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Two-Front War on Cancer-Targeting TAM Receptors in Solid Tumour Therapy. Cancers (Basel) 2022; 14:cancers14102488. [PMID: 35626092 PMCID: PMC9140196 DOI: 10.3390/cancers14102488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2022] [Revised: 05/14/2022] [Accepted: 05/17/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary In recent years, many studies have shown the importance of TAM kinases in both normal and neoplastic cells. In this review, we present and discuss the role of the TAM family (AXL, MERTK, TYRO3) of receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) as a dual target in cancer, due to their intrinsic roles in tumour cell survival, migration, chemoresistance, and their immunosuppressive roles in the tumour microenvironment. This review presents the potential of TAMs as emerging therapeutic targets in cancer treatment, focusing on the distinct structures of TAM receptor tyrosine kinases. We analyse and compare different strategies of TAM inhibition, for a full perspective of current and future battlefields in the war with cancer. Abstract Receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) are transmembrane receptors that bind growth factors and cytokines and contain a regulated kinase activity within their cytoplasmic domain. RTKs play an important role in signal transduction in both normal and malignant cells, and their encoding genes belong to the most frequently affected genes in cancer cells. The TAM family proteins (TYRO3, AXL, and MERTK) are involved in diverse biological processes: immune regulation, clearance of apoptotic cells, platelet aggregation, cell proliferation, survival, and migration. Recent studies show that TAMs share overlapping functions in tumorigenesis and suppression of antitumour immunity. MERTK and AXL operate in innate immune cells to suppress inflammatory responses and promote an immunosuppressive tumour microenvironment, while AXL expression correlates with epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition, metastasis, and motility in tumours. Therefore, TAM RTKs represent a dual target in cancer due to their intrinsic roles in tumour cell survival, migration, chemoresistance, and their immunosuppressive roles in the tumour microenvironment (TME). In this review, we discuss the potential of TAMs as emerging therapeutic targets in cancer treatment. We critically assess and compare current approaches to target TAM RTKs in solid tumours and the development of new inhibitors for both extra- and intracellular domains of TAM receptor kinases.
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Williamson B, McMurray L, Boyd S, Collingwood O, McLean N, Winter-Holt J, Chan C, Xue A, McCoull W. Identification and Strategies to Mitigate High Total Clearance of Benzylamine-Substituted Biphenyl Ring Systems. Mol Pharm 2022; 19:2115-2132. [PMID: 35533086 DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.2c00014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
For most oral small-molecule projects within drug discovery, the extent and duration of the effect are influenced by the total clearance of the compound; hence, designing compounds with low clearance remains a key focus to help enable sufficient protein target engagement. Comprehensive understanding and accurate prediction of animal clearance and pharmacokinetics provides confidence that the same can be observed for human. During a MERTK inhibitor lead optimization project, a series containing a biphenyl ring system with benzylamine meta-substitution on one phenyl and nitrogen inclusion as the meta atom on the other ring demonstrated multiple routes of compound elimination in rats. Here, we describe the identification of a structural pharmacophore involving two key interactions observed for both the MERTK program and an additional internal project. Four strategies to mitigate these clearance liabilities were identified and systematically investigated. We provide evidence that disruption of at least one of the interactions led to a significant reduction in CL that was subsequently predicted from rat hepatocytes using in vitro/in vivo extrapolation and the well-stirred scaling method. These tactics will likely be of general utility to the medicinal chemistry and DMPK community during compound optimization when similar issues are encountered for biphenyl benzylamines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beth Williamson
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Research and Early Development, Oncology R&D, AstraZeneca, Cambridge CB4 0WG, UK
| | - Lindsay McMurray
- Medicinal Chemistry, Research and Early Development, Oncology R&D, AstraZeneca, Cambridge CB4 0WG, UK
| | - Scott Boyd
- Medicinal Chemistry, Research and Early Development, Oncology R&D, AstraZeneca, Cambridge CB4 0WG, UK
| | - Olga Collingwood
- Medicinal Chemistry, Research and Early Development, Oncology R&D, AstraZeneca, Cambridge CB4 0WG, UK
| | - Neville McLean
- Medicinal Chemistry, Research and Early Development, Oncology R&D, AstraZeneca, Cambridge CB4 0WG, UK
| | - Jon Winter-Holt
- Medicinal Chemistry, Research and Early Development, Oncology R&D, AstraZeneca, Cambridge CB4 0WG, UK
| | - Christina Chan
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Research and Early Development, Oncology R&D, AstraZeneca, Cambridge CB4 0WG, UK
| | - Aixiang Xue
- R&D Clinical Pharmacology and Safety Sciences, AstraZeneca, Waltham 02451, United States
| | - William McCoull
- Medicinal Chemistry, Research and Early Development, Oncology R&D, AstraZeneca, Cambridge CB4 0WG, UK
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Zirngibl M, Assinck P, Sizov A, Caprariello AV, Plemel JR. Oligodendrocyte death and myelin loss in the cuprizone model: an updated overview of the intrinsic and extrinsic causes of cuprizone demyelination. Mol Neurodegener 2022; 17:34. [PMID: 35526004 PMCID: PMC9077942 DOI: 10.1186/s13024-022-00538-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2021] [Accepted: 04/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The dietary consumption of cuprizone – a copper chelator – has long been known to induce demyelination of specific brain structures and is widely used as model of multiple sclerosis. Despite the extensive use of cuprizone, the mechanism by which it induces demyelination are still unknown. With this review we provide an updated understanding of this model, by showcasing two distinct yet overlapping modes of action for cuprizone-induced demyelination; 1) damage originating from within the oligodendrocyte, caused by mitochondrial dysfunction or reduced myelin protein synthesis. We term this mode of action ‘intrinsic cell damage’. And 2) damage to the oligodendrocyte exerted by inflammatory molecules, brain resident cells, such as oligodendrocytes, astrocytes, and microglia or peripheral immune cells – neutrophils or T-cells. We term this mode of action ‘extrinsic cellular damage’. Lastly, we summarize recent developments in research on different forms of cell death induced by cuprizone, which could add valuable insights into the mechanisms of cuprizone toxicity. With this review we hope to provide a modern understanding of cuprizone-induced demyelination to understand the causes behind the demyelination in MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Zirngibl
- Faculty of Medicine & Dentistry, Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
| | - Peggy Assinck
- Wellcome Trust- MRC Cambridge Stem Cell Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.,Centre for Regenerative Medicine, Institute for Regeneration and Repair, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Anastasia Sizov
- Faculty of Medicine & Dentistry, Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
| | - Andrew V Caprariello
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Cumming School of Medicine, Calgary, Canada
| | - Jason R Plemel
- Faculty of Medicine & Dentistry, Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada. .,Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada. .,Department of Medicine, Division of Neurology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada.
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Baseline Plasma Gas6 Protein Elevation Predicts Adverse Outcomes in Hospitalized COVID-19 Patients. DISEASE MARKERS 2022; 2022:1568352. [PMID: 35531477 PMCID: PMC9070408 DOI: 10.1155/2022/1568352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2021] [Revised: 03/18/2022] [Accepted: 04/12/2022] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Reliable biomarkers allowing early patients’ stratification for the risk of adverse outcomes in COVID-19 are lacking. Gas6, together with its tyrosine kinase receptors named TAM, is involved in the regulation of immune homeostasis, fibrosis, and thrombosis. Our aim was to evaluate whether Gas6, sAxl, and sMerTK could represent early predictors of disease evolution either towards a negative (death or need of ICU admission) or a positive (discharge and/or clinical resolution within the first 14 days of hospitalization) outcome. To this purpose, between January and May 2021 (corresponding to third pandemic wave in Italy), 139 consecutive SARS-CoV-2 positive patients were enrolled in a prospective observational study. Plasma levels of these molecules were measured by ELISA at the time of hospitalization and after 7 and 14 days. We observed that higher plasma Gas6 concentrations at hospital admission were associated with a worsening in clinical conditions while lower sMerTK concentrations at baseline and after 7 days of hospitalization were associated with a more favorable outcome. At multivariate analysis, after correction for demographic and COVID-19 severity variables (NEWS2 and PiO2/FiO2), only Gas6 measured at baseline predicted an adverse prognosis with an odds ratio of 1.03 (C.I. 1.01-10.5). At ROC curve analysis, baseline Gas6 levels higher than 58.0 ng/ml predicted a severe disease evolution with 53.3% sensitivity and 77.6% specificity (area under the curve 0.653,
, likelihood ratio of 2.38, IQR: 1.46-3.87). Taken together, these results support the hypothesis that a dysregulation in the Gas6/TAM axis could play a relevant role in modulating the course of COVID-19 and suggest that plasma Gas6 may represent a promising prognostic laboratory parameter for this condition.
