101
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Mina MJ, Klugman KP, Rosch JW, McCullers JA. Live attenuated influenza virus increases pneumococcal translocation and persistence within the middle ear. J Infect Dis 2014; 212:195-201. [PMID: 25505300 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiu804] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2014] [Accepted: 12/05/2014] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Infection with influenza A virus (IAV) increases susceptibility to respiratory bacterial infections, resulting in increased bacterial carriage and complications such acute otitis media, pneumonia, bacteremia, and meningitis. Recently, vaccination with live attenuated influenza virus (LAIV) was reported to enhance subclinical bacterial colonization within the nasopharynx, similar to IAV. Although LAIV does not predispose to bacterial pneumonia, whether it may alter bacterial transmigration toward the middle ear, where it could have clinically relevant implications, has not been investigated. METHODS BALB/c mice received LAIV or phosphate-buffered saline 1 or 7 days before or during pneumococcal colonization with either of 2 clinical isolates, 19F or 7F. Middle ear bacterial titers were monitored daily via in vivo imaging. RESULTS LAIV increased bacterial transmigration to and persistence within the middle ear. When colonization followed LAIV inoculation, a minimum LAIV incubation period of 4 days was required before bacterial transmigration commenced. CONCLUSIONS While LAIV vaccination is safe and effective at reducing IAV and coinfection with influenza virus and bacteria, LAIV may increase bacterial transmigration to the middle ear and could thus increase the risk of clinically relevant acute otitis media. These data warrant further investigations into interactions between live attenuated viruses and naturally colonizing bacterial pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael J Mina
- Medical Scientist Training Program, Emory University School of Medicine Department of Global Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia Department of Infectious Diseases, St Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee
| | - Keith P Klugman
- Department of Global Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Jason W Rosch
- Department of Infectious Diseases, St Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee
| | - Jonathan A McCullers
- Department of Infectious Diseases, St Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee
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102
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Campigotto A, Mubareka S. Influenza-associated bacterial pneumonia; managing and controlling infection on two fronts. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2014; 13:55-68. [DOI: 10.1586/14787210.2015.981156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
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103
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Christopoulou I, Roose K, Ibañez LI, Saelens X. Influenza vaccines to control influenza-associated bacterial infection: where do we stand? Expert Rev Vaccines 2014; 14:55-67. [DOI: 10.1586/14760584.2015.957191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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104
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Richard AL, Siegel SJ, Erikson J, Weiser JN. TLR2 signaling decreases transmission of Streptococcus pneumoniae by limiting bacterial shedding in an infant mouse Influenza A co-infection model. PLoS Pathog 2014; 10:e1004339. [PMID: 25166617 PMCID: PMC4148449 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1004339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2014] [Accepted: 07/15/2014] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
While the importance of transmission of pathogens is widely accepted, there is currently little mechanistic understanding of this process. Nasal carriage of Streptococcus pneumoniae (the pneumococcus) is common in humans, especially in early childhood, and is a prerequisite for the development of disease and transmission among hosts. In this study, we adapted an infant mouse model to elucidate host determinants of transmission of S. pneumoniae from inoculated index mice to uninfected contact mice. In the context of co-infection with influenza A virus, the pneumococcus was transmitted among wildtype littermates, with approximately half of the contact mice acquiring colonization. Mice deficient for TLR2 were colonized to a similar density but transmitted S. pneumoniae more efficiently (100% transmission) than wildtype animals and showed decreased expression of interferon α and higher viral titers. The greater viral burden in tlr2-/- mice correlated with heightened inflammation, and was responsible for an increase in bacterial shedding from the mouse nose. The role of TLR2 signaling was confirmed by intranasal treatment of wildtype mice with the agonist Pam3Cys, which decreased inflammation and reduced bacterial shedding and transmission. Taken together, these results suggest that the innate immune response to influenza virus promotes bacterial shedding, allowing the bacteria to transit from host to host. These findings provide insight into the role of host factors in the increased pneumococcal carriage rates seen during flu season and contribute to our overall understanding of pathogen transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aimee L Richard
- Department of Microbiology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Steven J Siegel
- Department of Microbiology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Jan Erikson
- The Wistar Institute, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Jeffrey N Weiser
- Department of Microbiology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
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105
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Influenza A virus alters pneumococcal nasal colonization and middle ear infection independently of phase variation. Infect Immun 2014; 82:4802-12. [PMID: 25156728 DOI: 10.1128/iai.01856-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcus) is both a widespread nasal colonizer and a leading cause of otitis media, one of the most common diseases of childhood. Pneumococcal phase variation influences both colonization and disease and thus has been linked to the bacteria's transition from colonizer to otopathogen. Further contributing to this transition, coinfection with influenza A virus has been strongly associated epidemiologically with the dissemination of pneumococci from the nasopharynx to the middle ear. Using a mouse infection model, we demonstrated that coinfection with influenza virus and pneumococci enhanced both colonization and inflammatory responses within the nasopharynx and middle ear chamber. Coinfection studies were also performed using pneumococcal populations enriched for opaque or transparent phase variants. As shown previously, opaque variants were less able to colonize the nasopharynx. In vitro, this phase also demonstrated diminished biofilm viability and epithelial adherence. However, coinfection with influenza virus ameliorated this colonization defect in vivo. Further, viral coinfection ultimately induced a similar magnitude of middle ear infection by both phase variants. These data indicate that despite inherent differences in colonization, the influenza A virus exacerbation of experimental middle ear infection is independent of the pneumococcal phase. These findings provide new insights into the synergistic link between pneumococcus and influenza virus in the context of otitis media.
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106
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Mina MJ, Klugman KP. The role of influenza in the severity and transmission of respiratory bacterial disease. THE LANCET RESPIRATORY MEDICINE 2014; 2:750-63. [PMID: 25131494 DOI: 10.1016/s2213-2600(14)70131-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Infections with influenza viruses and respiratory bacteria each contribute substantially to the global burden of morbidity and mortality. Simultaneous or sequential infection with these pathogens manifests in complex and difficult-to-treat disease processes that need extensive antimicrobial therapy and cause substantial excess mortality, particularly during annual influenza seasons and pandemics. At the host level, influenza viruses prime respiratory mucosal surfaces for excess bacterial acquisition and this supports increased carriage density and dissemination to the lower respiratory tract, while greatly constraining innate and adaptive antibacterial defences. Driven by virus-mediated structural modifications, aberrant immunological responses to sequential infection, and excessive immunopathological responses, co-infections are noted by short-term and long-term departures from immune homoeostasis, inhibition of appropriate pathogen recognition, loss of tolerance to tissue damage, and general increases in susceptibility to severe bacterial disease. At the population level, these effects translate into increased horizontal bacterial transmission and excess use of antimicrobial therapies. With increasing concerns about future possible influenza pandemics, the past decade has seen rapid advances in our understanding of these interactions. In this Review, we discuss the epidemiological and clinical importance of influenza and respiratory bacterial co-infections, including the foundational efforts that laid the groundwork for today's investigations, and detail the most important and current advances in our understanding of the structural and immunological mechanisms underlying the pathogenesis of co-infection. We describe and interpret what is known in sequence, from transmission and phenotypic shifts in bacterial dynamics to the immunological, cellular, and molecular modifications that underlie these processes, and propose avenues of further research that might be most valuable for prevention and treatment strategies to best mitigate excess disease during future influenza pandemics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael J Mina
- Rollins School of Public Health, Department of Global Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA; Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA.
