00271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2016] [Accepted: 06/16/2016] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Harmful insects include pests of crops and storage goods, and vectors of human and animal diseases. Throughout their history, humans have been fighting them using diverse methods. The fairly recent development of synthetic chemical insecticides promised efficient crop and health protection at a relatively low cost. However, the negative effects of those insecticides on human health and the environment, as well as the development of insect resistance, have been fueling the search for alternative control tools. New and promising alternative methods to fight harmful insects include the manipulation of their behavior using synthetic versions of "semiochemicals", which are natural volatile and non-volatile substances involved in the intra- and/or inter-specific communication between organisms. Synthetic semiochemicals can be used as trap baits to monitor the presence of insects, so that insecticide spraying can be planned rationally (i.e., only when and where insects are actually present). Other methods that use semiochemicals include insect annihilation by mass trapping, attract-and- kill techniques, behavioral disruption, and the use of repellents. In the last decades many investigations focused on the neural bases of insect's responses to semiochemicals. Those studies help understand how the olfactory system detects and processes information about odors, which could lead to the design of efficient control tools, including odor baits, repellents or ways to confound insects. Here we review our current knowledge about the neural mechanisms controlling olfactory responses to semiochemicals in harmful insects. We also discuss how this neuroethology approach can be used to design or improve pest/vector management strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolina E. Reisenman
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology and Essig Museum of Entomology, University of California, BerkeleyBerkeley, CA, USA
| | - Hong Lei
- Department of Neuroscience, University of ArizonaTucson, AZ, USA
| | - Pablo G. Guerenstein
- Lab. de Estudio de la Biología de Insectos, CICyTTP-CONICETDiamante, Argentina
- Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad Nacional de Entre RíosOro Verde, Argentina
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123
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Bell JS, Wilson RI. Behavior Reveals Selective Summation and Max Pooling among Olfactory Processing Channels. Neuron 2016; 91:425-38. [PMID: 27373835 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2016.06.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2016] [Revised: 03/28/2016] [Accepted: 06/02/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The olfactory system is divided into processing channels (glomeruli), each receiving input from a different type of olfactory receptor neuron (ORN). Here we investigated how glomeruli combine to control behavior in freely walking Drosophila. We found that optogenetically activating single ORN types typically produced attraction, although some ORN types produced repulsion. Attraction consisted largely of a behavioral program with the following rules: at fictive odor onset, flies walked upwind, and at fictive odor offset, they reversed. When certain pairs of attractive ORN types were co-activated, the level of the behavioral response resembled the sum of the component responses. However, other pairs of attractive ORN types produced a response resembling the larger component (max pooling). Although activation of different ORN combinations produced different levels of behavior, the rules of the behavioral program were consistent. Our results illustrate a general method for inferring how groups of neurons work together to modulate behavioral programs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph S Bell
- Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Rachel I Wilson
- Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
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124
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Decoding of Context-Dependent Olfactory Behavior in Drosophila. Neuron 2016; 91:155-67. [PMID: 27321924 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2016.05.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2015] [Revised: 03/22/2016] [Accepted: 05/11/2016] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Odor information is encoded in the activity of a population of glomeruli in the primary olfactory center. However, how this information is decoded in the brain remains elusive. Here, we address this question in Drosophila by combining neuronal imaging and tracking of innate behavioral responses. We find that the behavior is accurately predicted by a model summing normalized glomerular responses, in which each glomerulus contributes a specific, small amount to odor preference. This model is further supported by targeted manipulations of glomerular input, which biased the behavior. Additionally, we observe that relative odor preference changes and can even switch depending on the context, an effect correctly predicted by our normalization model. Our results indicate that olfactory information is decoded from the pooled activity of a glomerular repertoire and demonstrate the ability of the olfactory system to adapt to the statistics of its environment.