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Anderson SR, Roberts JM, Ghena N, Irvin EA, Schwakopf J, Cooperstein IB, Bosco A, Vetter ML. Neuronal apoptosis drives remodeling states of microglia and shifts in survival pathway dependence. eLife 2022; 11:e76564. [PMID: 35481836 PMCID: PMC9071266 DOI: 10.7554/elife.76564] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2021] [Accepted: 04/27/2022] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Microglia serve critical remodeling roles that shape the developing nervous system, responding to the changing neural environment with phagocytosis or soluble factor secretion. Recent single-cell sequencing (scRNAseq) studies have revealed the context-dependent diversity in microglial properties and gene expression, but the cues promoting this diversity are not well defined. Here, we ask how interactions with apoptotic neurons shape microglial state, including lysosomal and lipid metabolism gene expression and dependence on Colony-stimulating factor 1 receptor (CSF1R) for survival. Using early postnatal mouse retina, a CNS region undergoing significant developmental remodeling, we performed scRNAseq on microglia from mice that are wild-type, lack neuronal apoptosis (Bax KO), or are treated with CSF1R inhibitor (PLX3397). We find that interactions with apoptotic neurons drive multiple microglial remodeling states, subsets of which are resistant to CSF1R inhibition. We find that TAM receptor Mer and complement receptor 3 are required for clearance of apoptotic neurons, but that Mer does not drive expression of remodeling genes. We show TAM receptor Axl is negligible for phagocytosis or remodeling gene expression but is consequential for microglial survival in the absence of CSF1R signaling. Thus, interactions with apoptotic neurons shift microglia toward distinct remodeling states and through Axl, alter microglial dependence on survival pathway, CSF1R.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Nathaniel Ghena
- Department of Neurobiology, University of UtahSalt Lake CityUnited States
- Interdepartmental Program in Neuroscience, University of UtahSalt Lake CityUnited States
| | - Emmalyn A Irvin
- Department of Neurobiology, University of UtahSalt Lake CityUnited States
| | - Joon Schwakopf
- Department of Neurobiology, University of UtahSalt Lake CityUnited States
| | | | - Alejandra Bosco
- Department of Neurobiology, University of UtahSalt Lake CityUnited States
| | - Monica L Vetter
- Department of Neurobiology, University of UtahSalt Lake CityUnited States
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Decreased expression of airway epithelial Axl is associated with eosinophilic inflammation in severe asthma. Allergol Int 2022; 71:383-394. [PMID: 35459569 DOI: 10.1016/j.alit.2022.02.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2021] [Revised: 02/17/2022] [Accepted: 02/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Airway epithelium-derived cytokines are critical to provoke and perpetuate type 2 inflammation in asthma. Yet it is poorly understood how this epithelial cell-driven inflammatory response is negatively regulated. We previously reported that Axl receptor tyrosine kinase was expressed by basal cells in the airway epithelium and had a role in defining their stem cell identity. However, whether and how Axl regulates airway type 2 inflammation remains unknown. METHODS We performed immunofluorescence staining to compare Axl expression in airway epithelium between non-asthmatic subjects, mild-moderate asthma and severe asthma. We confirmed this result by interrogating public databases of global gene expression in endobronchial biopsies. We then quantified eosinophil numbers infiltrating into the trachea of wild-type or Axl-knockout mice that were intranasally treated with house dust mite extracts (HDM). Cell-based assays using siRNA targeting Axl were further performed to identify molecules involved in Axl-mediated regulation of inflammation. RESULTS Histological assessments and transcriptome analyses revealed decreases in protein and mRNA of Axl in airway basal cells of severe asthmatics. This reduction of Axl expression was correlated with infiltration of eosinophils and mast cells in severe asthmatics. Eosinophil infiltration was more evident in the trachea of Axl-knockout mice in response to repetitive HDM administration. siRNA-mediated knockdown of Axl increased mRNA and protein expression of granulocyte macrophage-colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF) in human bronchial epithelial cells. CONCLUSIONS Axl kinase expressed by basal cells may suppress excessive eosinophilic inflammation via inhibition of GM-CSF in the airway. Axl reduction has clinical implications for the pathogenesis of severe asthma.
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TM9SF4 Is a Crucial Regulator of Inflammation and ER Stress in Inflammatory Bowel Disease. Cell Mol Gastroenterol Hepatol 2022; 14:245-270. [PMID: 35398597 PMCID: PMC9218505 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcmgh.2022.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2021] [Revised: 04/03/2022] [Accepted: 04/04/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND & AIMS Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a major intestinal disease. Excessive inflammation and increased endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress are the key events in the development of IBD. Search of a genome-wide association study database identified a remarkable correlation between a TM9SF4 single-nucleotide polymorphism and IBD. Here, we aimed to resolve its underlying mechanism. METHODS The role of TM9SF4 was determined with experimental mouse models of IBD. ER stress cascades, barrier functions, and macrophage polarization in colonic tissues and cells were assessed in vivo and in vitro. The expression of TM9SF4 was compared between inflamed regions of ulcerative colitis patients and normal colon samples. RESULTS In mouse models of IBD, genetic knockout of the TM9SF4 gene aggravated the disease symptoms. In colonic epithelial cells, short hairpin RNA-mediated knockdown of TM9SF4 expression promoted inflammation and increased ER stress. In macrophages, TM9SF4 knockdown promoted M1 macrophage polarization but suppressed M2 macrophage polarization. Genetic knockout/knockdown of TM9SF4 also disrupted epithelial barrier function. Mechanistically, TM9SF4 deficiency may act through Ca2+ store depletion and cytosolic acidification to induce an ER stress increase. Furthermore, the expression level of TM9SF4 was found to be much lower in the inflamed colon regions of human ulcerative colitis patients than in normal colon samples. CONCLUSIONS Our study identified a novel IBD-associated protein, TM9SF4, the reduced expression of which can aggravate intestinal inflammation. Deficiency of TM9SF4 increases ER stress, promotes inflammation, and impairs the intestinal epithelial barrier to aggravate IBD.
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Tissue Microarray Analyses Suggest Axl as a Predictive Biomarker in HPV-Negative Head and Neck Cancer. Cancers (Basel) 2022; 14:cancers14071829. [PMID: 35406601 PMCID: PMC8997923 DOI: 10.3390/cancers14071829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2022] [Revised: 03/30/2022] [Accepted: 03/31/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Despite many efforts, no predictive biomarkers that could guide clinical decision making and personalized treatment have been established for patients with head and neck squamous cell carcinoma. We propose that high expression of the tyrosine kinase receptor Axl identifies patients as being at enhanced risk for treatment failure under surgery alone and, hence, should be treated by primary or adjuvant radiotherapy. Abstract The receptor tyrosine kinase Axl is described to promote migration, metastasis and resistance against molecular targeting, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy in various tumor entities, including head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC). Since clinical data on Axl and its ligand Gas6 in HNSCC are sparse, we assessed the association of Axl and Gas6 expression with patient survival in a single center retrospective cohort in a tissue microarray format. Expression was evaluated manually using an established algorithm and correlated with clinicopathological parameters and patient survival. A number of 362 samples yielded interpretable staining, which did not correlate with T- and N-stage. Protein expression levels were not associated with the survival of patients with p16-positive oropharyngeal SCC. In HPV-negative tumors, Axl expression did not impact patients treated with primary or adjuvant radio(chemo)therapy, but was significantly associated with inferior overall and recurrence-free survival in patients treated with surgery alone. Gas6 was a positive predictor of survival in patients whose treatment included radiotherapy. Associations remained significant in multivariable analysis. Our data question a meaningful contribution of the Axl/Gas6 pathway to radio-resistance in HNSCC and instead suggest that strong Axl expression identifies tumors requiring adjuvant radio(chemo)therapy after surgery.
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Rezende LDA, Freitas PDSS, Catabriga DDS, Mocelin HJS, De Jesus Silva KE, Moreira Silva L, Fiorin BH. Cardiovascular disorders in patients with Zika Virus: integrative review. REVISTA CIÊNCIAS EM SAÚDE 2022. [DOI: 10.21876/rcshci.v12i1.1210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective: To describe the primary cardiovascular disorders manifested in patients infected with the zika virus and understand the pathophysiological process. Methods: This integrative literature review occurred in January 2021 through the PICO strategy, which answered the guiding question: “What are the main cardiovascular disorders manifested in patients infected with zika virus?” For this, a time interval of 5 years was defined, using the descriptors “Zika Virus”,“Heart” and “Cardiovascular Diseases” in English, Portuguese and Spanish. The contemplated databases were MEDLINE, LILACS, and BDENF. Results: There were a total of 77,872 articles, of which, after the exclusion and inclusion processes, it was summarized in eight articles included in this review. The main cardiovascular findings present were apical muscular ventricular septal defect and ostium secundum, in addition to atrial fibrillation and heart failure with reduced ejection fraction. Conclusions: Further studies with more robustness that clearly establish the mechanism of cellular tropism for cardiac muscle cells and involve the pathophysiological process of cardiac alterations more clearly and reliably are needed.