| | - Keith P Klugman
- Rollins School of Public Health, Department of Global Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
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107
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Compans RW, Oldstone MBA. Secondary bacterial infections in influenza virus infection pathogenesis. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2014; 385:327-56. [PMID: 25027822 PMCID: PMC7122299 DOI: 10.1007/82_2014_394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Influenza is often complicated by bacterial pathogens that colonize the nasopharynx and invade the middle ear and/or lung epithelium. Incidence and pathogenicity of influenza-bacterial coinfections are multifactorial processes that involve various pathogenic virulence factors and host responses with distinct site- and strain-specific differences. Animal models and kinetic models have improved our understanding of how influenza viruses interact with their bacterial co-pathogens and the accompanying immune responses. Data from these models indicate that considerable alterations in epithelial surfaces and aberrant immune responses lead to severe inflammation, a key driver of bacterial acquisition and infection severity following influenza. However, further experimental and analytical studies are essential to determining the full mechanistic spectrum of different viral and bacterial strains and species and to finding new ways to prevent and treat influenza-associated bacterial coinfections. Here, we review recent advances regarding transmission and disease potential of influenza-associated bacterial infections and discuss the current gaps in knowledge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard W. Compans
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia USA
| | - Michael B. A. Oldstone
- Department of Immunology and Microbial Science, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California USA
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108
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Woo C, Shin S, Koh S, Lim J. TBX21 participates in innate immune response by regulating Toll-like receptor 2 expression inStreptococcus pneumoniaeinfections. Mol Oral Microbiol 2014; 29:233-43. [DOI: 10.1111/omi.12061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/02/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- C.H. Woo
- Department of Pharmacology; Yeungnam University College of Medicine; Daegu Korea
| | - S.G. Shin
- Department of Microbiology; Ewha Womans University School of Medicine; Seoul Korea
| | - S.H. Koh
- Department of Microbiology; Ewha Womans University School of Medicine; Seoul Korea
| | - J.H. Lim
- Department of Microbiology; Ewha Womans University School of Medicine; Seoul Korea
- Gonda Department of Cell and Molecular Biology; House Ear Institute; Los Angeles CA USA
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109
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Deng JC. Viral-bacterial interactions-therapeutic implications. Influenza Other Respir Viruses 2014; 7 Suppl 3:24-35. [PMID: 24215379 PMCID: PMC3831167 DOI: 10.1111/irv.12174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/30/2013] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Viral and bacterial respiratory tract infections are a leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide, despite the development of vaccines and potent antibiotics. Frequently, viruses and bacteria can co‐infect the same host, resulting in heightened pathology and severity of illness compared to single infections. Bacterial superinfections have been a significant cause of death during every influenza pandemic, including the 2009 H1N1 pandemic. This review will analyze the epidemiology and global impact of viral and bacterial co‐infections of the respiratory tract, with an emphasis on bacterial infections following influenza. We will next examine the mechanisms by which viral infections enhance the acquisition and severity of bacterial infections. Finally, we will discuss current management strategies for diagnosing and treating patients with suspected or confirmed viral‐bacterial infections of the respiratory tract. Further investigation into the interactions between viral and bacterial infections is necessary for developing new therapeutic approaches aimed at mitigating the severity of co‐infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jane C Deng
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA
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110
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Joseph C, Togawa Y, Shindo N. Bacterial and viral infections associated with influenza. Influenza Other Respir Viruses 2014; 7 Suppl 2:105-113. [PMID: 24034494 PMCID: PMC5909385 DOI: 10.1111/irv.12089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 152] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Influenza‐associated bacterial and viral infections are responsible for high levels of morbidity and death during pandemic and seasonal influenza episodes. A review was undertaken to assess and evaluate the incidence, epidemiology, aetiology, clinical importance and impact of bacterial and viral co‐infection and secondary infection associated with influenza. A review was carried out of published articles covering bacterial and viral infections associated with pandemic and seasonal influenza between 1918 and 2009 (and published through December 2011) to include both pulmonary and extra‐pulmonary infections. While pneumococcal infection remains the predominant cause of bacterial pneumonia, the review highlights the importance of other co‐ and secondary bacterial and viral infections associated with influenza, and the emergence of newly identified dual infections associated with the 2009 H1N1 pandemic strain. Severe influenza‐associated pneumonia is often bacterial and will necessitate antibiotic treatment. In addition to the well‐known bacterial causes, less common bacteria such as Legionella pneumophila may also be associated with influenza when new influenza strains emerge. This review should provide clinicians with an overview of the range of bacterial and viral co‐ or secondary infections that could present with influenza illness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carol Joseph
- Global Influenza Programme, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland
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111
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Song JY, Nahm MH, Cheong HJ, Kim WJ. Impact of preceding flu-like illness on the serotype distribution of pneumococcal pneumonia. PLoS One 2014; 9:e93477. [PMID: 24691515 PMCID: PMC3972234 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0093477] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2014] [Accepted: 03/03/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Even though the pathogenicity and invasiveness of pneumococcus largely depend on capsular types, the impact of serotypes on post-viral pneumococcal pneumonia is unknown. METHODS AND FINDINGS This study was performed to evaluate the impact of capsular serotypes on the development of pneumococcal pneumonia after preceding respiratory viral infections. Patients with a diagnosis of pneumococcal pneumonia were identified. Pneumonia patients were divided into two groups (post-viral pneumococcal pneumonia versus primary pneumococcal pneumonia), and then their pneumococcal serotypes were compared. Nine hundred and nineteen patients with pneumococcal pneumonia were identified during the study period, including 327 (35.6%) cases with post-viral pneumococcal pneumonia and 592 (64.4%) cases with primary pneumococcal pneumonia. Overall, serotypes 3 and 19A were the most prevalent, followed by serotypes 19F, 6A, and 11A/11E. Although relatively uncommon (33 cases, 3.6%), infrequently colonizing invasive serotypes (4, 5, 7F/7A, 8, 9V/9A, 12F, and 18C) were significantly associated with preceding respiratory viral infections (69.7%, P<0.01). Multivariate analysis revealed several statistically significant risk factors for post-viral pneumococcal pneumonia: immunodeficiency (OR 1.66; 95% CI, 1.10-2.53), chronic lung diseases (OR 1.43; 95% CI, 1.09-1.93) and ICI serotypes (OR 4.66; 95% CI, 2.07-10.47). CONCLUSIONS Infrequently colonizing invasive serotypes would be more likely to cause pneumococcal pneumonia after preceding respiratory viral illness, particularly in patients with immunodeficiency or chronic lung diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joon Young Song
- Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, United States of America
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Korea University College of medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Moon H. Nahm
- Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, United States of America
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, United States of America
| | - Hee Jin Cheong
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Korea University College of medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Woo Joo Kim
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Korea University College of medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
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112
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Grijalva CG, Griffin MR, Edwards KM, Williams JV, Gil AI, Verastegui H, Hartinger SM, Vidal JE, Klugman KP, Lanata CF. The role of influenza and parainfluenza infections in nasopharyngeal pneumococcal acquisition among young children. Clin Infect Dis 2014; 58:1369-76. [PMID: 24621951 PMCID: PMC4001292 DOI: 10.1093/cid/ciu148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Animal models suggest that influenza infection favors nasopharyngeal acquisition of pneumococci. We assessed this relationship with influenza and other respiratory viruses in young children. METHODS A case-control study was nested within a prospective cohort study of acute respiratory illness (ARI) in Andean children <3 years of age (RESPIRA-PERU study). Weekly household visits were made to identify ARI and obtain nasal swabs for viral detection using real-time reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction. Monthly nasopharyngeal (NP) samples were obtained to assess pneumococcal colonization. We determined whether specific respiratory viral ARI episodes occurring within the interval between NP samples increased the risk of NP acquisition of new pneumococcal serotypes. RESULTS A total of 729 children contributed 2128 episodes of observation, including 681 pneumococcal acquisition episodes (new serotype, not detected in prior sample), 1029 nonacquisition episodes (no colonization or persistent colonization with the same serotype as the prior sample), and 418 indeterminate episodes. The risk of pneumococcal acquisition increased following influenza-ARI (adjusted odds ratio [AOR], 2.19; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.02-4.69) and parainfluenza-ARI (AOR, 1.86; 95% CI, 1.15-3.01), when compared with episodes without ARI. Other viral infections (respiratory syncytial virus, human metapneumovirus, human rhinovirus, and adenovirus) were not associated with acquisition. CONCLUSIONS Influenza and parainfluenza ARIs appeared to facilitate pneumococcal acquisition among young children. As acquisition increases the risk of pneumococcal diseases, these observations are pivotal in our attempts to prevent pneumococcal disease.
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113
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Pretreatment of epithelial cells with live Streptococcus pneumoniae has no detectable effect on influenza A virus replication in vitro. PLoS One 2014; 9:e90066. [PMID: 24594847 PMCID: PMC3940721 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0090066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2013] [Accepted: 01/29/2014] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Influenza A virus (IAV) and Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcus) are two major upper respiratory tract pathogens responsible for exacerbated disease in coinfected individuals. Despite several studies showing increased susceptibility to secondary bacterial infections following IAV infection, information on the direct effect of S. pneumoniae on IAV in vitro is unknown. This is an important area of investigation as S. pneumoniae is a common commensal of the human upper respiratory tract, present as an important coinfecting pathogen with IAV infection. A recent study showed that S. pneumoniae enhances human metapneumovirus infection in polarized bronchial epithelial cells in vitro. The aim of the current study was to determine whether treatment of epithelial cells with S. pneumoniae affects IAV replication using a standard immunofluorescence assay (IFA). For this study we used four IAV permissive epithelial cell lines including two human-derived cell lines, 12 pneumococcal strains including recent human clinical isolates which represent different genetic backgrounds and serotypes, and six IAV strains of varying genetic nature and pathogenic potential including the pandemic 2009 H1N1 virus. Our results suggested that pretreatment of MDCK cells with 7.5×106 colony-forming units (CFUs) of live S. pneumoniae resulted in gradual cell-death in a time-dependent manner (0.5 to 4 hr). But, pretreatment of cell lines with 7.5×105 and lower CFUs of S. pneumoniae had no detectable effect on either the morphology of cells or on the IAV replication. However, unlike in epithelial cell lines, due to influence of secreted host factors the effect of pneumococci on IAV replication may be different during coinfections in vivo in the human upper respiratory tract, and in vitro with primary human polarized bronchial epithelial cells.