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125
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Rybak J, Talarico G, Ruiz S, Arnold C, Cantera R, Hansson BS. Synaptic circuitry of identified neurons in the antennal lobe of Drosophila melanogaster. J Comp Neurol 2016; 524:1920-56. [PMID: 26780543 PMCID: PMC6680330 DOI: 10.1002/cne.23966] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2015] [Revised: 01/05/2016] [Accepted: 01/13/2016] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
In Drosophila melanogaster olfactory sensory neurons (OSNs) establish synapses with projection neurons (PNs) and local interneurons within antennal lobe (AL) glomeruli. Substantial knowledge regarding this circuitry has been obtained by functional studies, whereas ultrastructural evidence of synaptic contacts is scarce. To fill this gap, we studied serial sections of three glomeruli using electron microscopy. Ectopic expression of a membrane-bound peroxidase allowed us to map synaptic sites along PN dendrites. Our data prove for the first time that each of the three major types of AL neurons is both pre- and postsynaptic to the other two types, as previously indicated by functional studies. PN dendrites carry a large proportion of output synapses, with approximately one output per every three input synapses. Detailed reconstructions of PN dendrites showed that these synapses are distributed unevenly, with input and output sites partially segregated along a proximal-distal gradient and the thinnest branches carrying solely input synapses. Moreover, our data indicate synapse clustering, as we found evidence of dendritic tiling of PN dendrites. PN output synapses exhibited T-shaped presynaptic densities, mostly arranged as tetrads. In contrast, output synapses from putative OSNs showed elongated presynaptic densities in which the T-bar platform was supported by several pedestals and contacted as many as 20 postsynaptic profiles. We also discovered synaptic contacts between the putative OSNs. The average synaptic density in the glomerular neuropil was about two synapses/µm(3) . These results are discussed with regard to current models of olfactory glomerular microcircuits across species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jürgen Rybak
- Department of Evolutionary NeuroethologyMax Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology07745JenaGermany
| | - Giovanni Talarico
- Department of Evolutionary NeuroethologyMax Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology07745JenaGermany
| | - Santiago Ruiz
- Clemente Estable Institute of Biological Research11600 MontevideoUruguay
| | - Christopher Arnold
- Department of Evolutionary NeuroethologyMax Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology07745JenaGermany
| | - Rafael Cantera
- Clemente Estable Institute of Biological Research11600 MontevideoUruguay
- Zoology DepartmentStockholm University10691StockholmSweden
| | - Bill S. Hansson
- Department of Evolutionary NeuroethologyMax Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology07745JenaGermany
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126
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Abstract
I have reanalyzed the data presented by Hallem and Carlson [Hallem EA, Carlson JR (2006) Cell 125(1):143-160] and shown that the combinatorial odor code supplied by the fruit fly antenna is a very simple one in which nearly all odors produce, statistically, the same neuronal response; i.e., the probability distribution of sensory neuron firing rates across the population of odorant sensory neurons is an exponential for nearly all odors and odor mixtures, with the mean rate dependent on the odor concentration. Between odors, then, the response differs according to which sensory neurons are firing at what individual rates and with what mean population rate, but not in the probability distribution of firing rates. This conclusion is independent of adjustable parameters, and holds both for monomolecular odors and complex mixtures. Because the circuitry in the antennal lobe constrains the mean firing rate to be the same for all odors and concentrations, the odor code is what is known as maximum entropy.
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127
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128
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Williams ZM. Transgenerational influence of sensorimotor training on offspring behavior and its neural basis in Drosophila. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2016; 131:166-75. [PMID: 27044678 DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2016.03.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2016] [Revised: 03/23/2016] [Accepted: 03/30/2016] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Whether specific learning experiences by parents influence the behavior of subsequent generations remains unclear. This study examines whether and what aspects of parental sensorimotor training prior to conception affect the behavior of subsequent generations and identifies the neural circuitries in Drosophila responsible for mediating these effects. Using genetic and anatomic techniques, I find that both first- and second-generation offspring of parents who underwent prolonged olfactory training over many days displayed a weak but selective approach bias to the same trained odors. However, I also find that the offspring did not differentiate between orders based on whether parental training was aversive or appetitive. Disruption of both olfactory-receptor and dorsal-paired-medial neuron input into the mushroom bodies abolished this change in offspring response, but disrupting synaptic output from α/β neurons of the mushroom body themselves had little effect on behavior even though they remained necessary for enacting newly trained conditioned responses. This study provides a circuit-based understanding of how specific sensory experiences in Drosophila may bias the behavior of subsequent generations, and identifies a transgenerational dissociation between the effects of conditioned and unconditioned sensory stimuli.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ziv M Williams
- Harvard-MIT Health Sciences and Technology, Boston, MA, United States; Harvard Medical School Program in Neuroscience, Boston, MA, United States; Department of Neurosurgery, MGH-HMS Center for Nervous System Repair, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States.
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129
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Mang D, Shu M, Endo H, Yoshizawa Y, Nagata S, Kikuta S, Sato R. Expression of a sugar clade gustatory receptor, BmGr6, in the oral sensory organs, midgut, and central nervous system of larvae of the silkworm Bombyx mori. INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2016; 70:85-98. [PMID: 26721200 DOI: 10.1016/j.ibmb.2015.12.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2015] [Revised: 11/22/2015] [Accepted: 12/20/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Insects taste nonvolatile chemicals through gustatory receptors (Grs) and make choices for feeding, mating, and oviposition. To date, genome projects have identified 69 Gr genes in the silkworm, Bombyx mori; however, the expression sites of these Grs remain to be explored. In this study, we used reverse transcription (RT)-PCR to investigate expression of the B. mori Gr-6 (BmGr6) gene, a member of the putative sugar clade gene family in various tissues. BmGr6 is expressed in the midgut, central nervous system (CNS), and oral sensory organs. Moreover, immunohistochemistry using an anti-BmGr6 antiserum demonstrated that BmGr6 is expressed in cells by oral sensory organs, midgut and nervous system. Furthermore, double-immunohistochemistry indicated that BmGr6 is expressed in midgut enteroendocrine cells, also in CNS neurosecretory cells. In particular, a portion of BmGr6-expressing cells, in both midgut and CNS, secretes FMRFamide-related peptides (FaRPs). These results suggest that BmGr6 functions not only as a taste receptor, but also as a chemical sensor such as for the regulation of gut movement, physiological conditions, and feeding behavior of larvae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dingze Mang
- Graduate School of Bio-Application and Systems Engineering, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Koganei 2-24-16, Tokyo 184-8588, Japan
| | - Min Shu
- Graduate School of Bio-Application and Systems Engineering, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Koganei 2-24-16, Tokyo 184-8588, Japan
| | - Haruka Endo
- Graduate School of Bio-Application and Systems Engineering, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Koganei 2-24-16, Tokyo 184-8588, Japan
| | - Yasutaka Yoshizawa
- Graduate School of Bio-Application and Systems Engineering, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Koganei 2-24-16, Tokyo 184-8588, Japan
| | - Shinji Nagata
- Department of Applied Biological Chemistry, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, University of Tokyo, Yayoi 1-1-1, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
| | - Shingo Kikuta
- Graduate School of Bio-Application and Systems Engineering, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Koganei 2-24-16, Tokyo 184-8588, Japan
| | - Ryoichi Sato
- Graduate School of Bio-Application and Systems Engineering, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Koganei 2-24-16, Tokyo 184-8588, Japan.