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Ortmayr G, Brunnthaler L, Pereyra D, Huber H, Santol J, Rumpf B, Najarnia S, Smoot R, Ammon D, Sorz T, Fritsch F, Schodl M, Voill-Glaninger A, Weitmayr B, Födinger M, Klimpfinger M, Gruenberger T, Assinger A, Mikulits W, Starlinger P. Immunological Aspects of AXL/GAS-6 in the Context of Human Liver Regeneration. Hepatol Commun 2022; 6:576-592. [PMID: 34951136 PMCID: PMC8870037 DOI: 10.1002/hep4.1832] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2021] [Revised: 08/03/2021] [Accepted: 08/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
AXL and its corresponding ligand growth arrest-specific 6 (GAS-6) are critically involved in hepatic immunomodulation and regenerative processes. Pleiotropic inhibitory effects on innate inflammatory responses might essentially involve the shift of macrophage phenotype from a pro-inflammatory M1 to an anti-inflammatory M2. We aimed to assess the relevance of the AXL/GAS-6-pathway in human liver regeneration and, consequently, its association with clinical outcome after hepatic resection. Soluble AXL (sAXL) and GAS-6 levels were analyzed at preoperative and postoperative stages in 154 patients undergoing partial hepatectomy and correlated with clinical outcome. Perioperative dynamics of interleukin (IL)-6, soluble tyrosine-protein kinase MER (sMerTK), soluble CD163 (sCD163), and cytokeratin (CK) 18 were assessed to reflect pathophysiological processes. Preoperatively elevated sAXL and GAS-6 levels predicted postoperative liver dysfunction (area under the curve = 0.721 and 0.722; P < 0.005) and worse clinical outcome. These patients failed to respond with an immediate increase of sAXL and GAS-6 upon induction of liver regeneration. Abolished AXL pathway response resulted in a restricted increase of sCD163, suggesting a disrupted phenotypical switch to regeneratory M2 macrophages. No association with sMerTK was observed. Concomitantly, a distinct association of IL-6 levels with an absent increase of AXL/GAS-6 signaling indicated pronounced postoperative inflammation. This was further supported by increased intrahepatic secondary necrosis as reflected by CK18M65. sAXL and GAS-6 represent not only potent and easily accessible preoperative biomarkers for the postoperative outcome but also AXL/GAS-6 signaling might be of critical relevance in human liver regeneration. Refractory AXL/GAS-6 signaling, due to chronic overactivation/stimulation in the context of underlying liver disease, appears to abolish their immediate release following induction of liver regeneration, causing overwhelming immune activation, presumably via intrahepatic immune regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregor Ortmayr
- Department of SurgeryMedical University of ViennaGeneral HospitalViennaAustria
| | - Laura Brunnthaler
- Center of Physiology and PharmacologyInstitute of Vascular Biology and Thrombosis ResearchMedical University of ViennaViennaAustria
| | - David Pereyra
- Department of SurgeryMedical University of ViennaGeneral HospitalViennaAustria.,Center of Physiology and PharmacologyInstitute of Vascular Biology and Thrombosis ResearchMedical University of ViennaViennaAustria
| | - Heidemarie Huber
- Department of Medicine IInstitute of Cancer ResearchComprehensive Cancer CenterMedical University of ViennaViennaAustria
| | - Jonas Santol
- Department of SurgeryMedical University of ViennaGeneral HospitalViennaAustria
| | - Benedikt Rumpf
- Department of SurgeryMedical University of ViennaGeneral HospitalViennaAustria
| | - Sina Najarnia
- Department of SurgeryMedical University of ViennaGeneral HospitalViennaAustria
| | - Rory Smoot
- Department of SurgeryMayo ClinicRochesterMNUSA
| | - Daphni Ammon
- Department of SurgeryMedical University of ViennaGeneral HospitalViennaAustria
| | - Thomas Sorz
- Department of SurgeryMedical University of ViennaGeneral HospitalViennaAustria
| | - Fabian Fritsch
- Department of SurgeryMedical University of ViennaGeneral HospitalViennaAustria
| | - Michael Schodl
- Department of SurgeryMedical University of ViennaGeneral HospitalViennaAustria
| | - Astrid Voill-Glaninger
- Department of Laboratory MedicineViennese Health Network, Clinic LandstraßeViennaAustria
| | - Barbara Weitmayr
- Department of PathologyViennese Health Network, Clinic LandstraßeViennaAustria
| | - Manuela Födinger
- Department of Laboratory MedicineViennese Health NetworkClinic FavoritenViennaAustria
| | - Martin Klimpfinger
- Department of PathologyViennese Health NetworkClinic FavoritenViennaAustria
| | - Thomas Gruenberger
- Department of SurgeryHPB Center, Viennese Health Network, Clinic Favoriten and Sigmund Freud Private UniversityViennaAustria
| | - Alice Assinger
- Center of Physiology and PharmacologyInstitute of Vascular Biology and Thrombosis ResearchMedical University of ViennaViennaAustria
| | - Wolfgang Mikulits
- Department of Medicine IInstitute of Cancer ResearchComprehensive Cancer CenterMedical University of ViennaViennaAustria
| | - Patrick Starlinger
- Department of SurgeryMedical University of ViennaGeneral HospitalViennaAustria.,Department of SurgeryMayo ClinicRochesterMNUSA
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Zdżalik-Bielecka D, Kozik K, Poświata A, Jastrzębski K, Jakubik M, Miączyńska M. Bemcentinib and Gilteritinib Inhibit Cell Growth and Impair the Endo-Lysosomal and Autophagy Systems in an AXL-Independent Manner. Mol Cancer Res 2022; 20:446-455. [PMID: 34782372 DOI: 10.1158/1541-7786.mcr-21-0444] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2021] [Revised: 10/11/2021] [Accepted: 11/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
AXL, a receptor tyrosine kinase from the TAM (TYRO3 AXL and MER) subfamily, and its ligand growth arrest-specific 6 (GAS6) are implicated in pathogenesis of a wide array of cancers, acquisition of resistance to diverse anticancer therapies and cellular entry of viruses. The continuous development of AXL inhibitors for treatment of patients with cancer and COVID-19 underscores the need to better characterize the cellular effects of AXL targeting. In the present study, we compared the cellular phenotypes of CRISPR-Cas9-induced depletion of AXL and its pharmacological inhibition with bemcentinib, LDC1267 and gilteritinib. Specifically, we evaluated GAS6-AXL signaling, cell viability and invasion, the endo-lysosomal system and autophagy in glioblastoma cells. We showed that depletion of AXL but not of TYRO3 inhibited GAS6-induced phosphorylation of downstream signaling effectors, AKT and ERK1/2, indicating that AXL is a primary receptor for GAS6. AXL was also specifically required for GAS6-dependent increase in cell viability but was dispensable for viability of cells grown without exogenous addition of GAS6. Furthermore, we revealed that LDC1267 is the most potent and specific inhibitor of AXL activation among the tested compounds. Finally, we found that, in contrast to AXL depletion and its inhibition with LDC1267, cell treatment with bemcentinib and gilteritinib impaired the endo-lysosomal and autophagy systems in an AXL-independent manner. IMPLICATIONS Altogether, our findings are of high clinical importance as we discovered that two clinically advanced AXL inhibitors, bemcentinib and gilteritinib, may display AXL-independent cellular effects and toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daria Zdżalik-Bielecka
- Laboratory of Cell Biology, International Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Kamila Kozik
- Laboratory of Cell Biology, International Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Agata Poświata
- Laboratory of Cell Biology, International Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Kamil Jastrzębski
- Laboratory of Cell Biology, International Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Marta Jakubik
- Laboratory of Cell Biology, International Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Marta Miączyńska
- Laboratory of Cell Biology, International Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Warsaw, Poland
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Liu KE, Raymond MH, Ravichandran KS, Kucenas S. Clearing Your Mind: Mechanisms of Debris Clearance After Cell Death During Neural Development. Annu Rev Neurosci 2022; 45:177-198. [PMID: 35226828 PMCID: PMC10157384 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-neuro-110920-022431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Neurodevelopment and efferocytosis have fascinated scientists for decades. How an organism builds a nervous system that is precisely tuned for efficient behaviors and survival and how it simultaneously manages constant somatic cell turnover are complex questions that have resulted in distinct fields of study. Although neurodevelopment requires the overproduction of cells that are subsequently pruned back, very few studies marry these fields to elucidate the cellular and molecular mechanisms that drive nervous system development through the lens of cell clearance. In this review, we discuss these fields to highlight exciting areas of future synergy. We first review neurodevelopment from the perspective of overproduction and subsequent refinement and then discuss who clears this developmental debris and the mechanisms that control these events. We then end with how a more deliberate merger of neurodevelopment and efferocytosis could reframe our understanding of homeostasis and disease and discuss areas of future study. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Neuroscience, Volume 45 is July 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kendra E Liu
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA; .,Program in Fundamental Neuroscience, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA
| | - Michael H Raymond
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA; .,Center for Clearance, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA
| | - Kodi S Ravichandran
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA; .,Center for Clearance, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA.,Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Cancer Biology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA.,VIB-UGent Center for Inflammation Research and the Department of Biomedical Molecular Biology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Sarah Kucenas
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA; .,Program in Fundamental Neuroscience, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA.,Department of Biology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA
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Wang L, Zhou Y, Wu X, Ma X, Li B, Ding R, Stashko MA, Wu Z, Wang X, Li Z. The Synthesis and Initial Evaluation of MerTK Targeted PET Agents. Molecules 2022; 27:1460. [PMID: 35268561 PMCID: PMC8911752 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27051460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2021] [Revised: 02/08/2022] [Accepted: 02/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
MerTK (Mer tyrosine kinase), a receptor tyrosine kinase, is ectopically or aberrantly expressed in numerous human hematologic and solid malignancies. Although a variety of MerTK targeting therapies are being developed to enhance outcomes for patients with various cancers, the sensitivity of tumors to MerTK suppression may not be uniform due to the heterogeneity of solid tumors and different tumor stages. In this report, we develop a series of radiolabeled agents as potential MerTK PET (positron emission tomography) agents. In our initial in vivo evaluation, [18F]-MerTK-6 showed prominent uptake rate (4.79 ± 0.24%ID/g) in B16F10 tumor-bearing mice. The tumor to muscle ratio reached 1.86 and 3.09 at 0.5 and 2 h post-injection, respectively. In summary, [18F]-MerTK-6 is a promising PET agent for MerTK imaging and is worth further evaluation in future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Wang
- Biomedical Research Imaging Center, Department of Radiology, and UNC Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27514, USA; (L.W.); (X.W.); (X.M.); (Z.L.)