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114
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Live attenuated influenza vaccine enhances colonization of Streptococcus pneumoniae and Staphylococcus aureus in mice. mBio 2014; 5:mBio.01040-13. [PMID: 24549845 PMCID: PMC3944816 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.01040-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Community interactions at mucosal surfaces between viruses, like influenza virus, and respiratory bacterial pathogens are important contributors toward pathogenesis of bacterial disease. What has not been considered is the natural extension of these interactions to live attenuated immunizations, and in particular, live attenuated influenza vaccines (LAIVs). Using a mouse-adapted LAIV against influenza A (H3N2) virus carrying the same mutations as the human FluMist vaccine, we find that LAIV vaccination reverses normal bacterial clearance from the nasopharynx and significantly increases bacterial carriage densities of the clinically important bacterial pathogens Streptococcus pneumoniae (serotypes 19F and 7F) and Staphylococcus aureus (strains Newman and Wright) within the upper respiratory tract of mice. Vaccination with LAIV also resulted in 2- to 5-fold increases in mean durations of bacterial carriage. Furthermore, we show that the increases in carriage density and duration were nearly identical in all aspects to changes in bacterial colonizing dynamics following infection with wild-type (WT) influenza virus. Importantly, LAIV, unlike WT influenza viruses, had no effect on severe bacterial disease or mortality within the lower respiratory tract. Our findings are, to the best of our knowledge, the first to demonstrate that vaccination with a live attenuated viral vaccine can directly modulate colonizing dynamics of important and unrelated human bacterial pathogens, and does so in a manner highly analogous to that seen following wild-type virus infection. Following infection with an influenza virus, infected or recently recovered individuals become transiently susceptible to excess bacterial infections, particularly Streptococcus pneumoniae and Staphylococcus aureus. Indeed, in the absence of preexisting comorbidities, bacterial infections are a leading cause of severe disease during influenza epidemics. While this synergy has been known and is well studied, what has not been explored is the natural extension of these interactions to live attenuated influenza vaccines (LAIVs). Here we show, in mice, that vaccination with LAIV primes the upper respiratory tract for increased bacterial growth and persistence of bacterial carriage, in a manner nearly identical to that seen following wild-type influenza virus infections. Importantly, LAIV, unlike wild-type virus, did not increase severe bacterial disease of the lower respiratory tract. These findings may have consequences for individual bacterial disease processes within the upper respiratory tract, as well as bacterial transmission dynamics within LAIV-vaccinated populations
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115
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Short KR, von Köckritz-Blickwede M, Langereis JD, Chew KY, Job ER, Armitage CW, Hatcher B, Fujihashi K, Reading PC, Hermans PW, Wijburg OL, Diavatopoulos DA. Antibodies mediate formation of neutrophil extracellular traps in the middle ear and facilitate secondary pneumococcal otitis media. Infect Immun 2014; 82:364-70. [PMID: 24191297 PMCID: PMC3911859 DOI: 10.1128/iai.01104-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2013] [Accepted: 10/14/2013] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Otitis media (OM) (a middle ear infection) is a common childhood illness that can leave some children with permanent hearing loss. OM can arise following infection with a variety of different pathogens, including a coinfection with influenza A virus (IAV) and Streptococcus pneumoniae (the pneumococcus). We and others have demonstrated that coinfection with IAV facilitates the replication of pneumococci in the middle ear. Specifically, we used a mouse model of OM to show that IAV facilitates the outgrowth of S. pneumoniae in the middle ear by inducing middle ear inflammation. Here, we seek to understand how the host inflammatory response facilitates bacterial outgrowth in the middle ear. Using B cell-deficient infant mice, we show that antibodies play a crucial role in facilitating pneumococcal replication. We subsequently show that this is due to antibody-dependent neutrophil extracellular trap (NET) formation in the middle ear, which, instead of clearing the infection, allows the bacteria to replicate. We further demonstrate the importance of these NETs as a potential therapeutic target through the transtympanic administration of a DNase, which effectively reduces the bacterial load in the middle ear. Taken together, these data provide novel insight into how pneumococci are able to replicate in the middle ear cavity and induce disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirsty R. Short
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | | | - Jeroen D. Langereis
- Laboratory of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, Radboud University Medical Centre, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Keng Yih Chew
- Department of Zoology, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Emma R. Job
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Charles W. Armitage
- Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Brandon Hatcher
- Department of Pediatric Dentistry and Microbiology, The University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
| | - Kohtaro Fujihashi
- Department of Pediatric Dentistry and Microbiology, The University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
| | - Patrick C. Reading
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
- WHO Collaborating Centre for Reference and Research on Influenza, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Peter W. Hermans
- Laboratory of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, Radboud University Medical Centre, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Odilia L. Wijburg
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Dimitri A. Diavatopoulos
- Laboratory of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, Radboud University Medical Centre, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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116
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Short KR, Grant EJ, Vissers M, Reading PC, Diavatopoulos DA, Kedzierska K. A Novel Method Linking Antigen Presentation by Human Monocyte-Derived Macrophages to CD8(+) T Cell Polyfunctionality. Front Immunol 2013; 4:389. [PMID: 24312096 PMCID: PMC3835958 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2013.00389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2013] [Accepted: 11/06/2013] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
To understand the interactions between innate and adaptive immunity, and specifically how virally infected macrophages impact T cell function, novel assays examining the ability of macrophages to present antigen to CD8+ T cells are needed. In the present study, we have developed a robust in vitro assay to measure how antigen presentation by human monocyte-derived macrophages (MDMs) affects the functional capacity of autologous CD8+ T cells. The assay is based on the polyfunctional characteristics of antigen-specific CD8+ T cells, and is thus called a Mac-CD8 Polyfunctionality Assay. Following purification of monocytes and their maturation to MDMs, MDMs were pulsed with an antigenic peptide to be presented to CD8+ T cells. Peptide-pulsed MDMs were then incubated with antigen-specific CD8+ T cells in order to assess the efficacy of antigen presentation to T cells. CD8+ T cell polyfunctionality was assessed by staining with mAbs to IFN-γ, TNF-α, and CD107a in a multi-color intracellular cytokine staining assay. To highlight the utility of the Mac-CD8 Polyfunctionality Assay, we assessed the effects of influenza infection on the ability of human macrophages to present antigen to CD8+ T cells. We found that influenza infection of human MDMs can alter the effector efficacy of MDMs to activate more CD8+ T cells with cytotoxic capacity. This has important implications for understanding how the virus-infected macrophages affect adaptive immunity at the site of infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirsty R Short
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Melbourne , Melbourne, VIC , Australia
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117
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Furuya Y, Müllbacher A. Type I IFN exhaustion is a host defence protecting against secondary bacterial infections. Scand J Immunol 2013; 78:395-400. [PMID: 24006947 PMCID: PMC7169485 DOI: 10.1111/sji.12107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2013] [Accepted: 08/28/2013] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Type I interferons (IFN-I) have been known for decades for their indispensable role in curtailing viral infections. It is, however, now also increasingly recognized that IFN-I is detrimental to the host in combating a number of bacterial infections. We have previously reported that viral infections induce partial lymphocyte activation, characterized by significant increases in the cell surface expression of CD69 and CD86, but not CD25. This systemic partial activation of lymphocytes, mediated by IFN-I, is rapid and is followed by a period of IFN-I unresponsiveness. Here we propose that IFN-I exhaustion that occurs soon after a primary viral infection may be a host response protecting it from secondary bacterial infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y. Furuya
- Department of Emerging Pathogens and VaccinesJohn Curtin School of Medical ResearchAustralian National UniversityCanberraAustralian Capital TerritoryAustralia
| | - A. Müllbacher
- Department of ImmunologyJohn Curtin School of Medical ResearchAustralian National UniversityCanberraAustralian Capital TerritoryAustralia
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Verhagen LM, Gómez-Castellano K, Snelders E, Rivera-Olivero I, Pocaterra L, Melchers WJ, de Waard JH, Hermans PW. Respiratory infections in Eñepa Amerindians are related to malnutrition and Streptococcus pneumoniae carriage. J Infect 2013; 67:273-81. [PMID: 23796866 PMCID: PMC7173337 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinf.2013.06.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2013] [Revised: 06/09/2013] [Accepted: 06/12/2013] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES High acute respiratory tract infection (ARTI) rates are observed in indigenous populations. We assessed the role of viral infections and nasopharyngeal bacterial carriage in ARTIs in Eñepa Amerindians from Venezuela. METHODS In 40 children aged 0-10 years with ARTIs, healthy nearest-age sibling controls and their mothers the presence of Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, Staphylococcus aureus, Moraxella catarrhalis, Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Chlamydophila pneumoniae/psittachi and 15 respiratory viruses was investigated. RESULTS S. pneumoniae was the most frequently detected pathogen, with carriage rates of 75% and 38% in children and mothers respectively. In children, S. pneumoniae carriage was associated with ARTI risk in multivariate analysis (OR 14.1, 95% CI 1.4-137.7). Viral infections were not associated with ARTI risk. S. pneumoniae carriage was common in children of all ages while viral co-infections were more frequently present in children under 4 years compared to older children (46% vs. 17%, p < 0.01). An increase of one unit height-for-age Z score (i.e. improved chronic nutritional status) was associated with decreased odds of S. pneumoniae colonization in multivariate analysis (OR 0.66, 95% CI 0.44-0.99). CONCLUSIONS In Eñepa children high S. pneumoniae carriage rates associated with a poor nutritional status contribute to the development of ARTIs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lilly M. Verhagen
- Laboratory of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Radboud University Medical Centre, PO Box 9101 (Internal Post 224), 6500 HB Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Laboratorio de Tuberculosis, Instituto de Biomedicina, Universidad Central de Venezuela, 1010 Caracas, Venezuela
| | - Keyla Gómez-Castellano
- Laboratorio de Tuberculosis, Instituto de Biomedicina, Universidad Central de Venezuela, 1010 Caracas, Venezuela
| | - Eveline Snelders
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboud University Medical Centre, 6500 HB Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Ismar Rivera-Olivero
- Laboratorio de Tuberculosis, Instituto de Biomedicina, Universidad Central de Venezuela, 1010 Caracas, Venezuela
| | - Leonor Pocaterra
- Catédra de Parasitología, Escuela de Medicina José María Vargas, Universidad Central de Venezuela, 1010 Caracas, Venezuela
| | - Willem J.G. Melchers
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboud University Medical Centre, 6500 HB Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Jacobus H. de Waard
- Laboratorio de Tuberculosis, Instituto de Biomedicina, Universidad Central de Venezuela, 1010 Caracas, Venezuela
| | - Peter W.M. Hermans
- Laboratory of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Radboud University Medical Centre, PO Box 9101 (Internal Post 224), 6500 HB Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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119