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130
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Münch D, Galizia CG. DoOR 2.0--Comprehensive Mapping of Drosophila melanogaster Odorant Responses. Sci Rep 2016; 6:21841. [PMID: 26912260 PMCID: PMC4766438 DOI: 10.1038/srep21841] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2015] [Accepted: 01/28/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Odors elicit complex patterns of activated olfactory sensory neurons. Knowing the complete olfactome, i.e. the responses in all sensory neurons for all relevant odorants, is desirable to understand olfactory coding. The DoOR project combines all available Drosophila odorant response data into a single consensus response matrix. Since its first release many studies were published: receptors were deorphanized and several response profiles were expanded. In this study, we add unpublished data to the odor-response profiles for four odorant receptors (Or10a, Or42b, Or47b, Or56a). We deorphanize Or69a, showing a broad response spectrum with the best ligands including 3-hydroxyhexanoate, alpha-terpineol, 3-octanol and linalool. We include all of these datasets into DoOR, provide a comprehensive update of both code and data, and new tools for data analyses and visualizations. The DoOR project has a web interface for quick queries (http://neuro.uni.kn/DoOR), and a downloadable, open source toolbox written in R, including all processed and original datasets. DoOR now gives reliable odorant-responses for nearly all Drosophila olfactory responding units, listing 693 odorants, for a total of 7381 data points.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Münch
- Neurobiology, University of Konstanz, 78457 Konstanz, Germany
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131
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Piersanti S, Frati F, Rebora M, Salerno G. Carbon dioxide detection in adult Odonata. ZOOLOGY 2016; 119:137-142. [PMID: 26831359 DOI: 10.1016/j.zool.2016.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2015] [Revised: 11/26/2015] [Accepted: 01/10/2016] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
The present paper shows, by means of single-cell recordings, responses of antennal sensory neurons of the damselfly Ischnura elegans when stimulated by air streams at different CO2 concentrations. Unlike most insects, but similarly to termites, centipedes and ticks, Odonata possess sensory neurons strongly inhibited by CO2, with the magnitude of the off-response depending upon the CO2 concentration. The Odonata antennal sensory neurons responding to CO2 are also sensitive to airborne odors; in particular, the impulse frequency is increased by isoamylamine and decreased by heptanoic and pentanoic acid. Further behavioral investigations are necessary to assign a biological role to carbon dioxide detection in Odonata.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvana Piersanti
- Dipartimento di Chimica, Biologia e Biotecnologie, Università degli Studi di Perugia, Via Elce di Sotto, 06123 Perugia, Italy.
| | - Francesca Frati
- Dipartimento di Scienze Agrarie, Alimentari e Ambientali, Università degli Studi di Perugia, Borgo XX Giugno, 74, 06121 Perugia, Italy
| | - Manuela Rebora
- Dipartimento di Chimica, Biologia e Biotecnologie, Università degli Studi di Perugia, Via Elce di Sotto, 06123 Perugia, Italy
| | - Gianandrea Salerno
- Dipartimento di Scienze Agrarie, Alimentari e Ambientali, Università degli Studi di Perugia, Borgo XX Giugno, 74, 06121 Perugia, Italy
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132
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Boyle SM, McInally S, Tharadra S, Ray A. Short-term memory trace mediated by termination kinetics of olfactory receptor. Sci Rep 2016; 6:19863. [PMID: 26830661 PMCID: PMC4735300 DOI: 10.1038/srep19863] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2013] [Accepted: 12/18/2015] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Odorants activate receptors in the peripheral olfactory neurons, which sends information to higher brain centers where behavioral valence is determined. Movement and airflow continuously change what odor plumes an animal encounters and little is known about the effect one plume has on the detection of another. Using the simple Drosophila melanogaster larval model to study this relationship we identify an unexpected phenomenon: response to an attractant can be selectively blocked by previous exposure to some odorants that activates the same receptor. At a mechanistic level, we find that exposure to this type of odorant causes prolonged tonic responses from a receptor (Or42b), which can block subsequent detection of a strong activator of that same receptor. We identify naturally occurring odorants with prolonged tonic responses for other odorant receptors (Ors) as well, suggesting that termination-kinetics is a factor for olfactory coding mechanisms. This mechanism has implications for odor-coding in any system and for designing applications to modify odor-driven behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sean Michael Boyle
- Genetics, Genomics and Bioinformatics Program, University of California, Riverside, California, CA 92521
| | - Shane McInally
- Department of Entomology, University of California, Riverside, California, CA 92521
| | - Sana Tharadra
- Department of Entomology, University of California, Riverside, California, CA 92521
| | - Anandasankar Ray
- Genetics, Genomics and Bioinformatics Program, University of California, Riverside, California, CA 92521.,Department of Entomology, University of California, Riverside, California, CA 92521.,Center for Disease Vector Research, University of California, Riverside, California, CA 92521.,Institute of Integrative Genome Biology, University of California, Riverside, California, CA 92521
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133
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Carbon dioxide receptor genes and their expression profile in Diabrotica virgifera virgifera. BMC Res Notes 2016; 9:18. [PMID: 26746870 PMCID: PMC4706698 DOI: 10.1186/s13104-015-1794-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2015] [Accepted: 12/10/2015] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Diabrotica virgifera virgifera, western corn rootworm, is one of the most devastating species in North America. D. v. virgifera neonates crawl through the soil to locate the roots on which they feed. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is one of the important volatile cues that attract D. v. virgifera larvae to roots.