| | - Yubai Zhou
- Center for Integrative Chemical Biology and Drug Discovery, Division of Chemical Biology and Medicinal Chemistry, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA; (Y.Z.); (B.L.); (R.D.); (M.A.S.)
| | - Xuedan Wu
- Biomedical Research Imaging Center, Department of Radiology, and UNC Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27514, USA; (L.W.); (X.W.); (X.M.); (Z.L.)
| | - Xinrui Ma
- Biomedical Research Imaging Center, Department of Radiology, and UNC Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27514, USA; (L.W.); (X.W.); (X.M.); (Z.L.)
| | - Bing Li
- Center for Integrative Chemical Biology and Drug Discovery, Division of Chemical Biology and Medicinal Chemistry, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA; (Y.Z.); (B.L.); (R.D.); (M.A.S.)
| | - Ransheng Ding
- Center for Integrative Chemical Biology and Drug Discovery, Division of Chemical Biology and Medicinal Chemistry, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA; (Y.Z.); (B.L.); (R.D.); (M.A.S.)
| | - Michael A. Stashko
- Center for Integrative Chemical Biology and Drug Discovery, Division of Chemical Biology and Medicinal Chemistry, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA; (Y.Z.); (B.L.); (R.D.); (M.A.S.)
| | - Zhanhong Wu
- Biomedical Research Imaging Center, Department of Radiology, and UNC Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27514, USA; (L.W.); (X.W.); (X.M.); (Z.L.)
| | - Xiaodong Wang
- Center for Integrative Chemical Biology and Drug Discovery, Division of Chemical Biology and Medicinal Chemistry, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA; (Y.Z.); (B.L.); (R.D.); (M.A.S.)
| | - Zibo Li
- Biomedical Research Imaging Center, Department of Radiology, and UNC Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27514, USA; (L.W.); (X.W.); (X.M.); (Z.L.)
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Zhang X, Zhou C, Wu F, Gao C, Liu Q, Lv P, Li M, Huang L, Wu T, Li W. Bio-engineered nano-vesicles for IR820 delivery: a therapy platform for cancer by surgery and photothermal therapy. NANOSCALE 2022; 14:2780-2792. [PMID: 35119448 DOI: 10.1039/d1nr05601h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Long-term unsolved health problems from pre-/intra-/postoperative complications and thermal ablation complications pose threats to liver-cancer patients. To reduce the threats, we propose a multimodal-imaging guided surgical navigation system and photothermal therapy strategy to improve specific labeling, real-time monitoring and effective treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma. Using a bioengineering approach, G-Nvs@IR820, a kind of human-cell-membrane nano-vesicle, was generated with growth arrest-specific 6 (Gas6) expressed on the membrane and with near-infrared absorbing dye (IR820) loaded into it, which is proven to be an effective nanoparticle-drug-delivery system for Axl-overexpressing hepatocellular carcinoma. G-Nvs@IR820 shows excellent features in vitro and in vivo. As Gas6 binds to Axl specifically, G-Nvs@IR820 has good targeting ability to the tumor site and also has a good ability to guide the further accurate obliteration of carcinoma from adjacent normal tissue in surgery with its highly resolved fluorescence/photoacoustic/surgical-navigation signals. Moreover, the G-Nvs@IR820 represented a new perspective for photothermal therapy. Briefly, Nvs@IR820 was synthesized at a gram scale with high affinity, specificity, and safety. It has promising potential in clinical application for IGS and PTT in Axl-overexpressing hepatoma carcinoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaojie Zhang
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, Xiang'an Hospital of Xiamen University, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361102, P. R. China.
- Xiamen University Research Center of Retroperitoneal Tumor Committee of Oncology Society of Chinese Medical Association, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361102, P. R. China
| | - Changsheng Zhou
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, Xiang'an Hospital of Xiamen University, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361102, P. R. China.
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, Guizhou Provincial People's Hospital, Guiyang, Guizhou 550002, P. R. China
- Xiamen University Research Center of Retroperitoneal Tumor Committee of Oncology Society of Chinese Medical Association, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361102, P. R. China
| | - Fanghua Wu
- Surgery department, Affiliated Fuzhou First Hospital of Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350009, P. R. China.
| | - Chang Gao
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, Xiang'an Hospital of Xiamen University, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361102, P. R. China.
- Xiamen University Research Center of Retroperitoneal Tumor Committee of Oncology Society of Chinese Medical Association, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361102, P. R. China
| | - Qianqian Liu
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, Xiang'an Hospital of Xiamen University, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361102, P. R. China.
- Xiamen University Research Center of Retroperitoneal Tumor Committee of Oncology Society of Chinese Medical Association, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361102, P. R. China
| | - Peng Lv
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, Xiang'an Hospital of Xiamen University, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361102, P. R. China.
- Xiamen University Research Center of Retroperitoneal Tumor Committee of Oncology Society of Chinese Medical Association, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361102, P. R. China
| | - Ming Li
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, Xiang'an Hospital of Xiamen University, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361102, P. R. China.
- Xiamen University Research Center of Retroperitoneal Tumor Committee of Oncology Society of Chinese Medical Association, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361102, P. R. China
| | - Liyong Huang
- Surgery department, Affiliated Fuzhou First Hospital of Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350009, P. R. China.
| | - Ting Wu
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, Xiang'an Hospital of Xiamen University, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361102, P. R. China.
- Cancer Research Center, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361102, P. R. China.
- Xiamen University Research Center of Retroperitoneal Tumor Committee of Oncology Society of Chinese Medical Association, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361102, P. R. China
| | - Wengang Li
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, Xiang'an Hospital of Xiamen University, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361102, P. R. China.
- Cancer Research Center, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361102, P. R. China.
- Xiamen University Research Center of Retroperitoneal Tumor Committee of Oncology Society of Chinese Medical Association, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361102, P. R. China
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115
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Konishi H, Koizumi S, Kiyama H. Phagocytic astrocytes: Emerging from the shadows of microglia. Glia 2022; 70:1009-1026. [PMID: 35142399 PMCID: PMC9305589 DOI: 10.1002/glia.24145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2021] [Revised: 12/18/2021] [Accepted: 01/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Elimination of dead or live cells take place in both a healthy and diseased central nervous system (CNS). Dying or dead cells are quickly cleared by phagocytosis for the maintenance of a healthy CNS or for recovery after injury. Live cells or parts thereof, such as the synapses and myelin, are appropriately eliminated by phagocytosis to maintain or refine neural networks during development and adulthood. Microglia, the specific population of resident macrophages in the CNS, are classically considered as primary phagocytes; however, astrocytes have also been highlighted as phagocytes in the last decade. Phagocytic targets and receptors are reported to be mostly common between astrocytes and microglia, which raises the question of how astrocytic phagocytosis differs from microglial phagocytosis, and how these two phagocytic systems cooperate. In this review, we address the consequences of astrocytic phagocytosis, particularly focusing on these elusive points.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroyuki Konishi
- Department of Functional Anatomy and Neuroscience, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Schuichi Koizumi
- Department of Neuropharmacology, University of Yamanashi, Yamanashi, Japan.,GLIA Center, Interdisciplinary Graduate School of Medicine, University of Yamanashi, Yamanashi, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Kiyama
- Department of Functional Anatomy and Neuroscience, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan
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Owlett LD, Karaahmet B, Le L, Belcher EK, Dionisio-Santos D, Olschowka JA, Elliott MR, O'Banion MK. Gas6 induces inflammation and reduces plaque burden but worsens behavior in a sex-dependent manner in the APP/PS1 model of Alzheimer's disease. J Neuroinflammation 2022; 19:38. [PMID: 35130912 PMCID: PMC8822838 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-022-02397-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2021] [Accepted: 01/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Alzheimer's disease is the leading cause of dementia worldwide. TAM receptor tyrosine kinases (Tyro3, Axl, MerTK) are known for their role in engagement of phagocytosis and modulation of inflammation, and recent evidence suggests a complex relationship between Axl, Mer, and microglial phagocytosis of amyloid plaques in AD. Gas6, the primary CNS TAM ligand, reduces neuroinflammation and improves outcomes in murine models of CNS disease. Therefore, we hypothesized that AAV-mediated overexpression of Gas6 would alleviate plaque pathology, reduce neuroinflammation, and improve behavior in the APP/PS1 model of Alzheimer's disease. METHODS Adeno-associated viral vectors were used to overexpress Gas6 in the APP/PS1 model of Alzheimer's disease. Nine-month-old male and female APP/PS1 and nontransgenic littermates received bilateral stereotactic hippocampal injections of AAV-Gas6 or AAV-control, which expresses a non-functional Gas6 protein. One month after injections, mice underwent a battery of behavioral tasks to assess cognitive function and brains were processed for immunohistochemical and transcriptional analyses. RESULTS Gas6 overexpression reduced plaque burden in male APP/PS1 mice. However, contrary to our hypothesis, Gas6 increased pro-inflammatory microglial gene expression and worsened contextual fear conditioning compared to control-treated mice. Gas6 overexpression appeared to have no effect on phagocytic mechanisms in vitro or in vivo as measured by CD68 immunohistochemistry, microglial methoxy-04 uptake, and primary microglial uptake of fluorescent fibrillar amyloid beta. CONCLUSION Our data describes a triad of worsened behavior, reduced plaque number, and an increase in proinflammatory signaling in a sex-specific manner. While Gas6 has historically induced anti-inflammatory signatures in the peripheral nervous system, our data suggest an alternative, proinflammatory role in the context of Alzheimer's disease pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura D Owlett
- Del Monte Institute for Neuroscience, Department of Neuroscience, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - Berke Karaahmet
- Del Monte Institute for Neuroscience, Department of Neuroscience, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - Linh Le
- Del Monte Institute for Neuroscience, Department of Neuroscience, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - Elizabeth K Belcher
- Del Monte Institute for Neuroscience, Department of Neuroscience, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - Dawling Dionisio-Santos
- Del Monte Institute for Neuroscience, Department of Neuroscience, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - John A Olschowka
- Del Monte Institute for Neuroscience, Department of Neuroscience, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - Michael R Elliott
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Cancer Biology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA
| | - M Kerry O'Banion
- Del Monte Institute for Neuroscience, Department of Neuroscience, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, USA.