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Short KR, Vissers M, de Kleijn S, Zomer AL, Kedzierska K, Grant E, Reading PC, Hermans PWM, Ferwerda G, Diavatopoulos DA. Bacterial lipopolysaccharide inhibits influenza virus infection of human macrophages and the consequent induction of CD8+ T cell immunity. J Innate Immun 2013; 6:129-39. [PMID: 23970306 DOI: 10.1159/000353905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2013] [Accepted: 06/24/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
It is well established that infection with influenza A virus (IAV) facilitates secondary bacterial disease. However, there is a growing body of evidence that the microbial context in which IAV infection occurs can affect both innate and adaptive responses to the virus. To date, these studies have been restricted to murine models of disease and the relevance of these findings in primary human cells remains to be elucidated. Here, we show that pre-stimulation of primary human monocyte-derived macrophages (MDMs) with the bacterial ligand lipopolysaccharide (LPS) reduces the ability of IAV to infect these cells. The inhibition of IAV infection was associated with a reduced transcription of viral RNA and the ability of LPS to induce an anti-viral/type I interferon response in human MDMs. We demonstrated that this reduced rate of viral infection is associated with a reduced ability to present a model antigen to autologous CD8+ T cells. Taken together, these data provide the first evidence that exposure to bacterial ligands like LPS can play an important role in modulating the immune response of primary human immune cells towards IAV infection, which may then have important consequences for the development of the host's adaptive immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirsty R Short
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Vic., Australia
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120
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Weinberger DM, Harboe ZB, Viboud C, Krause TG, Miller M, Mølbak K, Konradsen HB. Serotype-specific effect of influenza on adult invasive pneumococcal pneumonia. J Infect Dis 2013; 208:1274-80. [PMID: 23901093 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jit375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Influenza affects host susceptibility to pneumococcus. We sought to evaluate whether this relationship varies by pneumococcal serotype using a large epidemiological database covering 3 decades. METHODS Weekly rates of invasive pneumococcal pneumonia (IPP) were obtained from the Danish National Laboratory Surveillance System, and influenza-like illness (ILI) data were collected from Danish sentinel surveillance, Statens Serum Institut, 1977-2007. We fit Poisson regression models for each age and comorbidity group, with predictors for seasonality and secular changes, ILI activity, and serotype. RESULTS Among individuals with low levels of comorbidities, influenza had the largest impact on IPP incidence among low-invasiveness serotypes (influenza attributable percent: 17.9%, 95% confidence interval [CI], 13.6-21.9) as compared with high-invasiveness serotypes (6.7%, 95% CI, 3.8%-11.7%). Among those with higher levels of comorbidities, the effect of influenza was smaller, but high-invasiveness serotypes increased more than low-invasiveness serotypes (8.9% [95% CI, 6.6-11.8] vs. 1.3% [95% CI, -1.6-5.4]. CONCLUSIONS Influenza was associated with the greatest increases in the incidence of disease caused by serotypes with lower invasive potential and among individuals with low levels of comorbid conditions. The importance of influenza for adult IPP varies by serotype and host comorbidity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel M Weinberger
- Division of International Epidemiology and Population Studies, Fogarty International Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
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121
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Interkingdom signaling induces Streptococcus pneumoniae biofilm dispersion and transition from asymptomatic colonization to disease. mBio 2013; 4:mBio.00438-13. [PMID: 23882016 PMCID: PMC3735180 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.00438-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 172] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Streptococcus pneumoniae is a common human nasopharyngeal commensal colonizing 10% to 40% of healthy individuals, depending on age. Despite a low invasive disease rate, widespread carriage ensures that infection occurs often enough to make S. pneumoniae a leading bacterial cause of respiratory disease worldwide. However, the mechanisms behind transition from asymptomatic colonization to dissemination and disease in otherwise sterile sites remain poorly understood but are epidemiologically strongly linked to infection with respiratory viruses. In this report, we show that infection with influenza A virus and treatment with the resulting host signals (febrile-range temperatures, norepinephrine, extracytoplasmic ATP, and increased nutrient availability) induce the release of bacteria from biofilms in a newly developed biofilm model on live epithelial cells both in vitro and during in vivo colonization. These dispersed bacteria have distinct phenotypic properties different from those of both biofilm and broth-grown, planktonic bacteria, with the dispersed population showing differential virulence gene expression characteristics resulting in a significantly increased ability to disseminate and cause infection of otherwise sterile sites, such as the middle ear, lungs, and bloodstream. The results offer novel and important insights into the role of interkingdom signaling between microbe and host during biofilm dispersion and transition to acute disease. This report addresses the mechanisms involved in transition from pneumococcal asymptomatic colonization to disease. In this study, we determined that changes in the nasopharyngeal environment result in the release of bacteria from colonizing biofilms with a gene expression and virulence phenotype different not only from that of colonizing biofilm bacteria but also from that of the broth-grown planktonic bacteria commonly used for pathogenesis studies. The work importantly also identifies specific host factors responsible for the release of bacteria and their changed phenotype. We show that these interkingdom signals are recognized by bacteria and are induced by influenza virus infection, which is epidemiologically strongly associated with transition to secondary pneumococcal disease. As virus infection is a common inducer of transition to disease among species occupying the nasopharynx, the results of this study may provide a basis for better understanding of the signals involved in the transition from colonization to disease in the human nasopharynx.
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122
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Shrestha S, Foxman B, Dawid S, Aiello AE, Davis BM, Berus J, Rohani P. Time and dose-dependent risk of pneumococcal pneumonia following influenza: a model for within-host interaction between influenza and Streptococcus pneumoniae. J R Soc Interface 2013; 10:20130233. [PMID: 23825111 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2013.0233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
A significant fraction of seasonal and in particular pandemic influenza deaths are attributed to secondary bacterial infections. In animal models, influenza virus predisposes hosts to severe infection with both Streptococcus pneumoniae and Staphylococcus aureus. Despite its importance, the mechanistic nature of the interaction between influenza and pneumococci, its dependence on the timing and sequence of infections as well as the clinical and epidemiological consequences remain unclear. We explore an immune-mediated model of the viral-bacterial interaction that quantifies the timing and the intensity of the interaction. Taking advantage of the wealth of knowledge gained from animal models, and the quantitative understanding of the kinetics of pathogen-specific immunological dynamics, we formulate a mathematical model for immune-mediated interaction between influenza virus and S. pneumoniae in the lungs. We use the model to examine the pathogenic effect of inoculum size and timing of pneumococcal invasion relative to influenza infection, as well as the efficacy of antivirals in preventing severe pneumococcal disease. We find that our model is able to capture the key features of the interaction observed in animal experiments. The model predicts that introduction of pneumococcal bacteria during a 4-6 day window following influenza infection results in invasive pneumonia at significantly lower inoculum size than in hosts not infected with influenza. Furthermore, we find that antiviral treatment administered later than 4 days after influenza infection was not able to prevent invasive pneumococcal disease. This work provides a quantitative framework to study interactions between influenza and pneumococci and has the potential to accurately quantify the interactions. Such quantitative understanding can form a basis for effective clinical care, public health policies and pandemic preparedness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sourya Shrestha
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.
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123
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Shrestha S, Foxman B, Weinberger DM, Steiner C, Viboud C, Rohani P. Identifying the interaction between influenza and pneumococcal pneumonia using incidence data. Sci Transl Med 2013; 5:191ra84. [PMID: 23803706 PMCID: PMC4178309 DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.3005982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
The association between influenza virus and the bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcus) has been proposed as a polymicrobial system, whereby transmission and pathogenicity of one pathogen (the bacterium) are affected by interactions with the other (the virus). However, studies focusing on different scales of resolution have painted an inconsistent picture: Individual-scale animal experiments have unequivocally demonstrated an association, whereas epidemiological support in human populations is, at best, inconclusive. We integrate weekly incidence reports and a mechanistic transmission model within a likelihood-based inference framework to characterize the nature, timing, and magnitude of this interaction. We find support for a strong but short-lived interaction, with influenza infection increasing susceptibility to pneumococcal pneumonia ~100-fold. We infer modest population-level impacts arising from strong processes at the level of an individual, thereby resolving the dichotomy in seemingly inconsistent observations across scales. An accurate characterization of the influenza-pneumococcal interaction can form a basis for more effective clinical care and public health measures for pneumococcal pneumonia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sourya Shrestha
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.
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124
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Kimaro Mlacha SZ, Peret TCT, Kumar N, Romero-Steiner S, Dunning Hotopp JC, Ishmael N, Grinblat-Huse V, Riley DR, Erdman DD, Carlone GM, Sampson J, Scott JAG, Tettelin H. Transcriptional adaptation of pneumococci and human pharyngeal cells in the presence of a virus infection. BMC Genomics 2013; 14:378. [PMID: 23742656 PMCID: PMC3681581 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-14-378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2012] [Accepted: 05/24/2013] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Viral upper respiratory tract infections are associated with increased colonization by Streptococcus pneumoniae but the mechanisms underlying this relationship are unclear. The objective of this study is to describe a comprehensive picture of the cellular interaction between the adhering bacteria and host cells in the presence or absence of a viral co-infection. Results Gene expression profiles of Detroit-562 pharyngeal cells, which were either mock-infected or infected with human respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) or human parainfluenza virus 3 (HPIV3), were analyzed using human microarrays. Transcription response of S. pneumoniae strain TIGR4 (serotype 4) in the presence of either mock- or viral-infected cells was analyzed by pneumococcal microarray. Significantly regulated genes were identified by both significance analysis of microarray (SAM) and a ≥ 2-fold change ratio cut-off. The adherence of S. pneumoniae to human pharyngeal cells was significantly augmented in the presence of RSV or HPIV3 infection. Global gene expression profiling of the host cells during infection with RSV or HPIV3 revealed increased transcription of carcinoembryonic antigen-related cell adhesion molecules (CEACAM1), CD47, fibronectin, interferon-stimulated genes and many other host cell adhesion molecules. Pneumococci increased transcription of several genes involved in adhesive functions (psaA, pilus islet), choline uptake and incorporation (lic operon), as well as transport and binding. Conclusions We have identified a core transcriptome that represents the basic machinery required for adherence of pneumococci to D562 cells infected or not infected with a virus. These bacterial genes and cell adhesion molecules can potentially be used to control pneumococcal adherence occurring secondary to a viral infection.