Results In this study, we identified three putative D. v. virgifera gustatory receptor genes (Dvv_Gr1, Dvv_Gr2, and Dvv_Gr3). Phylogenetic analyses confirmed their orthologous relationships with known insect CO2 receptor genes from Drosophila, mosquitoes, and Tribolium. The phylogenetic reconstruction of insect CO2 receptor proteins and the gene expression profiles were analyzed. Quantitative analysis of gene expression indicated that the patterns of expression of these three candidate genes vary among larval tissues (i.e., head, integument, fat body, and midgut) and different development stages (i.e., egg, three larval stages, adult male and female). Conclusion
The Dvv_Gr2 gene exhibited highest expression in heads and neonates, suggesting its importance in allowing neonate larvae to orient to its host plant. Similar expression patterns across tissues and developmental stages for Dvv_Gr1 and Dvv_Gr3 suggest a potentially different role. Findings from this study will allow further exploration of the functional role of specific CO2 receptor proteins in D. v. virgifera.
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134
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Borges RM. On the Air: Broadcasting and Reception of Volatile Messages in Brood-Site Pollination Mutualisms. SIGNALING AND COMMUNICATION IN PLANTS 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-33498-1_10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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135
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Vadakkan KI. A framework for the first-person internal sensation of visual perception in mammals and a comparable circuitry for olfactory perception in Drosophila. SPRINGERPLUS 2015; 4:833. [PMID: 26753120 PMCID: PMC4695467 DOI: 10.1186/s40064-015-1568-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2015] [Accepted: 11/26/2015] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Perception is a first-person internal sensation induced within the nervous system at the time of arrival of sensory stimuli from objects in the environment. Lack of access to the first-person properties has limited viewing perception as an emergent property and it is currently being studied using third-person observed findings from various levels. One feasible approach to understand its mechanism is to build a hypothesis for the specific conditions and required circuit features of the nodal points where the mechanistic operation of perception take place for one type of sensation in one species and to verify it for the presence of comparable circuit properties for perceiving a different sensation in a different species. The present work explains visual perception in mammalian nervous system from a first-person frame of reference and provides explanations for the homogeneity of perception of visual stimuli above flicker fusion frequency, the perception of objects at locations different from their actual position, the smooth pursuit and saccadic eye movements, the perception of object borders, and perception of pressure phosphenes. Using results from temporal resolution studies and the known details of visual cortical circuitry, explanations are provided for (a) the perception of rapidly changing visual stimuli, (b) how the perception of objects occurs in the correct orientation even though, according to the third-person view, activity from the visual stimulus reaches the cortices in an inverted manner and (c) the functional significance of well-conserved columnar organization of the visual cortex. A comparable circuitry detected in a different nervous system in a remote species-the olfactory circuitry of the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster-provides an opportunity to explore circuit functions using genetic manipulations, which, along with high-resolution microscopic techniques and lipid membrane interaction studies, will be able to verify the structure-function details of the presented mechanism of perception.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kunjumon I Vadakkan
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, University of Toronto, Sunnybrook health Sciences Centre, 2075 Bayview Ave. Room A4-08, Toronto, ON M4N3M5 Canada ; Neurosearch Center, 76 Henry St., Toronto, ON M5T1X2 Canada
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136
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Versace E, Vallortigara G. Origins of Knowledge: Insights from Precocial Species. Front Behav Neurosci 2015; 9:338. [PMID: 26696856 PMCID: PMC4673401 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2015.00338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2015] [Accepted: 11/20/2015] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Behavioral responses are influenced by knowledge acquired during the lifetime of an individual and by predispositions transmitted across generations. Establishing the origin of knowledge and the role of the unlearned component is a challenging task, given that both learned and unlearned knowledge can orient perception, learning, and the encoding of environmental features since the first stages of life. Ethical and practical issues constrain the investigation of unlearned knowledge in altricial species, including human beings. On the contrary, precocial animals can be tested on a wide range of tasks and capabilities immediately after birth and in controlled rearing conditions. Insects and precocial avian species are very convenient models to dissect the knowledge systems that enable young individuals to cope with their environment in the absence of specific previous experience. We present the state of the art of research on the origins of knowledge that comes from different models and disciplines. Insects have been mainly used to investigate unlearned sensory preferences and prepared learning mechanisms. The relative simplicity of the neural system and fast life cycle of insects make them ideal models to investigate the neural circuitry and evolutionary dynamics of unlearned traits. Among avian species, chicks of the domestic fowl have been the focus of many studies, and showed to possess unlearned knowledge in the sensory, physical, spatial, numerical and social domains. Solid evidence shows the existence of unlearned knowledge in different domains in several species, from sensory and social preferences to the left-right representation of the mental number line. We show how non-mammalian models of cognition, and in particular precocial species, can shed light into the adaptive value and evolutionary history of unlearned knowledge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisabetta Versace