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Multifaceted Interplay between Hormones, Growth Factors and Hypoxia in the Tumor Microenvironment. Cancers (Basel) 2022; 14:cancers14030539. [PMID: 35158804 PMCID: PMC8833523 DOI: 10.3390/cancers14030539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2021] [Revised: 01/17/2022] [Accepted: 01/18/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Hormones and growth factors impact many processes in the cell. Moreover, these molecules influence tumor growth, as does a lack of oxygen (hypoxia) that characterizes cancer progression. Proteins that are stabilized by low oxygen tension, known as hypoxia-inducible factors (HIFs), help tumor cells to adapt to their environment. Of note, hormones and growth factors regulate the activity of HIFs toward malignant aggressiveness, including the resistance to therapy. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge regarding the role of hormones and growth factors in cancer development with a particular focus on their interplay with hypoxia and HIFs and comment on how these factors influence the response to cancer immunotherapy. Abstract Hormones and growth factors (GFs) are signaling molecules implicated in the regulation of a variety of cellular processes. They play important roles in both healthy and tumor cells, where they function by binding to specific receptors on target cells and activating downstream signaling cascades. The stages of tumor progression are influenced by hormones and GF signaling. Hypoxia, a hallmark of cancer progression, contributes to tumor plasticity and heterogeneity. Most solid tumors contain a hypoxic core due to rapid cellular proliferation that outgrows the blood supply. In these circumstances, hypoxia-inducible factors (HIFs) play a central role in the adaptation of tumor cells to their new environment, dramatically reshaping their transcriptional profile. HIF signaling is modulated by a variety of factors including hormones and GFs, which activate signaling pathways that enhance tumor growth and metastatic potential and impair responses to therapy. In this review, we summarize the role of hormones and GFs during cancer onset and progression with a particular focus on hypoxia and the interplay with HIF proteins. We also discuss how hypoxia influences the efficacy of cancer immunotherapy, considering that a hypoxic environment may act as a determinant of the immune-excluded phenotype and a major hindrance to the success of adoptive cell therapies.
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AXL Receptor Tyrosine Kinase as a Promising Therapeutic Target Directing Multiple Aspects of Cancer Progression and Metastasis. Cancers (Basel) 2022; 14:cancers14030466. [PMID: 35158733 PMCID: PMC8833413 DOI: 10.3390/cancers14030466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2021] [Revised: 01/10/2022] [Accepted: 01/17/2022] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Metastasis is a complex process that requires the acquisition of certain traits by cancer cells as well as the cooperation of several non-neoplastic cells that populate the stroma. Cancer-related deaths are predominantly associated with complications arising from metastases. Limiting metastasis therefore represents an important clinical challenge. The receptor tyrosine kinase AXL is required at many steps of the metastatic cascade and contributes to tumor microenvironment deregulation. In this review, we describe how AXL contributes to metastatic progression by governing various biological processes in cancer cells and in stromal cells, highlighting the potential of its inhibition. Abstract The receptor tyrosine kinase AXL is emerging as a key player in tumor progression and metastasis and its expression correlates with poor survival in a plethora of cancers. While studies have shown the benefits of AXL inhibition for the treatment of metastatic cancers, additional roles for AXL in cancer progression are still being explored. This review discusses recent advances in understanding AXL’s functions in different tumor compartments including cancer, vascular, and immune cells. AXL is required at multiple steps of the metastatic cascade where its activation in cancer cells leads to EMT, invasion, survival, proliferation and therapy resistance. AXL activation in cancer cells and various stromal cells also results in tumor microenvironment deregulation, leading to modulation of angiogenesis, fibrosis, immune response and hypoxia. A better understanding of AXL’s role in these processes could lead to new therapeutic approaches that would benefit patients suffering from metastatic diseases.
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Abstract
TAM receptors (Tyro3, Axl and MerTK) are a family of tyrosine kinase receptors that are expressed in a variety of cell populations, including liver parenchymal and non-parenchymal cells. These receptors are vital for immune homeostasis, as they regulate the innate immune response by suppressing inflammation via toll-like receptor inhibition and by promoting tissue resolution through efferocytosis. However, there is increasing evidence indicating that aberrant TAM receptor signaling may play a role in pathophysiological processes in the context of liver disease. This review will explore the roles of TAM receptors and their ligands in liver homeostasis as well as a variety of disease settings, including acute liver injury, steatosis, fibrosis, cirrhosis-associated immune dysfunction and hepatocellular carcinoma. A better understanding of our current knowledge of TAM receptors in liver disease may identify new opportunities for disease monitoring as well as novel therapeutic targets. Nonetheless, this review also aims to highlight areas where further research on TAM receptor biology in liver disease is required.
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120
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Wang J, Yu C, Zhuang J, Qi W, Jiang J, Liu X, Zhao W, Cao Y, Wu H, Qi J, Zhao RC. The role of phosphatidylserine on the membrane in immunity and blood coagulation. Biomark Res 2022; 10:4. [PMID: 35033201 PMCID: PMC8760663 DOI: 10.1186/s40364-021-00346-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2021] [Accepted: 11/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The negatively charged aminophospholipid, phosphatidylserine (PtdSer), is located in the inner leaflet of the plasma membrane in normal cells, and may be exposed to the outer leaflet under some immune and blood coagulation processes. Meanwhile, Ptdser exposed to apoptotic cells can be recognized and eliminated by various immune cells, whereas on the surface of activated platelets Ptdser interacts with coagulation factors prompting enhanced production of thrombin which significantly facilitates blood coagulation. In the case where PtdSer fails in exposure or mistakenly occurs, there are occurrences of certain immunological and haematological diseases, such as the Scott syndrome and Systemic lupus erythematosus. Besides, viruses (e.g., Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), Ebola virus (EBOV)) can invade host cells through binding the exposed PtdSer. Most recently, the Corona Virus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) has been similarly linked to PtdSer or its receptors. Therefore, it is essential to comprehensively understand PtdSer and its functional characteristics. Therefore, this review summarizes Ptdser, its eversion mechanism; interaction mechanism, particularly with its immune receptors and coagulation factors; recognition sites; and its function in immune and blood processes. This review illustrates the potential aspects for the underlying pathogenic mechanism of PtdSer-related diseases, and the discovery of new therapeutic strategies as well.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiao Wang
- School of Life Sciences, Shanghai University, 99 Shangda Road, Shanghai, 200444, China.
| | - Changxin Yu
- School of Life Sciences, Shanghai University, 99 Shangda Road, Shanghai, 200444, China
| | - Junyi Zhuang
- School of Life Sciences, Shanghai University, 99 Shangda Road, Shanghai, 200444, China
| | - Wenxin Qi
- School of Life Sciences, Shanghai University, 99 Shangda Road, Shanghai, 200444, China
| | - Jiawen Jiang
- School of Life Sciences, Shanghai University, 99 Shangda Road, Shanghai, 200444, China
| | - Xuanting Liu
- School of Life Sciences, Shanghai University, 99 Shangda Road, Shanghai, 200444, China
| | - Wanwei Zhao
- School of Life Sciences, Shanghai University, 99 Shangda Road, Shanghai, 200444, China
| | - Yiyang Cao
- School of Life Sciences, Shanghai University, 99 Shangda Road, Shanghai, 200444, China
| | - Hao Wu
- School of Life Sciences, Shanghai University, 99 Shangda Road, Shanghai, 200444, China
| | - Jingxuan Qi
- School of Life Sciences, Shanghai University, 99 Shangda Road, Shanghai, 200444, China
| | - Robert Chunhua Zhao
- School of Life Sciences, Shanghai University, 99 Shangda Road, Shanghai, 200444, China.
- Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, School of Basic Medicine, Peking Union Medical College, No. 5 Dongdansantiao, Beijing, 100005, China.
- Centre of Excellence in Tissue Engineering, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, China.
- Beijing Key Laboratory of New Drug Development and Clinical Trial of Stem Cell Therapy (BZ0381), Beijing, China.