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125
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Bousbia S, Raoult D, La Scola B. Pneumonia pathogen detection and microbial interactions in polymicrobial episodes. Future Microbiol 2013; 8:633-60. [DOI: 10.2217/fmb.13.26] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent reports show that microbial communities associated with respiratory infections, such as pneumonia and cystic fibrosis, are more complex than expected. Most of these communities are polymicrobial and might comprise microorganisms originating from several diverse biological and ecological sources. Moreover, unexpected bacteria in the etiology of these respiratory infections have been increasingly identified. These findings were established with the use of efficient microbiological diagnostic tools, particularly molecular tools based on common gene amplification, followed by cloning and sequencing approaches, which facilitated the identification of the polymicrobial flora. Similarly, recent investigations reported that microbial interactions might exist between species in polymicrobial communities, including typical pneumonia pathogens, such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Candida albicans. Here, we review recent tools for microbial diagnosis, in particular, of intensive care unit pneumonia and the reported interactions between microbial species that have primarily been identified in the etiology of these infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabri Bousbia
- Aix-Marseille Université, URMITE, UM 63, CNRS 7278, IRD 198, INSERM U1095, Facultés de Médecine, Marseille, France
- IHU Méditerranée Infection, Pôle des Maladies Infectieuses et Tropicales Clinique et Biologique, Fédération de Bactériologie-Hygiène-Virologie, Centre Hospitalo-Universitaire Timone, Assistance Publique – Hôpitaux de Marseille, Marseille, France
| | - Didier Raoult
- Aix-Marseille Université, URMITE, UM 63, CNRS 7278, IRD 198, INSERM U1095, Facultés de Médecine, Marseille, France
- IHU Méditerranée Infection, Pôle des Maladies Infectieuses et Tropicales Clinique et Biologique, Fédération de Bactériologie-Hygiène-Virologie, Centre Hospitalo-Universitaire Timone, Assistance Publique – Hôpitaux de Marseille, Marseille, France
| | - Bernard La Scola
- IHU Méditerranée Infection, Pôle des Maladies Infectieuses et Tropicales Clinique et Biologique, Fédération de Bactériologie-Hygiène-Virologie, Centre Hospitalo-Universitaire Timone, Assistance Publique – Hôpitaux de Marseille, Marseille, France
- Aix-Marseille Université, URMITE, UM 63, CNRS 7278, IRD 198, INSERM U1095, Facultés de Médecine, Marseille, France.
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Short KR, Habets MN, Payne J, Reading PC, Diavatopoulos DA, Wijburg OL. Influenza A virus induced bacterial otitis media is independent of virus tropism for α2,6-linked sialic acid. Virol J 2013; 10:128. [PMID: 23617940 PMCID: PMC3655017 DOI: 10.1186/1743-422x-10-128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2012] [Accepted: 04/15/2013] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Otitis media (OM) affects ≥80% of children before the age of three. OM can arise following co-infection with influenza A virus (IAV) and the bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae. We have previously shown that H3 IAV strains (such as Udorn/72) induced a higher rate of bacterial OM than H1 strains (such as PR8/34). This was associated with more efficient replication of H3 strains in the middle ear. Findings Here, we assess if the increased replication of IAV strains such as Udorn/72 in the middle ear is dependent upon the binding of the viral HA to α2,6-linked sialic acid. Using murine and in vitro models, the present study shows that recognition of α2,6-linked sialic acid was not required to facilitate bacterial OM. Conclusions Taken together, these data suggest that other features of the HA mediate bacterial OM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirsty R Short
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, 3010, Australia.
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127
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Verhoeven D, Nesselbush M, Pichichero ME. Lower nasopharyngeal epithelial cell repair and diminished innate inflammation responses contribute to the onset of acute otitis media in otitis-prone children. Med Microbiol Immunol 2013; 202:295-302. [PMID: 23576001 DOI: 10.1007/s00430-013-0293-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2012] [Accepted: 03/11/2013] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
About 30 % of young children experience excessive, frequent episodes of middle ear infection and are classified as acute otitis media prone (OP). Streptococcus pneumoniae (Spn) is a predominant otopathogen in OP and non-OP (NOP) children. The pathogenesis of middle ear infection involves otopathogen nasopharyngeal (NP) colonization followed by an upper respiratory viral infection that modifies the NP environment to allow a sufficient inoculum of bacteria to reflux via the Eustachian tube into the middle ear space. Here, we analyzed the NP mucosal repair response between age-matched stringently defined OP (sOP) and NOP children who progressed to middle ear infection caused by Spn. We found lower epidermal growth factor, epidermal growth factor receptor, and angiogenin cytokine concentrations in nasal washes of sOP compared with NOP children. Despite higher expression of TLR2/4 transcript expression in nasal epithelium and in polymorphonuclear cells present in nasal secretions in sOP children, sOP children had lower expression of proinflammatory cytokines such as IL-6 and IL-8 in the NP. Chemotaxis-associated cytokine expression at onset of AOM in sOP children was also lower compared with NOP children, possibly indicating a lower capacity to signal the innate immune system. We conclude that lower epithelial cell repair responses during viral infection in the NP combined with diminished innate inflammatory responses potentiate Spn pathogenesis in the sOP child.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Verhoeven
- Rochester General Hospital Research Institute, Rochester General Hospital, 1425 Portland Ave., Rochester, NY 14621, USA
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128
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Smith AM, Adler FR, Ribeiro RM, Gutenkunst RN, McAuley JL, McCullers JA, Perelson AS. Kinetics of coinfection with influenza A virus and Streptococcus pneumoniae. PLoS Pathog 2013; 9:e1003238. [PMID: 23555251 PMCID: PMC3605146 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1003238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 151] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2012] [Accepted: 02/01/2013] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Secondary bacterial infections are a leading cause of illness and death during epidemic and pandemic influenza. Experimental studies suggest a lethal synergism between influenza and certain bacteria, particularly Streptococcus pneumoniae, but the precise processes involved are unclear. To address the mechanisms and determine the influences of pathogen dose and strain on disease, we infected groups of mice with either the H1N1 subtype influenza A virus A/Puerto Rico/8/34 (PR8) or a version expressing the 1918 PB1-F2 protein (PR8-PB1-F2(1918)), followed seven days later with one of two S. pneumoniae strains, type 2 D39 or type 3 A66.1. We determined that, following bacterial infection, viral titers initially rebound and then decline slowly. Bacterial titers rapidly rise to high levels and remain elevated. We used a kinetic model to explore the coupled interactions and study the dominant controlling mechanisms. We hypothesize that viral titers rebound in the presence of bacteria due to enhanced viral release from infected cells, and that bacterial titers increase due to alveolar macrophage impairment. Dynamics are affected by initial bacterial dose but not by the expression of the influenza 1918 PB1-F2 protein. Our model provides a framework to investigate pathogen interaction during coinfections and to uncover dynamical differences based on inoculum size and strain. Influenza virus infected individuals often become coinfected with a bacterial pathogen and, consequently, morbidity and mortality are significantly increased. A better understanding of how these pathogens interact with each other and the host is of key importance. Here, we use data from infected mice together with mathematical modeling and quantitative analyses to understand how each pathogen influences the other, and how the 1918 influenza PB1-F2 protein and the bacterial strain and dose contribute to coinfection kinetics. We find that influenza viral titers increase when Streptococcus pneumoniae is present and that the bacteria establish and grow rapidly when influenza is present. Our model and analyses suggest that the influenza infection reduces the bacterial clearance ability of alveolar macrophages and that the subsequent S. pneumoniae infection enhances viral release from infected cells. These results provide new insights into the mechanisms of influenza coinfection and the differences in pathogenesis of influenza and S. pneumoniae strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amber M Smith
- Department of Infectious Diseases, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, United States of America.
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129
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John M, Dunne EM, Licciardi PV, Satzke C, Wijburg O, Robins-Browne RM, O'Leary S. Otitis media among high-risk populations: can probiotics inhibit Streptococcus pneumoniae colonisation and the risk of disease? Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2013; 32:1101-10. [PMID: 23512465 DOI: 10.1007/s10096-013-1858-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2013] [Accepted: 03/05/2013] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Otitis media is the second most common infection in children and the leading cause for seeking medical advice. Indigenous populations such as the Inuits, indigenous Australians and American Indians have a very high prevalence of otitis media and are considered to be high-risk populations. Streptococcus pneumoniae, one of the three main bacterial causes of otitis media, colonises the nasopharynx prior to disease development. In high-risk populations, early acquisition of high bacterial loads increases the prevalence of otitis media. In these settings, current treatment strategies are insufficient. Vaccination is effective against invasive pneumococcal infection but has a limited impact on otitis media. Decreasing the bacterial loads of otitis media pathogens and/or colonising the nasopharynx with beneficial bacteria may reduce the prevalence of otitis media. Probiotics are live microorganisms that offer health benefits by modulating the microbial community and enhancing host immunity. The available data suggest that probiotics may be beneficial in otitis media. This review discusses the potential use of probiotics to reduce pathogen colonisation and decrease the prevalence of otitis media, providing justification for further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- M John
- Department of Otolaryngology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia.