- Animal Cognition and Neuroscience Laboratory, Center for Mind/Brain Sciences, University of Trento Rovereto, Italy
| | - Giorgio Vallortigara
- Animal Cognition and Neuroscience Laboratory, Center for Mind/Brain Sciences, University of Trento Rovereto, Italy
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137
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Ebrahim SAM, Dweck HKM, Stökl J, Hofferberth JE, Trona F, Weniger K, Rybak J, Seki Y, Stensmyr MC, Sachse S, Hansson BS, Knaden M. Drosophila Avoids Parasitoids by Sensing Their Semiochemicals via a Dedicated Olfactory Circuit. PLoS Biol 2015; 13:e1002318. [PMID: 26674493 PMCID: PMC4687525 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.1002318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2015] [Accepted: 11/05/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Detecting danger is one of the foremost tasks for a neural system. Larval parasitoids constitute clear danger to Drosophila, as up to 80% of fly larvae become parasitized in nature. We show that Drosophila melanogaster larvae and adults avoid sites smelling of the main parasitoid enemies, Leptopilina wasps. This avoidance is mediated via a highly specific olfactory sensory neuron (OSN) type. While the larval OSN expresses the olfactory receptor Or49a and is tuned to the Leptopilina odor iridomyrmecin, the adult expresses both Or49a and Or85f and in addition detects the wasp odors actinidine and nepetalactol. The information is transferred via projection neurons to a specific part of the lateral horn known to be involved in mediating avoidance. Drosophila has thus developed a dedicated circuit to detect a life-threatening enemy based on the smell of its semiochemicals. Such an enemy-detecting olfactory circuit has earlier only been characterized in mice and nematodes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Johannes Stökl
- Institute of Zoology, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - John E. Hofferberth
- Department of Chemistry, Kenyon College, Gambier, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Federica Trona
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany
| | | | - Jürgen Rybak
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany
| | - Yoichi Seki
- Laboratory of Cellular Neurobiology, School of Life Sciences, Tokyo University of Pharmacy and Life Sciences, Hachioji, Tokyo, Japan
| | | | - Silke Sachse
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany
| | | | - Markus Knaden
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany
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138
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Yoshikawa S, Long H, Thomas JB. A subset of interneurons required for Drosophila larval locomotion. Mol Cell Neurosci 2015; 70:22-9. [PMID: 26621406 DOI: 10.1016/j.mcn.2015.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2015] [Revised: 11/20/2015] [Accepted: 11/23/2015] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Efforts to define the neural circuits generating locomotor behavior have produced an initial understanding of some of the components within the spinal cord, as well as a basic understanding of several invertebrate motor pattern generators. However, how these circuits are assembled during development is poorly understood. We are defining the neural circuit that generates larval locomotion in the genetically tractable fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster to study locomotor circuit development. Forward larval locomotion involves a stereotyped posterior-to-anterior segmental translocation of body wall muscle contraction and is generated by a relatively small number of identified muscles, motor and sensory neurons, plus an unknown number of the ~270 bilaterally-paired interneurons per segment of the 1st instar larva. To begin identifying the relevant interneurons, we have conditionally inactivated synaptic transmission of interneuron subsets and assayed for the effects on locomotion. From this screen we have identified a subset of 25 interneurons per hemisegment, called the lateral locomotor neurons (LLNs), that are required for locomotion. Both inactivation and constitutive activation of the LLNs disrupt locomotion, indicating that patterned output of the LLNs is required. By expressing a calcium indicator in the LLNs, we found that they display a posterior-to-anterior wave of activity within the CNS corresponding to the segmental translocation of the muscle contraction wave. Identification of the LLNs represents the first step toward elucidating the circuit generating larval locomotion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shingo Yoshikawa
- Molecular Neurobiology Laboratory, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, 10010 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, United States
| | - Hong Long
- Molecular Neurobiology Laboratory, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, 10010 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, United States
| | - John B Thomas
- Molecular Neurobiology Laboratory, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, 10010 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, United States.