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Martínez-Bosch N, Cristóbal H, Iglesias M, Gironella M, Barranco L, Visa L, Calafato D, Jiménez-Parrado S, Earl J, Carrato A, Manero-Rupérez N, Moreno M, Morales A, Guerra C, Navarro P, García de Frutos P. Soluble AXL is a novel blood marker for early detection of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma and differential diagnosis from chronic pancreatitis. EBioMedicine 2022; 75:103797. [PMID: 34973624 PMCID: PMC8724936 DOI: 10.1016/j.ebiom.2021.103797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2021] [Revised: 12/10/2021] [Accepted: 12/16/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Early diagnosis is crucial for patients with pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC). The AXL receptor tyrosine kinase is proteolytically processed releasing a soluble form (sAXL) into the blood stream. Here we explore the use of sAXL as a biomarker for PDAC. Methods AXL was analysed by immunohistochemistry in human pancreatic tissue samples. RNA expression analysis was performed using TCGA/GTEx databases. The plasma concentrations of sAXL, its ligand GAS6, and CA19-9 were studied in two independent cohorts, the HMar cohort (n = 59) and the HClinic cohort (n = 142), including healthy controls, chronic pancreatitis (CP) or PDAC patients, and in a familial PDAC cohort (n = 68). AXL expression and sAXL release were studied in PDAC cell lines and murine models. Findings AXL is increased in PDAC and precursor lesions as compared to CP or controls. sAXL determined in plasma from two independent cohorts was significantly increased in the PDAC group as compared to healthy controls or CP patients. Patients with high levels of AXL have a lower overall survival. ROC analysis of the plasma levels of sAXL, GAS6, or CA19-9 in our cohorts revealed that sAXL outperformed CA19-9 for discriminating between CP and PDAC. Using both sAXL and CA19-9 increased the diagnostic value. These results were validated in murine models, showing increased sAXL specifically in animals developing PDAC but not those with precursor lesions or acinar tumours. Interpretation sAXL appears as a biomarker for early detection of PDAC and PDAC–CP discrimination that could accelerate treatment and improve its dismal prognosis. Funding This work was supported by grants PI20/00625 (PN), RTI2018-095672-B-I00 (AM and PGF), PI20/01696 (MG) and PI18/01034 (AC) from MICINN-FEDER and grant 2017/SGR/225 (PN) from Generalitat de Catalunya.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neus Martínez-Bosch
- Cancer Research Program, Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute (IMIM), Unidad Asociada IIBB-CSIC, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Helena Cristóbal
- Department of Cell Death and Proliferation, Institute of Biomedical Research of Barcelona (IIBB)-CSIC and Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Mar Iglesias
- Department of Pathology, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Hospital del Mar, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Oncología (CIBERONC), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Meritxell Gironella
- Gastrointestinal & Pancreatic Oncology Group, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBEREHD); Hospital Clínic of Barcelona and IDIBAPS; Barcelona, Spain
| | - Luis Barranco
- Cancer Research Program, Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute (IMIM), Unidad Asociada IIBB-CSIC, Barcelona, Spain; Department of Gastroenterology, Hospital del Mar, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Laura Visa
- Department of Medical Oncology, Hospital del Mar, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Domenico Calafato
- Department of Cell Death and Proliferation, Institute of Biomedical Research of Barcelona (IIBB)-CSIC and Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Silvia Jiménez-Parrado
- Molecular Oncology Program, Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Oncológicas (CNIO), Madrid, Spain
| | - Julie Earl
- Molecular Epidemiology and Predictive Tumour Markers Group, Medical Oncology Research Laboratory, Ramón y Cajal Health Research Institute (IRYCIS), Madrid, Spain. CIBERONC
| | - Alfredo Carrato
- Molecular Epidemiology and Predictive Tumour Markers Group, Medical Oncology Research Laboratory, Ramón y Cajal Health Research Institute (IRYCIS), Madrid, Spain. CIBERONC
| | - Noemí Manero-Rupérez
- Cancer Research Program, Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute (IMIM), Unidad Asociada IIBB-CSIC, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Mireia Moreno
- Cancer Research Program, Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute (IMIM), Unidad Asociada IIBB-CSIC, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Albert Morales
- Department of Cell Death and Proliferation, IIBB-CSIC, Barcelona Clinic Liver Cancer (BCLC) Group, Liver Unit, Hospital Clínic, CIBEREHD and IDIBAPS, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Carmen Guerra
- Molecular Oncology Program, Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Oncológicas (CNIO), Madrid, Spain
| | - Pilar Navarro
- Cancer Research Program, Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute (IMIM), Unidad Asociada IIBB-CSIC, Barcelona, Spain; Department of Cell Death and Proliferation, Institute of Biomedical Research of Barcelona (IIBB)-CSIC and Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Pablo García de Frutos
- Department of Cell Death and Proliferation, IIBB-CSIC, Unidad Asociada IMIM/IIBB-CSIC; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Cardiovasculares (CIBERCV), and IDIBAPS, Barcelona, Spain.
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Axl regulated survival/proliferation network and its therapeutic intervention in mouse models of glomerulonephritis. Arthritis Res Ther 2022; 24:284. [PMID: 36578056 PMCID: PMC9795606 DOI: 10.1186/s13075-022-02965-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2022] [Accepted: 12/02/2022] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Lupus nephritis (LN) is the most common and serious complication of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). LN pathogenesis is not fully understood. Axl receptor tyrosine kinase is upregulated and contributes to the pathogenic progress in LN. We have reported that Axl disruption attenuates nephritis development in mice. METHODS In this study, we analyzed the gene expression profiles with RNA-seq using renal cortical samples from nephritic mice. Axl-KO mice were bred onto a B6.lpr spontaneous lupus background, and renal disease development was followed and compared to the Axl-sufficient B6.lpr mice. Finally, anti-glomerular basement membrane (anti-GBM) Ab-induced nephritic mice were treated with Axl small molecule inhibitor, R428, at different stages of nephritis development. Blood urine nitrogen levels and renal pathologies were evaluated. RESULTS Transcriptome analysis revealed that renal Axl activation contributed to cell proliferation, survival, and motility through regulation of the Akt, c-Jun, and actin pathways. Spontaneous lupus-prone B6.lpr mice with Axl deficiency showed significantly reduced kidney damages and decreased T cell infiltration compared to the renal damage and T cell infiltration in Axl-sufficient B6.lpr mice. The improved kidney function was independent of autoAb production. Moreover, R428 significantly reduced anti-GBM glomerulonephritis at different stages of GN development compared to the untreated nephritic control mice. R428 administration reduced inflammatory cytokine (IL-6) production, T cell infiltration, and nephritis disease activity. CONCLUSIONS Results from this study emphasize the important role of Axl signaling in LN and highlight Axl as an attractive target in LN.
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Dai JC, Yang JY, Chang RQ, Liang Y, Hu XY, Li H, You S, He F, Hu LN. OUP accepted manuscript. Mol Hum Reprod 2022; 28:6544600. [PMID: 35258594 DOI: 10.1093/molehr/gaac006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2021] [Revised: 02/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Jing-Cong Dai
- Obstetrics and Gynecology Department, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Jia-Yan Yang
- Obstetrics and Gynecology Department, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Rui-Qi Chang
- The Center for Reproductive Medicine, Obstetrics and Gynecology Department, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
- Joint International Research Lab for Reproduction and Development, Ministry of Education, Chongqing, China
| | - Yan Liang
- Obstetrics and Gynecology Department, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Xiao-Yu Hu
- Obstetrics and Gynecology Department, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Hu Li
- Obstetrics and Gynecology Department, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Shuang You
- Obstetrics and Gynecology Department, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Fan He
- The Center for Reproductive Medicine, Obstetrics and Gynecology Department, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
- Joint International Research Lab for Reproduction and Development, Ministry of Education, Chongqing, China
- Reproduction and Stem Cell Therapy Research Center of Chongqing, Chongqing, China
| | - Li-Na Hu
- The Center for Reproductive Medicine, Obstetrics and Gynecology Department, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
- Joint International Research Lab for Reproduction and Development, Ministry of Education, Chongqing, China
- Reproduction and Stem Cell Therapy Research Center of Chongqing, Chongqing, China
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Wu S, Mao Y, Liu Q, Yan X, Zhang J, Wang N. Sustained Release of Gas6 via mPEG-PLGA Nanoparticles Enhances the Therapeutic Effects of MERTK Gene Therapy in RCS Rats. Front Med (Lausanne) 2022; 8:794299. [PMID: 34970569 PMCID: PMC8712650 DOI: 10.3389/fmed.2021.794299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2021] [Accepted: 11/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Previous researches utilizing MER proto-oncogene tyrosine kinase (MERTK) gene therapy in Royal College of Surgeons (RCS) rats evidenced its effectiveness in treating MERTK-associated retinitis pigmentosa (RP). Specific ligands for receptor tyrosine kinases, such as growth arrest-specific 6 (Gas6), may enhance retinal phagocytosis via the MERTK receptor, and consequently, enhance the therapeutic effects of gene therapy. In order to overcome the short life effect of the injected Gas6 protein, we constructed a Gas6 loaded methoxy-poly (ethylene glyeol)-poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) (mPEG-PLGA) nanoparticles (Gas6 NPs) system which allowed for localized and sustained Gas6 protein release, and therefore, a prolonged biological effect. Our data demonstrated that Gas6 protein release from Gas6 NPs preserved the bioactivity and promoted retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) phagocytosis in vitro. In vivo studies showed that RCS rats in the hMERTK/Gas6 NPs group exhibiting the highest electroretinogram responses and more complete retinal structure than that in other groups, further demonstrating that the co-administration of AAV2-BEST1-hMERTK and Gas6 NPs could protect photoreceptors from degeneration. These findings strongly suggest that Gas6 NPs are a promising method to enable the sustained release of Gas6 protein and could therefore enhance the therapeutic effects of gene therapy for MERTK-associated RP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shen Wu
- Beijing Institute of Ophthalmology, Beijing Tongren Eye Center, Beijing Tongren Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing Ophthalmology & Visual Sciences Key Laboratory, Beijing, China.,Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Disorders, Beijing Institute of Brain Disorders, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Yingyan Mao
- Beijing Institute of Ophthalmology, Beijing Tongren Eye Center, Beijing Tongren Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing Ophthalmology & Visual Sciences Key Laboratory, Beijing, China.,Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Big Data-Based Precision Medicine, Beijing Tongren Hospital, Beihang University, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Qian Liu
- Beijing Institute of Ophthalmology, Beijing Tongren Eye Center, Beijing Tongren Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing Ophthalmology & Visual Sciences Key Laboratory, Beijing, China.,Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Disorders, Beijing Institute of Brain Disorders, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Xuejing Yan