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130
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Dunne EM, Smith-Vaughan HC, Robins-Browne RM, Mulholland EK, Satzke C. Nasopharyngeal microbial interactions in the era of pneumococcal conjugate vaccination. Vaccine 2013; 31:2333-42. [PMID: 23523773 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2013.03.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2012] [Revised: 02/27/2013] [Accepted: 03/12/2013] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The nasopharynx of children is often colonised by microorganisms such as Streptococcus pneumoniae (the pneumococcus) that can cause infections including pneumonia and otitis media. In this complex environment, bacteria and viruses may impact each other through antagonistic as well as synergistic interactions. Vaccination may alter colonisation dynamics, evidenced by the rise in non-vaccine serotypes following pneumococcal conjugate vaccination. Discovery of an inverse relationship between S. pneumoniae and Staphylococcus aureus carriage generated concern that pneumococcal vaccination could increase S. aureus carriage and disease. Here we review data on co-colonisation of pathogens in the nasopharynx, focusing on S. pneumoniae and the impact of pneumococcal vaccination. Thus far, pneumococcal vaccination has not had a sustained impact on S. aureus carriage but it is associated with an increase in non-typeable Haemophilus influenzae in acute otitis media aetiology. Advances in bacterial and viral detection methodologies have facilitated research in nasopharyngeal microbiology and will aid investigation of potential vaccine-induced changes, particularly when baseline studies can be conducted prior to pneumococcal vaccine introduction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eileen M Dunne
- Pneumococcal Research, Murdoch Childrens Research Institute, Royal Children's Hospital, Parkville, VIC, Australia.
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131
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Moore DP, Dagan R, Madhi SA. Respiratory viral and pneumococcal coinfection of the respiratory tract: implications of pneumococcal vaccination. Expert Rev Respir Med 2013; 6:451-65. [PMID: 22971069 DOI: 10.1586/ers.12.32] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The interactions between Streptococcus pneumoniae and other respiratory pathogens have been studied in vitro, in animal models and in humans - including epidemiologic and vaccine probe studies. Interactions of pneumococcus with respiratory viruses are common, and many mechanisms have been suggested to explain this phenomenon. The aim of this review is to explore pneumococcal interactions with respiratory viruses and consider the potential role that the pneumococcal polysaccharide-protein conjugate vaccine may play in modifying pneumococcal-respiratory viral interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Paul Moore
- Department of Science and Technology, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa
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132
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Pathogen replication, host inflammation, and disease in the upper respiratory tract. Infect Immun 2013; 81:625-8. [PMID: 23319561 DOI: 10.1128/iai.01460-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
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133
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Abstract
Influenza A virus (IAV) predisposes individuals to secondary infections with the bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae (the pneumococcus). Infections may manifest as pneumonia, sepsis, meningitis, or otitis media (OM). It remains controversial as to whether secondary pneumococcal disease is due to the induction of an aberrant immune response or IAV-induced immunosuppression. Moreover, as the majority of studies have been performed in the context of pneumococcal pneumonia, it remains unclear how far these findings can be extrapolated to other pneumococcal disease phenotypes such as OM. Here, we used an infant mouse model, human middle ear epithelial cells, and a series of reverse-engineered influenza viruses to investigate how IAV promotes bacterial OM. Our data suggest that the influenza virus HA facilitates disease by inducing a proinflammatory response in the middle ear cavity in a replication-dependent manner. Importantly, our findings suggest that it is the inflammatory response to IAV infection that mediates pneumococcal replication. This study thus provides the first evidence that inflammation drives pneumococcal replication in the middle ear cavity, which may have important implications for the treatment of pneumococcal OM.
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134
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Bosch AATM, Biesbroek G, Trzcinski K, Sanders EAM, Bogaert D. Viral and bacterial interactions in the upper respiratory tract. PLoS Pathog 2013; 9:e1003057. [PMID: 23326226 PMCID: PMC3542149 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1003057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 423] [Impact Index Per Article: 38.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Respiratory infectious diseases are mainly caused by viruses or bacteria that often interact with one another. Although their presence is a prerequisite for subsequent infections, viruses and bacteria may be present in the nasopharynx without causing any respiratory symptoms. The upper respiratory tract hosts a vast range of commensals and potential pathogenic bacteria, which form a complex microbial community. This community is assumed to be constantly subject to synergistic and competitive interspecies interactions. Disturbances in the equilibrium, for instance due to the acquisition of new bacteria or viruses, may lead to overgrowth and invasion. A better understanding of the dynamics between commensals and pathogens in the upper respiratory tract may provide better insight into the pathogenesis of respiratory diseases. Here we review the current knowledge regarding specific bacterial–bacterial and viral–bacterial interactions that occur in the upper respiratory niche, and discuss mechanisms by which these interactions might be mediated. Finally, we propose a theoretical model to summarize and illustrate these mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Astrid A. T. M. Bosch
- Department of Pediatric Immunology and Infectious Diseases, University Medical Center-Wilhelmina Children's Hospital, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Giske Biesbroek
- Department of Pediatric Immunology and Infectious Diseases, University Medical Center-Wilhelmina Children's Hospital, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Krzysztof Trzcinski
- Department of Pediatric Immunology and Infectious Diseases, University Medical Center-Wilhelmina Children's Hospital, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Elisabeth A. M. Sanders
- Department of Pediatric Immunology and Infectious Diseases, University Medical Center-Wilhelmina Children's Hospital, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Debby Bogaert
- Department of Pediatric Immunology and Infectious Diseases, University Medical Center-Wilhelmina Children's Hospital, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- * E-mail:
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135
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Abstract
Acute otitis media (AOM) is a polymicrobial disease, which usually occurs as a complication of viral upper respiratory tract infection (URI). While respiratory viruses alone may cause viral AOM, they increase the risk of bacterial middle ear infection and worsen clinical outcomes of bacterial AOM. URI viruses alter Eustachian tube (ET) function via decreased mucociliary action, altered mucus secretion and increased expression of inflammatory mediators among other mechanisms. Transient reduction in protective functions of the ET allows colonizing bacteria of the nasopharynx to ascend into the middle ear and cause AOM. Advances in research help us to better understand the host responses to viral URI, the mechanisms of viral-bacterial interactions in the nasopharynx and the development of AOM. In this review, we present current knowledge regarding viral-bacterial interactions in the pathogenesis and clinical course of AOM. We focus on the common respiratory viruses and their established role in AOM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tal Marom
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555-0371, USA
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136
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Assaad U, El-Masri I, Porhomayon J, El-Solh AA. Pneumonia immunization in older adults: review of vaccine effectiveness and strategies. Clin Interv Aging 2012; 7:453-61. [PMID: 23152675 PMCID: PMC3496196 DOI: 10.2147/cia.s29675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Vaccination remains the primary preventive strategy in the elderly against Streptococcus pneumoniae and influenza infections. The effectiveness of this strategy in preventing pneumonia has been in doubt despite the increase in vaccination coverage among older adults. Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and observational studies aimed at determining clinical outcomes and immune response following pneumococcal vaccination have yielded conflicting results. The protective efficacy of pneumococcal vaccination against pneumonia in older adults has not been firmly established due to a lack of RCTs specifically examining patients ≥ 65 years of age. Similarly, the reported benefits of influenza vaccination have been derived from observational data. The assessment of clinical benefit from influenza vaccination in the elderly population is complicated by varying cohorts, virulence of the influenza strain, and matching of vaccine and circulating viral strains. The presence of selection bias and use of nonspecific end points in these studies make the current evidence inconclusive in terms of overall benefit. The development of more immunogenic vaccines through new formulations or addition of adjuvants holds the promise of revolutionizing delivery and improving efficacy. Dismantling existing barriers through education, providing technology assistance predominantly to developing countries, and establishing clear regulatory guidance on pathways for approval are necessary to ensure timely production and equitable distribution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Usama Assaad
- Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care, and Sleep Medicine, State University of New York at Buffalo School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences and School of Public Health and Health Professions, Buffalo, NY, USA
| | - Ibrahim El-Masri
- Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care, and Sleep Medicine, State University of New York at Buffalo School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences and School of Public Health and Health Professions, Buffalo, NY, USA
| | - Jahan Porhomayon
- The Veterans Affairs Western New York Healthcare System, Buffalo, NY, USA
- Department of Anesthesia, State University of New York at Buffalo School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences and School of Public Health and Health Professions, Buffalo, NY, USA
| | - Ali A El-Solh
- The Veterans Affairs Western New York Healthcare System, Buffalo, NY, USA
- Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care, and Sleep Medicine, State University of New York at Buffalo School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences and School of Public Health and Health Professions, Buffalo, NY, USA
- Department of Anesthesia, State University of New York at Buffalo School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences and School of Public Health and Health Professions, Buffalo, NY, USA
- Department of Social and Preventive Medicine, State University of New York at Buffalo School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences and School of Public Health and Health Professions, Buffalo, NY, USA
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137
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The efficacy versus toxicity profile of combination virotherapy and TLR immunotherapy highlights the danger of administering TLR agonists to oncolytic virus-treated mice. Mol Ther 2012; 21:348-57. [PMID: 23011032 DOI: 10.1038/mt.2012.204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Injection of oncolytic vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) into established B16ova melanomas results in tumor regression, in large part by inducing innate immune reactivity against the viral infection, mediated by MyD88- and type III interferon (IFN)-, but not TLR-4-, signaling. We show here that intratumoral (IT) treatment with lipopolysaccharide (LPS), a TLR-4 agonist, significantly enhanced the local therapy induced by VSV by combining activation of different innate immune pathways. Therapy was further enhanced by co-recruiting a potent antitumor, adaptive T-cell response by using a VSV engineered to express the ovalbumin tumor-associated antigen ova, in combination with LPS. However, the combination of IT LPS with systemically delivered VSV resulted in rapid morbidity and mortality in the majority of mice. Decreasing the intravenous (IV) dose of VSV to levels at which toxicity was ameliorated did not enhance therapy compared with IT LPS alone. Toxicity of the systemic VSV + IT LPS regimen was associated with rapidly elevated levels of serum tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin (IL)-6, which neither systemic VSV, nor IT LPS, alone induced. These data show that therapy associated with direct IT injections of oncolytic viruses can be significantly enhanced by combination with agonists of innate immune activation pathways, which are not themselves activated by the virus alone. Importantly, they also highlight possible, unforeseen dangers of combination therapies in which an immunotherapy, even delivered locally at the tumor site, may systemically sensitize the patient to a cytokine shock-like response triggered by IV delivery of oncolytic virus.