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139
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McNeil AR, Jolley SN, Akinleye AA, Nurilov M, Rouzyi Z, Milunovich AJ, Chambers MC, Simon AF. Conditions Affecting Social Space in Drosophila melanogaster. J Vis Exp 2015:e53242. [PMID: 26575105 PMCID: PMC4692698 DOI: 10.3791/53242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The social space assay described here can be used to quantify social interactions of Drosophila melanogaster - or other small insects - in a straightforward manner. As we previously demonstrated (1), in a two-dimensional chamber, we first force the flies to form a tight group, subsequently allowing them to take their preferred distance from each other. After the flies have settled, we measure the distance to the closest neighbor (or social space), processing a static picture with free online software (ImageJ). The analysis of the distance to the closest neighbor allows researchers to determine the effects of genetic and environmental factors on social interaction, while controlling for potential confounding factors. Diverse factors such as climbing ability, time of day, sex, and number of flies, can modify social spacing of flies. We thus propose a series of experimental controls to mitigate these confounding effects. This assay can be used for at least two purposes. First, researchers can determine how their favorite environmental shift (such as isolation, temperature, stress or toxins) will impact social spacing (1,2). Second, researchers can dissect the genetic and neural underpinnings of this basic form of social behavior (1,3). Specifically, we used it as a diagnostic tool to study the role of orthologous genes thought to be involved in social behavior in other organisms, such as candidate genes for autism in humans (4).
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sam N Jolley
- Department of Biology, University of Western Ontario
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Anne F Simon
- Department of Biology, University of Western Ontario;
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140
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Joseph RM, Carlson JR. Drosophila Chemoreceptors: A Molecular Interface Between the Chemical World and the Brain. Trends Genet 2015; 31:683-695. [PMID: 26477743 DOI: 10.1016/j.tig.2015.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 219] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2015] [Revised: 08/25/2015] [Accepted: 09/08/2015] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Chemoreception is essential for survival. Feeding, mating, and avoidance of predators depend on detection of sensory cues. Drosophila contains diverse families of chemoreceptors that detect odors, tastants, pheromones, and noxious stimuli, including receptors of the odor receptor (Or), gustatory receptor (Gr), ionotropic receptor (IR), Pickpocket (Ppk), and Trp families. We consider recent progress in understanding chemoreception in the fly, including the identification of new receptors, the discovery of novel biological functions for receptors, and the localization of receptors in unexpected places. We discuss major unsolved problems and suggest areas that may be particularly ripe for future discoveries, including the roles of these receptors in driving the circuits and behaviors that are essential to the survival and reproduction of the animal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan M Joseph
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, Yale University, PO Box 208103, New Haven, CT 06520-8103, USA
| | - John R Carlson
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, Yale University, PO Box 208103, New Haven, CT 06520-8103, USA.
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141
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Insect Olfaction: Telling Food from Foe. Curr Biol 2015; 25:R995-8. [PMID: 26485376 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2015.08.056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The same sensory signal can be interpreted differently according to context. A new study in Drosophila uses cell-type-specific tools to identify neural circuits that integrate context during olfactory processing and surprisingly implicates memory-recall neurons.
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142
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Wudarczyk OA, Kohn N, Bergs R, Gur RE, Turetsky B, Schneider F, Habel U. Chemosensory anxiety cues moderate the experience of social exclusion - an fMRI investigation with Cyberball. Front Psychol 2015; 6:1475. [PMID: 26500572 PMCID: PMC4599064 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2015] [Accepted: 09/14/2015] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent evidence suggests that the experience of stress can be communicated between individuals via chemosensory cues. Little is known, however, about the impact of these cues on neurophysiological responses during a socially threatening situation. In the current investigation we implemented a widely used paradigm to study social exclusion—Cyberball—to examine whether chemosensory cues signaling anxiety modulate the neuronal effects of ostracism. In a double-blind, within-subjects design, 24 healthy, normosmic participants were presented with chemosensory cues of anxiety (or control samples) and completed the Cyberball task while in a 3T fMRI scanner. Axillary sweat collected from male students awaiting an oral examination served as the anxiety cues while the chemosensory control stimuli consisted of sweat collected from the same individuals participating in an ergometer training session. The neuroimaging data revealed that under the control chemosensory condition, exclusion from Cyberball was associated with significantly higher orbitofrontal cortex and anterior cingulate cortex activity, which is consistent with previous studies in the field. However, when participants were primed with the anxiety sweat, the activity in these regions was not observed. Further, under exposure to anxiety cues during ostracism the participants showed deactivations in brain regions involved in memory (hippocampus), social cognition (middle temporal gyrus, superior temporal gyrus) and processing of salience (inferior frontal gyrus). These results suggest that successful communication of anxiety via the chemosensory domain may moderate the experience of social exclusion. It is possible that the anxiety signals make it easier for the individuals to detach from the group, pointing to the communicative role of chemosensory anxiety cues in enhancing adjustment mechanisms in light of a distressing situation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olga A Wudarczyk
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Faculty of Medicine, RWTH Aachen University Aachen, Germany ; JARA - Translational Brain Medicine, RWTH Aachen University and Research Centre Jülich Aachen, Germany
| | - Nils Kohn