- Beijing Institute of Ophthalmology, Beijing Tongren Eye Center, Beijing Tongren Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing Ophthalmology & Visual Sciences Key Laboratory, Beijing, China.,Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Disorders, Beijing Institute of Brain Disorders, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Jingxue Zhang
- Beijing Institute of Ophthalmology, Beijing Tongren Eye Center, Beijing Tongren Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing Ophthalmology & Visual Sciences Key Laboratory, Beijing, China.,Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Disorders, Beijing Institute of Brain Disorders, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.,Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Big Data-Based Precision Medicine, Beijing Tongren Hospital, Beihang University, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Ningli Wang
- Beijing Institute of Ophthalmology, Beijing Tongren Eye Center, Beijing Tongren Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing Ophthalmology & Visual Sciences Key Laboratory, Beijing, China.,Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Disorders, Beijing Institute of Brain Disorders, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.,Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Big Data-Based Precision Medicine, Beijing Tongren Hospital, Beihang University, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
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Immune Regulatory Processes of the Tumor Microenvironment under Malignant Conditions. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms222413311. [PMID: 34948104 PMCID: PMC8706102 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222413311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2021] [Revised: 12/03/2021] [Accepted: 12/05/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The tumor microenvironment (TME) is a critical regulator of tumor growth, progression, and metastasis. Since immune cells represent a large fraction of the TME, they play a key role in mediating pro- and anti-tumor immune responses. Immune escape, which suppresses anti-tumor immunity, enables tumor cells to maintain their proliferation and growth. Numerous mechanisms, which have been intensively studied in recent years, are involved in this process and based on these findings, novel immunotherapies have been successfully developed. Here, we review the composition of the TME and the mechanisms by which immune evasive processes are regulated. In detail, we describe membrane-bound and soluble factors, their regulation, and their impact on immune cell activation in the TME. Furthermore, we give an overview of the tumor/antigen presentation and how it is influenced under malignant conditions. Finally, we summarize novel TME-targeting agents, which are already in clinical trials for different tumor entities.
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AXL Knock-Out in SNU475 Hepatocellular Carcinoma Cells Provides Evidence for Lethal Effect Associated with G2 Arrest and Polyploidization. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms222413247. [PMID: 34948046 PMCID: PMC8708332 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222413247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2021] [Revised: 12/02/2021] [Accepted: 12/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
AXL, a member of the TAM family, is a promising therapeutic target due to its elevated expression in advanced hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), particularly in association with acquired drug resistance. Previously, RNA interference was used to study its role in cancer, and several phenotypic changes, including attenuated cell proliferation and decreased migration and invasion, have been reported. The mechanism of action of AXL in HCC is elusive. We first studied the AXL expression in HCC cell lines by real-time PCR and western blot and showed its stringent association with a mesenchymal phenotype. We then explored the role of AXL in mesenchymal SNU475 cells by CRISPR-Cas9 mediated gene knock-out. AXL-depleted HCC cells displayed drastic phenotypic changes, including increased DNA damage response, prolongation of doubling time, G2 arrest, and polyploidization in vitro and loss of tumorigenicity in vivo. Pharmacological inhibition of AXL by R428 recapitulated G2 arrest and polyploidy phenotype. These observations strongly suggest that acute loss of AXL in some mesenchymal HCC cells is lethal and points out that its inhibition may represent a druggable vulnerability in AXL-high HCC patients.
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127
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Suleiman L, Muataz Y, Négrier C, Boukerche H. Protein S-mediated signal transduction pathway regulates lung cancer cell proliferation, migration and angiogenesis. Hematol Oncol Stem Cell Ther 2021:S1658-3876(21)00111-4. [PMID: 34906536 DOI: 10.1016/j.hemonc.2021.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2021] [Revised: 10/11/2021] [Accepted: 11/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE/BACKGROUND Protein S (PS; encoded by the PROS1 gene), a key vitamin K-dependent anticoagulant protein, is emerging as a key structural and functional protein that is overexpressd in various malignancies, but how PS signals to promote lung cancer progression is unclear. METHODS We used immortalized, nontumorigenic human lung epithelial cell line NL-20, A549 cells as experimental cellular models for lung cancer, and human microvascular endothelial cells (HMEC-1) as a model system for angiogenesis. A loss- and gain-of-function approach was then used to analyze the role of tumor-derived PS and their natural TAM receptors Tyro3 and MerTK in regulating cell proliferation, migration, anchorage-independent growth, and capillary-like tube formation, all prominent attributes of the metastatic phenotype of tumor cells. RESULTS Evidence is now provided that regulation of PROS1 gene expression using either stable cell lines expressing lentiviral-short hairpin RNA (shRNAs) or a replication-incompetent adenovirus alters the phosphorylation of several major signaling pathways, including Erk, PKB/Akt, p38, and focal adhesion kinase (FAK), and modulates PS-dependent Tyro3- and MerTK-mediated cell migration, proliferation, and anchorage-independent growth of lung cancer cells, and endothelial cell capillary-like tube formation. CONCLUSION These finding suggest that the PS-Tyro3 and -MerTK axis mediates important signaling pathways to promote lung cancer progression. Genetic inhibition of endogenous PS may serve as a promising target for anticancer drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lutfi Suleiman
- Hemostasis and Cancer Unit EA 4609, University Claude Bernard, Lyon 1, France
| | - Yacoub Muataz
- Hemostasis and Cancer Unit EA 4609, University Claude Bernard, Lyon 1, France
| | - Claude Négrier
- Hemostasis and Cancer Unit EA 4609, University Claude Bernard, Lyon 1, France
| | - Habib Boukerche
- Hemostasis and Cancer Unit EA 4609, University Claude Bernard, Lyon 1, France.
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Carrier M, Šimončičová E, St-Pierre MK, McKee C, Tremblay MÈ. Psychological Stress as a Risk Factor for Accelerated Cellular Aging and Cognitive Decline: The Involvement of Microglia-Neuron Crosstalk. Front Mol Neurosci 2021; 14:749737. [PMID: 34803607 PMCID: PMC8599581 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2021.749737] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2021] [Accepted: 09/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The relationship between the central nervous system (CNS) and microglia is lifelong. Microglia originate in the embryonic yolk sac during development and populate the CNS before the blood-brain barrier forms. In the CNS, they constitute a self-renewing population. Although they represent up to 10% of all brain cells, we are only beginning to understand how much brain homeostasis relies on their physiological functions. Often compared to a double-edged sword, microglia hold the potential to exert neuroprotective roles that can also exacerbate neurodegeneration once compromised. Microglia can promote synaptic growth in addition to eliminating synapses that are less active. Synaptic loss, which is considered one of the best pathological correlates of cognitive decline, is a distinctive feature of major depressive disorder (MDD) and cognitive aging. Long-term psychological stress accelerates cellular aging and predisposes to various diseases, including MDD, and cognitive decline. Among the underlying mechanisms, stress-induced neuroinflammation alters microglial interactions with the surrounding parenchymal cells and exacerbates oxidative burden and cellular damage, hence inducing changes in microglia and neurons typical of cognitive aging. Focusing on microglial interactions with neurons and their synapses, this review discusses the disrupted communication between these cells, notably involving fractalkine signaling and the triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells (TREM). Overall, chronic stress emerges as a key player in cellular aging by altering the microglial sensome, notably via fractalkine signaling deficiency. To study cellular aging, novel positron emission tomography radiotracers for TREM and the purinergic family of receptors show interest for human study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Micaël Carrier
- Axe Neurosciences, Centre de Recherche du CHU de Québec, Université Laval, Québec City, QC, Canada.,Division of Medical Sciences, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada
| | - Eva Šimončičová
- Division of Medical Sciences, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada
| | - Marie-Kim St-Pierre
- Division of Medical Sciences, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada.,Department of Molecular Medicine, Université Laval, Québec City, QC, Canada
| | - Chloe McKee
- Division of Medical Sciences, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada.,Department of Biology, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada
| | - Marie-Ève Tremblay
- Axe Neurosciences, Centre de Recherche du CHU de Québec, Université Laval, Québec City, QC, Canada.,Division of Medical Sciences, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada.,Department of Molecular Medicine, Université Laval, Québec City, QC, Canada.,Neurology and Neurosurgery Department, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada.,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
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129
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Bauer T, Gubi D, Klufa J, Novoszel P, Holcmann M, Sibilia M. Ex-Vivo Skin Explant Culture Is a Model for TSLP-Mediated Skin Barrier Immunity. Life (Basel) 2021; 11:life11111237. [PMID: 34833113 PMCID: PMC8623134 DOI: 10.3390/life11111237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2021] [Revised: 11/05/2021] [Accepted: 11/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The skin is the outermost barrier protecting the body from pathogenic invasion and environmental insults. Its breakdown initiates the start of skin inflammation. The epidermal growth factor (EGFR) on keratinocytes protects this barrier, and its dysfunction leads to atopic dermatitis-like skin disease. One of the initial cytokines expressed upon skin barrier breach and during atopic dermatitis is TSLP. Here, we describe the expression and secretion of TSLP during EGFR inhibition and present an ex-vivo model, which mimics the early events after barrier insult. Skin explants floated on culture medium at 32 °C released TSLP in parallel to the activation of the resident Langerhans cell network. We could further show the up-regulation and activation of the AP-1 family of transcription factors during atopic-like skin inflammation and its involvement in TSLP production from the skin explant cultures. Inhibition of the c-Jun N-terminal kinase pathway led to a dose-dependent blunting of TSLP release. These data indicate the involvement of AP-1 during the early stages of atopic-like skin inflammation and highlight a novel therapeutic approach by targeting it. Therefore, skin explant cultures mimic the early events during skin barrier immunity and provide a suitable model to test therapeutic intervention.