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138
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Increased nasopharyngeal bacterial titers and local inflammation facilitate transmission of Streptococcus pneumoniae. mBio 2012; 3:mBio.00255-12. [PMID: 23015738 PMCID: PMC3518912 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.00255-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The transmission of the bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae (the pneumococcus) marks the first step toward disease development. To date, our ability to prevent pneumococcal transmission has been limited by our lack of understanding regarding the factors which influence the spread of this pathogen. We have previously developed an infant mouse model of pneumococcal transmission which was strictly dependent on influenza A virus (IAV) coinfection of both the experimentally colonized “index mice” and the naive cohoused “contact mice.” Here, we sought to use this model to further elucidate the factors which facilitate S. pneumoniae transmission. In the present report, we demonstrate that increasing the nasopharyngeal load of S. pneumoniae in the colonized index mice (via the depletion of neutrophils) and inducing a proinflammatory response in the naive cohoused contact mice (as demonstrated by cytokine production) facilitates S. pneumoniae transmission. Thus, these data provide the first insights into the factors that help mediate the spread of S. pneumoniae throughout the community. Streptococcus pneumoniae (the pneumococcus) is a major cause of worldwide morbidity and mortality and is a leading cause of death among children under the age of five years. Transmission of S. pneumoniae marks the first step toward disease development. Therefore, understanding the factors that influence the spread of pneumococci throughout the community plays an essential role in preventing pneumococcal disease. We previously developed the first reproducible infant mouse model for pneumococcal transmission and showed that coinfection with influenza virus facilitates the spread of S. pneumoniae. Here, we show that increasing the bacterial load in the nasal cavity of colonized individuals as well as inducing an inflammatory response in naive “contact cases” facilitates the spread of pneumococci. Therefore, this study helps to identify the factors which must be inhibited in order to successfully prevent pneumococcal disease.
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139
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Short KR, Habets MN, Hermans PWM, Diavatopoulos DA. Interactions between Streptococcus pneumoniae and influenza virus: a mutually beneficial relationship? Future Microbiol 2012; 7:609-24. [PMID: 22568716 DOI: 10.2217/fmb.12.29] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Historically, most research on infectious diseases has focused on infections with single pathogens. However, infections with pathogens often occur in the context of pre-existing viral and bacterial infections. Clinically, this is of particular relevance for coinfections with Streptococcus pneumoniae and influenza virus, which together are an important cause of global morbidity and mortality. In recent years new evidence has emerged regarding the underlying mechanisms of influenza virus-induced susceptibility to secondary pneumococcal infections, in particular regarding the sustained suppression of innate recognition of S. pneumoniae. Conversely, it is also increasingly being recognized that there is not a unidirectional effect of the virus on S. pneumoniae, but that asymptomatic pneumococcal carriage may also affect subsequent influenza virus infection and the clinical outcome. Here, we will review both aspects of pneumococcal influenza virus infection, with a particular focus on the age-related differences in pneumococcal colonization rates and invasive pneumococcal disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirsty R Short
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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140
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Modified lipooligosaccharide structure protects nontypeable Haemophilus influenzae from IgM-mediated complement killing in experimental otitis media. mBio 2012; 3:e00079-12. [PMID: 22761391 PMCID: PMC3398534 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.00079-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Nontypeable Haemophilus influenzae (NTHi) is a Gram-negative, human-restricted pathogen. Although this bacterium typically colonizes the nasopharynx in the absence of clinical symptoms, it is also one of the major pathogens causing otitis media (OM) in children. Complement represents an important aspect of the host defense against NTHi. In general, NTHi is efficiently killed by complement-mediated killing; however, various resistance mechanisms have also evolved. We measured the complement resistance of NTHi isolates isolated from the nasopharynx and the middle ear fluids of OM patients. Furthermore, we determined the molecular mechanism of NTHi complement resistance. Complement resistance was strongly increased in isolates from the middle ear, which correlated with decreased binding of IgM. We identified a crucial role for the R2866_0112 gene in complement resistance. Deletion of this gene altered the lipooligosaccharide (LOS) composition of the bacterium, which increased IgM binding and complement-mediated lysis. In a novel mouse model of coinfection with influenza virus, we demonstrate decreased virulence for the R2866_0112 deletion mutant. These findings identify a mechanism by which NTHi modifies its LOS structure to prevent recognition by IgM and activation of complement. Importantly, this mechanism plays a crucial role in the ability of NTHi to cause OM. Nontypeable Haemophilus influenzae (NTHi) colonizes the nasopharynx of especially young children without any obvious symptoms. However, NTHi is also a major pathogen in otitis media (OM), one of the most common childhood infections. Although this pathogen is often associated with OM, the mechanism by which this bacterium is able to cause OM is largely unknown. Our study addresses a key biological question that is highly relevant for child health: what is the molecular mechanism that enables NTHi to cause OM? We show that isolates collected from the middle ear fluid exhibit increased complement resistance and that the lipooligosaccharide (LOS) structure determines IgM binding and complement activation. Modification of the LOS structure decreased NTHi virulence in a novel NTHi-influenza A virus coinfection OM mouse model. Our findings may also have important implications for other Gram-negative pathogens harboring LOS, such as Neisseria meningitidis, Moraxella catarrhalis, and Bordetella pertussis.
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141
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Lijek RS, Weiser JN. Co-infection subverts mucosal immunity in the upper respiratory tract. Curr Opin Immunol 2012; 24:417-23. [PMID: 22658762 DOI: 10.1016/j.coi.2012.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2012] [Accepted: 05/10/2012] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Polymicrobial interactions on mucosal surfaces can influence inflammation, immunity, and disease outcome. Here, we review how host responses to colonization in the upper respiratory tract with the bacterial pathogen Streptococcus pneumoniae can be altered by co-infection. Recent advances provide a mechanistic understanding of how mucosal immunity can be subverted at distinct immunological time-points during pneumococcal colonization by other pathogens such as Haemophilus influenzae, influenza type A and Staphylococcus aureus. These examples use animal models of co-infection to highlight how otherwise effective host responses can be rendered ineffective by co-infection, and vice versa. The complex microbial ecology of mucosal sites must be considered to fully understand how immune responses in a natural setting influence the outcome of host-pathogen interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebeccah S Lijek
- Department of Microbiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States
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142
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Gilchrist SAN, Nanni A, Levine O. Benefits and effectiveness of administering pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine with seasonal influenza vaccine: an approach for policymakers. Am J Public Health 2012; 102:596-605. [PMID: 22397339 PMCID: PMC3489371 DOI: 10.2105/ajph.2011.300512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/14/2011] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
For the influenza pandemic of 2009-2010, countries responded to the direct threat of influenza but may have missed opportunities and strategies to limit secondary pneumococcal infections. Delivering both vaccines together can potentially increase pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (PPV23) immunization rates and prevent additional hospitalizations and mortality in the elderly and other high-risk groups. We used PubMed to review the literature on the concomitant use of PPV23 with seasonal influenza vaccines. Eight of 9 clinical studies found that a concomitant program conferred clinical benefits. The 2 studies that compared the cost-effectiveness of different strategies found concomitant immunization to be more cost-effective than either vaccine given alone. Policymakers should consider a stepwise strategy to reduce the burden of secondary pneumococcal infections during seasonal and pandemic influenza outbreaks.
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143
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Davis BM, Aiello AE, Dawid S, Rohani P, Shrestha S, Foxman B. Influenza and community-acquired pneumonia interactions: the impact of order and time of infection on population patterns. Am J Epidemiol 2012; 175:363-7. [PMID: 22247048 DOI: 10.1093/aje/kwr402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Discoveries made during the 1918 influenza A pandemic and reports of severe disease associated with coinfection during the 2009 hemagglutinin type 1 and neuraminidase type 1 (commonly known as H1N1 or swine flu) pandemic have renewed interest in the role of coinfection in disease pathogenesis. The authors assessed how various timings of coinfection with influenza virus and pneumonia-causing bacteria could affect the severity of illness at multiple levels of interaction, including the biologic and population levels. Animal studies most strongly support a single pathway of coinfection with influenza inoculation occurring approximately 7 days before inoculation with Streptococcus pneumoniae, but less-examined pathways of infection also may be important for human disease. The authors discussed the implications of each pathway for disease prevention and what they would expect to see at the population level if there were sufficient data available. Lastly, the authors identified crucial gaps in the study of timing of coinfection and proposed related research questions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian M Davis
- Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, 48109, USA
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144
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Short KR, Diavatopoulos DA, Thornton R, Pedersen J, Strugnell RA, Wise AK, Reading PC, Wijburg OL. Influenza virus induces bacterial and nonbacterial otitis media. J Infect Dis 2011; 204:1857-65. [PMID: 21930608 PMCID: PMC3209809 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jir618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2011] [Accepted: 05/12/2011] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Otitis media (OM) is one of the most common childhood diseases. OM can arise when a viral infection enables bacteria to disseminate from the nasopharynx to the middle ear. Here, we provide the first infant murine model for disease. Mice coinfected with Streptococcus pneumoniae and influenza virus had high bacterial load in the middle ear, middle ear inflammation, and hearing loss. In contrast, mice colonized with S. pneumoniae alone had significantly less bacteria in the ear, minimal hearing loss, and no inflammation. Of interest, infection with influenza virus alone also caused some middle ear inflammation and hearing loss. Overall, this study provides a clinically relevant and easily accessible animal model to study the pathogenesis and prevention of OM. Moreover, we provide, to our knowledge, the first evidence that influenza virus alone causes middle ear inflammation in infant mice. This inflammation may then play an important role in the development of bacterial OM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirsty R Short
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.