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Faculty of Medicine, RWTH Aachen University Aachen, Germany ; JARA - Translational Brain Medicine, RWTH Aachen University and Research Centre Jülich Aachen, Germany ; Department for Cognitive Neuroscience, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre Nijmegen, Netherlands
| | - Rene Bergs
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Faculty of Medicine, RWTH Aachen University Aachen, Germany ; JARA - Translational Brain Medicine, RWTH Aachen University and Research Centre Jülich Aachen, Germany
| | - Raquel E Gur
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pennsylvania Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Bruce Turetsky
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pennsylvania Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Frank Schneider
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Faculty of Medicine, RWTH Aachen University Aachen, Germany ; JARA - Translational Brain Medicine, RWTH Aachen University and Research Centre Jülich Aachen, Germany
| | - Ute Habel
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Faculty of Medicine, RWTH Aachen University Aachen, Germany ; JARA - Translational Brain Medicine, RWTH Aachen University and Research Centre Jülich Aachen, Germany ; Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine (INM-6), Jülich Research Centre Jülich, Germany
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143
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The chemical ecology of the fly. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2015; 34:95-102. [DOI: 10.1016/j.conb.2015.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2015] [Revised: 02/18/2015] [Accepted: 02/18/2015] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
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144
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Lin CC, Prokop-Prigge KA, Preti G, Potter CJ. Food odors trigger Drosophila males to deposit a pheromone that guides aggregation and female oviposition decisions. eLife 2015; 4:e08688. [PMID: 26422512 PMCID: PMC4621432 DOI: 10.7554/elife.08688] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2015] [Accepted: 09/28/2015] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Animals use olfactory cues for navigating complex environments. Food odors in particular provide crucial information regarding potential foraging sites. Many behaviors occur at food sites, yet how food odors regulate such behaviors at these sites is unclear. Using Drosophila melanogaster as an animal model, we found that males deposit the pheromone 9-tricosene upon stimulation with the food-odor apple cider vinegar. This pheromone acts as a potent aggregation pheromone and as an oviposition guidance cue for females. We use genetic, molecular, electrophysiological, and behavioral approaches to show that 9-tricosene activates antennal basiconic Or7a receptors, a receptor activated by many alcohols and aldehydes such as the green leaf volatile E2-hexenal. We demonstrate that loss of Or7a positive neurons or the Or7a receptor abolishes aggregation behavior and oviposition site-selection towards 9-tricosene and E2-hexenal. 9-Tricosene thus functions via Or7a to link food-odor perception with aggregation and egg-laying decisions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chun-Chieh Lin
- The Solomon H Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Center for Sensory Biology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, United States
| | | | - George Preti
- Monell Chemical Senses Center, Philadelphia, United States
- Department of Dermatology, School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, United States
| | - Christopher J Potter
- The Solomon H Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Center for Sensory Biology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, United States
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145
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Hige T, Aso Y, Rubin GM, Turner GC. Plasticity-driven individualization of olfactory coding in mushroom body output neurons. Nature 2015; 526:258-62. [PMID: 26416731 PMCID: PMC4860018 DOI: 10.1038/nature15396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2014] [Accepted: 08/11/2015] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Although all sensory circuits ascend to higher brain areas where stimuli are represented in sparse, stimulus-specific activity patterns, relatively little is known about sensory coding on the descending side of neural circuits, as a network converges. In insects, mushroom bodies (MBs) have been an important model system for studying sparse coding in the olfactory system1–3, where this format is important for accurate memory formation4–6. In Drosophila, it has recently been shown that the 2000 Kenyon cells (KCs) of the MB converge onto a population of only 35 MB output neurons (MBONs), that fall into 22 anatomically distinct cell types7,8. Here we provide the first comprehensive view of olfactory representations at the fourth layer of the circuit, where we find a clear transition in the principles of sensory coding. We show that MBON tuning curves are highly correlated with one another. This is in sharp contrast to the process of progressive decorrelation of tuning in the earlier layers of the circuit2,9. Instead, at the population level, odor representations are reformatted so that positive and negative correlations arise between representations of different odors. At the single-cell level, we show that uniquely identifiable MBONs display profoundly different tuning across different animals, but tuning of the same neuron across the two hemispheres of an individual fly was nearly identical. Thus, individualized coordination of tuning arises at this level of the olfactory circuit. Furthermore, we find that this individualization is an active process that requires a learning-related gene, rutabaga. Ultimately, neural circuits have to flexibly map highly stimulus-specific information in sparse layers onto a limited number of different motor outputs. The reformatting of sensory representations we observe here may mark the beginning of this sensory-motor transition in the olfactory system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toshihide Hige
- Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, New York 11724, USA
| | - Yoshinori Aso
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, 19700 Helix Drive, Ashburn, Virginia 20147, USA
| | - Gerald M Rubin
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, 19700 Helix Drive, Ashburn, Virginia 20147, USA
| | - Glenn C Turner
- Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, New York 11724, USA
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146