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145
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Grijalva CG, Griffin MR. Unveiling the burden of influenza-associated pneumococcal pneumonia. J Infect Dis 2011; 205:355-7. [PMID: 22158562 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jir753] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
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146
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Brzoza-Lewis KL, Hoth JJ, Hiltbold EM. Type I interferon signaling regulates the composition of inflammatory infiltrates upon infection with Listeria monocytogenes. Cell Immunol 2011; 273:41-51. [PMID: 22212606 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellimm.2011.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2011] [Revised: 11/01/2011] [Accepted: 11/20/2011] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Type I IFN is key to the immune response to viral pathogens, however its role in bacterial infections is less well understood. Mice lacking the type I IFN receptor (IFNAR-/-) demonstrate enhanced resistance to infection with Listeriamonocytogenes. We have now determined that following infection with Listeria, the composition of innate cells recruited to the peritoneal cavity of IFNAR-/- mice reflects an increase in the frequency of neutrophils and a decrease in monocyte frequency compared to WT controls. These differences in inflammatory infiltrates could not be attributed to distinct bone marrow composition prior to infection or to level of apoptosis. We also observed no differences in neutrophil oxidative burst. However, blocking CXCR2 prevented enhanced neutrophil influx and hampered bacterial clearance. Taken together, these studies highlight a novel mechanism by which type I interferon signaling regulates the immune response to Listeria, through negative regulation of chemokines driving neutrophil recruitment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristina L Brzoza-Lewis
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Wake Forest University, School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC 27157, United States
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147
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Nakamura S, Davis KM, Weiser JN. Synergistic stimulation of type I interferons during influenza virus coinfection promotes Streptococcus pneumoniae colonization in mice. J Clin Invest 2011; 121:3657-65. [PMID: 21841308 PMCID: PMC3163966 DOI: 10.1172/jci57762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 206] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2011] [Accepted: 06/22/2011] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Pneumococcal infection of the respiratory tract is often secondary to recent influenza virus infection and accounts for much of the morbidity and mortality during seasonal and pandemic influenza. Here, we show that coinfection of the upper respiratory tract of mice with influenza virus and pneumococcus leads to synergistic stimulation of type I IFNs and that this impairs the recruitment of macrophages, which are required for pneumococcal clearance, due to decreased production of the chemokine CCL2. Type I IFN expression was induced by pneumococcal colonization alone. Colonization followed by influenza coinfection led to a synergistic type I IFN response, resulting in increased density of colonizing bacteria and susceptibility to invasive infection. This enhanced type I IFN response inhibited production of the chemokine CCL2, which promotes the recruitment of macrophages and bacterial clearance. Stimulation of CCL2 by macrophages upon pneumococcal infection alone required the pattern recognition receptor Nod2 and expression of the pore-forming toxin pneumolysin. Indeed, the increased colonization associated with concurrent influenza virus infection was not observed in mice lacking Nod2 or the type I IFN receptor, or in mice challenged with pneumococci lacking pneumolysin. We therefore propose that the synergistic stimulation of type I IFN production during concurrent influenza virus and pneumococcal infection leads to increased bacterial colonization and suggest that this may contribute to the higher rates of disease associated with coinfection in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shigeki Nakamura
- Department of Microbiology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA.
Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Nagasaki University Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki, Japan
| | - Kimberly M. Davis
- Department of Microbiology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA.
Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Nagasaki University Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki, Japan
| | - Jeffrey N. Weiser
- Department of Microbiology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA.
Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Nagasaki University Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki, Japan
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148
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Binks MJ, Cheng AC, Smith-Vaughan H, Sloots T, Nissen M, Whiley D, McDonnell J, Leach AJ. Viral-bacterial co-infection in Australian Indigenous children with acute otitis media. BMC Infect Dis 2011; 11:161. [PMID: 21649905 PMCID: PMC3128050 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2334-11-161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2011] [Accepted: 06/07/2011] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Acute otitis media with perforation (AOMwiP) affects 40% of remote Indigenous children during the first 18 months of life. Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae and Moraxella catarrhalis are the primary bacterial pathogens of otitis media and their loads predict clinical ear state. Our hypothesis is that antecedent respiratory viral infection increases bacterial density and progression to perforation. Methods A total of 366 nasopharyngeal swabs from 114 Indigenous children were retrospectively examined. A panel of 17 respiratory viruses was screened by PCR, and densities of S. pneumoniae, H. influenzae and M. catarrhalis were estimated by quantitative real time PCR. Data are reported by clinical ear state. Results M. catarrhalis (96%), H. influenzae (91%), S. pneumoniae (89%) and respiratory viruses (59%) were common; including rhinovirus (HRV) (38%), polyomavirus (HPyV) (14%), adenovirus (HAdV) (13%), bocavirus (HBoV) (8%) and coronavirus (HCoV) (4%). Geometric mean bacterial loads were significantly higher in children with acute otitis media (AOM) compared to children without evidence of otitis media. Children infected with HAdV were 3 times more likely (p < 0.001) to have AOM with or without perforation. Conclusion This study confirms a positive association between nasopharyngeal bacterial load and clinical ear state, exacerbated by respiratory viruses, in Indigenous children. HAdV was independently associated with acute ear states.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael J Binks
- Ear and Respiratory Unit, Child Health Division, Menzies School of Health Research, Charles Darwin University, Darwin, Australia.
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149
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Kuster SP, Tuite AR, Kwong JC, McGeer A, Fisman DN. Evaluation of coseasonality of influenza and invasive pneumococcal disease: results from prospective surveillance. PLoS Med 2011; 8:e1001042. [PMID: 21687693 PMCID: PMC3110256 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1001042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2010] [Accepted: 04/21/2011] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The wintertime co-occurrence of peaks in influenza and invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD) is well documented, but how and whether wintertime peaks caused by these two pathogens are causally related is still uncertain. We aimed to investigate the relationship between influenza infection and IPD in Ontario, Canada, using several complementary methodological tools. METHODS AND FINDINGS We evaluated a total number of 38,501 positive influenza tests in Central Ontario and 6,191 episodes of IPD in the Toronto/Peel area, Ontario, Canada, between 1 January 1995 and 3 October 2009, reported through population-based surveillance. We assessed the relationship between the seasonal wave forms for influenza and IPD using fast Fourier transforms in order to examine the relationship between these two pathogens over yearly timescales. We also used three complementary statistical methods (time-series methods, negative binomial regression, and case-crossover methods) to evaluate the short-term effect of influenza dynamics on pneumococcal risk. Annual periodicity with wintertime peaks could be demonstrated for IPD, whereas periodicity for influenza was less regular. As for long-term effects, phase and amplitude terms of pneumococcal and influenza seasonal sine waves were not correlated and meta-analysis confirmed significant heterogeneity of influenza, but not pneumococcal phase terms. In contrast, influenza was shown to Granger-cause pneumococcal disease. A short-term association between IPD and influenza could be demonstrated for 1-week lags in both case-crossover (odds ratio [95% confidence interval] for one case of IPD per 100 influenza cases = 1.10 [1.02-1.18]) and negative binomial regression analysis (incidence rate ratio [95% confidence interval] for one case of IPD per 100 influenza cases = 1.09 [1.05-1.14]). CONCLUSIONS Our data support the hypothesis that influenza influences bacterial disease incidence by enhancing short-term risk of invasion in colonized individuals. The absence of correlation between seasonal waveforms, on the other hand, suggests that bacterial disease transmission is affected to a lesser extent. Please see later in the article for the Editors' Summary.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan P. Kuster
- Department of Microbiology, Mount Sinai Hospital, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Ashleigh R. Tuite
- Dalla Lana School of Public Health, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Jeffrey C. Kwong
- Dalla Lana School of Public Health, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Family and Community Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Institute for Clinical Evaluative Sciences, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Allison McGeer
- Department of Microbiology, Mount Sinai Hospital, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Dalla Lana School of Public Health, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Health Policy, Management and Evaluation, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | | | - David N. Fisman
- Dalla Lana School of Public Health, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Health Policy, Management and Evaluation, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- * E-mail: ;
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Short KR, Diavatopoulos DA, Reading PC, Brown LE, Rogers KL, Strugnell RA, Wijburg OLC. Using bioluminescent imaging to investigate synergism between Streptococcus pneumoniae and influenza A virus in infant mice. J Vis Exp 2011:2357. [PMID: 21525841 DOI: 10.3791/2357] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
During the 1918 influenza virus pandemic, which killed approximately 50 million people worldwide, the majority of fatalities were not the result of infection with influenza virus alone. Instead, most individuals are thought to have succumbed to a secondary bacterial infection, predominately caused by the bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae (the pneumococcus). The synergistic relationship between infections caused by influenza virus and the pneumococcus has subsequently been observed during the 1957 Asian influenza virus pandemic, as well as during seasonal outbreaks of the virus (reviewed in (1, 2)). Here, we describe a protocol used to investigate the mechanism(s) that may be involved in increased morbidity as a result of concurrent influenza A virus and S. pneumoniae infection. We have developed an infant murine model to reliably and reproducibly demonstrate the effects of influenza virus infection of mice colonised with S. pneumoniae. Using this protocol, we have provided the first insight into the kinetics of pneumococcal transmission between co-housed, neonatal mice using in vivo imaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirsty R Short
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Melbourne
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