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Siju KP, Bräcker LB, Grunwald Kadow IC. Neural mechanisms of context-dependent processing of CO2 avoidance behavior in fruit flies. Fly (Austin) 2015; 8:68-74. [PMID: 25483251 DOI: 10.4161/fly.28000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, innately avoids even low levels of CO2. CO2 is part of the so-called Drosophila stress odor produced by stressed flies, but also a byproduct of fermenting fruit, a main food source, making the strong avoidance behavior somewhat surprising. Therefore, we addressed whether feeding states might influence the fly's behavior and processing of CO2. In a recent report, we showed that this innate behavior is differentially processed and modified according to the feeding state of the fly. Interestingly, we found that hungry flies require the function of the mushroom body, a higher brain center required for olfactory learning and memory, but thought to be dispensable for innate olfactory behaviors. In addition, we anatomically and functionally characterized a novel bilateral projection neuron connecting the CO2 sensory input to the mushroom body. This neuron was essential for processing of CO2 in the starved fly but not in the fed fly. In this Extra View article, we provide evidence for the potential involvement of the neuromodulator dopamine in state-dependent CO2 avoidance behavior. Taken together, our work demonstrates that CO2 avoidance behavior is mediated by alternative neural pathways in a context-dependent manner. Furthermore, it shows that the mushroom body is not only involved in processing of learned olfactory behavior, as previously suggested, but also in context-dependent innate olfaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- K P Siju
- a Sensory Neurogenetics Group; Max-Planck Institute of Neurobiology; Martinsried, Germany
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147
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Abstract
Sensory cues that predict reward or punishment are fundamental drivers of animal behavior. For example, attractive odors of palatable food or a potential mate predict reward, while aversive odors of pathogen-laced food or a predator predict punishment. Aversive and attractive odors can be detected by intermingled sensory neurons that express highly related olfactory receptors and display similar central projections. These findings raise basic questions of how innate odor valence is extracted from olfactory circuits, how such circuits are developmentally endowed and modulated by state, and how innate and learned odor responses are related. Here, we review odors, receptors and neural circuits associated with stimulus valence, discussing salient principles derived from studies on nematodes, insects and vertebrates. Understanding the organization of neural circuitry that mediates odor aversion and attraction will provide key insights into how the brain functions.
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148
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Choe HK, Reed MD, Benavidez N, Montgomery D, Soares N, Yim YS, Choi GB. Oxytocin Mediates Entrainment of Sensory Stimuli to Social Cues of Opposing Valence. Neuron 2015; 87:152-63. [PMID: 26139372 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2015.06.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2015] [Revised: 05/29/2015] [Accepted: 06/16/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Meaningful social interactions modify behavioral responses to sensory stimuli. The neural mechanisms underlying the entrainment of neutral sensory stimuli to salient social cues to produce social learning remain unknown. We used odor-driven behavioral paradigms to ask if oxytocin, a neuropeptide implicated in various social behaviors, plays a crucial role in the formation of learned associations between odor and socially significant cues. Through genetic, optogenetic, and pharmacological manipulations, we show that oxytocin receptor signaling is crucial for entrainment of odor to social cues but is dispensable for entrainment to nonsocial cues. Furthermore, we demonstrate that oxytocin directly impacts the piriform, the olfactory sensory cortex, to mediate social learning. Lastly, we provide evidence that oxytocin plays a role in both appetitive and aversive social learning. These results suggest that oxytocin conveys saliency of social stimuli to sensory representations in the piriform cortex during odor-driven social learning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Han Kyoung Choe
- McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Michael Douglas Reed
- McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Nora Benavidez
- McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Daniel Montgomery
- McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Natalie Soares
- McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Yeong Shin Yim
- McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Gloria B Choi
- McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA.
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149
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Versace E, Reisenberger J. Large-scale assessment of olfactory preferences and learning in Drosophila melanogaster: behavioral and genetic components. PeerJ 2015; 3:e1214. [PMID: 26357595 PMCID: PMC4562235 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.1214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2015] [Accepted: 08/05/2015] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
In the Evolve and Resequence method (E&R), experimental evolution and genomics are combined to investigate evolutionary dynamics and the genotype-phenotype link. As other genomic approaches, this methods requires many replicates with large population sizes, which imposes severe restrictions on the analysis of behavioral phenotypes. Aiming to use E&R for investigating the evolution of behavior in Drosophila, we have developed a simple and effective method to assess spontaneous olfactory preferences and learning in large samples of fruit flies using a T-maze. We tested this procedure on (a) a large wild-caught population and (b) 11 isofemale lines of Drosophila melanogaster. Compared to previous methods, this procedure reduces the environmental noise and allows for the analysis of large population samples. Consistent with previous results, we show that flies have a preference for orange vs. apple odor. With our procedure wild-derived flies exhibit olfactory learning in the absence of previous laboratory selection. Furthermore, we find genetic differences in the olfactory learning with relatively high heritability. We propose this large-scale method as an effective tool for E&R and genome-wide association studies on olfactory preferences and learning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisabetta Versace
- Institut für Populationsgenetik, Vetmeduni, Vienna, Austria
- Center for Mind/Brain Sciences, University of Trento, Rovereto, Italy
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150
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Lewis L, Siju K, Aso Y, Friedrich A, Bulteel A, Rubin G, Grunwald Kadow I. A Higher Brain Circuit for Immediate Integration of Conflicting Sensory Information in Drosophila. Curr Biol 2015; 25:2203-14. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2015.07.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2015] [Revised: 06/18/2015] [Accepted: 07/06/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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