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130
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Yan D, Earp HS, DeRyckere D, Graham DK. Targeting MERTK and AXL in EGFR Mutant Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:5639. [PMID: 34830794 PMCID: PMC8616094 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13225639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2021] [Revised: 11/09/2021] [Accepted: 11/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
MERTK and AXL are members of the TAM family of receptor tyrosine kinases and are abnormally expressed in 69% and 93% of non-small cell lung cancers (NSCLCs), respectively. Expression of MERTK and/or AXL provides a survival advantage for NSCLC cells and correlates with lymph node metastasis, drug resistance, and disease progression in patients with NSCLC. The TAM receptors on host tumor infiltrating cells also play important roles in the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. Thus, MERTK and AXL are attractive biologic targets for NSCLC treatment. Here, we will review physiologic and oncologic roles for MERTK and AXL with an emphasis on the potential to target these kinases in NSCLCs with activating EGFR mutations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Yan
- Aflac Cancer and Blood Disorders Center, Children’s Healthcare of Atlanta, Department of Pediatrics, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA; (D.Y.); (D.D.)
| | - H. Shelton Earp
- UNC Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, Department of Medicine, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA;
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Deborah DeRyckere
- Aflac Cancer and Blood Disorders Center, Children’s Healthcare of Atlanta, Department of Pediatrics, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA; (D.Y.); (D.D.)
| | - Douglas K. Graham
- Aflac Cancer and Blood Disorders Center, Children’s Healthcare of Atlanta, Department of Pediatrics, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA; (D.Y.); (D.D.)
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Favor OK, Pestka JJ, Bates MA, Lee KSS. Centrality of Myeloid-Lineage Phagocytes in Particle-Triggered Inflammation and Autoimmunity. FRONTIERS IN TOXICOLOGY 2021; 3:777768. [PMID: 35295146 PMCID: PMC8915915 DOI: 10.3389/ftox.2021.777768] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2021] [Accepted: 10/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Exposure to exogenous particles found as airborne contaminants or endogenous particles that form by crystallization of certain nutrients can activate inflammatory pathways and potentially accelerate autoimmunity onset and progression in genetically predisposed individuals. The first line of innate immunological defense against particles are myeloid-lineage phagocytes, namely macrophages and neutrophils, which recognize/internalize the particles, release inflammatory mediators, undergo programmed/unprogrammed death, and recruit/activate other leukocytes to clear the particles and resolve inflammation. However, immunogenic cell death and release of damage-associated molecules, collectively referred to as "danger signals," coupled with failure to efficiently clear dead/dying cells, can elicit unresolved inflammation, accumulation of self-antigens, and adaptive leukocyte recruitment/activation. Collectively, these events can promote loss of immunological self-tolerance and onset/progression of autoimmunity. This review discusses critical molecular mechanisms by which exogenous particles (i.e., silica, asbestos, carbon nanotubes, titanium dioxide, aluminum-containing salts) and endogenous particles (i.e., monosodium urate, cholesterol crystals, calcium-containing salts) may promote unresolved inflammation and autoimmunity by inducing toxic responses in myeloid-lineage phagocytes with emphases on inflammasome activation and necrotic and programmed cell death pathways. A prototypical example is occupational exposure to respirable crystalline silica, which is etiologically linked to systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and other human autoimmune diseases. Importantly, airway instillation of SLE-prone mice with crystalline silica elicits severe pulmonary pathology involving accumulation of particle-laden alveolar macrophages, dying and dead cells, nuclear and cytoplasmic debris, and neutrophilic inflammation that drive cytokine, chemokine, and interferon-regulated gene expression. Silica-induced immunogenic cell death and danger signal release triggers accumulation of T and B cells, along with IgG-secreting plasma cells, indicative of ectopic lymphoid tissue neogenesis, and broad-spectrum autoantibody production in the lung. These events drive early autoimmunity onset and accelerate end-stage autoimmune glomerulonephritis. Intriguingly, dietary supplementation with ω-3 fatty acids have been demonstrated to be an intervention against silica-triggered murine autoimmunity. Taken together, further insight into how particles drive immunogenic cell death and danger signaling in myeloid-lineage phagocytes and how these responses are influenced by the genome will be essential for identification of novel interventions for preventing and treating inflammatory and autoimmune diseases associated with these agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olivia K. Favor
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Osteopathic Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States
- Institute for Integrative Toxicology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States
| | - James J. Pestka
- Institute for Integrative Toxicology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States
- Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States
| | - Melissa A. Bates
- Institute for Integrative Toxicology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States
- Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States
| | - Kin Sing Stephen Lee
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Osteopathic Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States
- Institute for Integrative Toxicology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States
- Department of Chemistry, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States
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Ali L, Jamoussi H, Kouki N, Fray S, Echebbi S, Ben Ali N, Fredj M. COVID-19 Infection and Recurrent Stroke in Young Patients With Protein S Deficiency: A Case Report. Neurologist 2021; 26:276-280. [PMID: 34734908 PMCID: PMC8575101 DOI: 10.1097/nrl.0000000000000367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Protein S deficiency and coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) are rare etiologies of ischemic stroke. We describe a case of an ischemic stroke revealing severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection in a patient with a history of protein S deficiency and cerebral imaging suggestive of vasculitis. CASE REPORT A 52-year-old woman, with history of protein S deficiency, was admitted for right hemiparesis and aphasia that happened 6 hours before her consultation. Her National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale (NIHSS) was 11. She had hypoxia (SpO2 93%). COVID-19 polymerase chain reaction was positive. Cerebral computed tomography scan showed an ischemic stroke in the territory of the superficial left middle cerebral artery. The recommended time period for thrombolysis was exceeded and we did not dispose of sufficient resources to deliver thrombectomy. She was treated with aspirin, statins, antibiotic therapy, and oxygen. Considering the high risk of thromboembolic complications and the history of protein S deficiency, anticoagulation treatment with heparin followed by acenocoumarol was started. Evolution was marked by the appearance of 24 hours regressive, acute symptoms of confusion. Brain magnetic resonance imaging showed new ischemic strokes in both anterior cerebral arteries and on magnetic resonance angiography narrowing of the left internal carotid artery and both anterior cerebral arteries suggestive of vasculitis was seen. We maintained anticoagulation and prescribed methylprednisolone 500 mg daily for 3 days. Evolution was marked by improvement of clinical deficit and respiratory status. CONCLUSIONS SARS-CoV-2 infection potentializes the prothrombotic effect and vascular inflammation by accentuating protein S deficit. The place of steroids seems justifiable in the presence of symptoms of vasculitis in brain imaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leila Ali
- Department of Neurology
- Research Laboratory LR12SP01, Charles Nicolle Hospital
- the Faculty of Medicine, Tunis El Manar University, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Hela Jamoussi
- Department of Neurology
- Research Laboratory LR12SP01, Charles Nicolle Hospital
- the Faculty of Medicine, Tunis El Manar University, Tunis, Tunisia
| | | | - Saloua Fray
- Department of Neurology
- Research Laboratory LR12SP01, Charles Nicolle Hospital
- the Faculty of Medicine, Tunis El Manar University, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Slim Echebbi
- Department of Neurology
- Research Laboratory LR12SP01, Charles Nicolle Hospital
- the Faculty of Medicine, Tunis El Manar University, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Nadia Ben Ali
- Department of Neurology
- Research Laboratory LR12SP01, Charles Nicolle Hospital
- the Faculty of Medicine, Tunis El Manar University, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Mohamed Fredj
- Department of Neurology
- Research Laboratory LR12SP01, Charles Nicolle Hospital
- the Faculty of Medicine, Tunis El Manar University, Tunis, Tunisia
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133
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Wang XL, Li L. Microglia Regulate Neuronal Circuits in Homeostatic and High-Fat Diet-Induced Inflammatory Conditions. Front Cell Neurosci 2021; 15:722028. [PMID: 34720877 PMCID: PMC8549960 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2021.722028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2021] [Accepted: 09/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Microglia are brain resident macrophages, which actively survey the surrounding microenvironment and promote tissue homeostasis under physiological conditions. During this process, microglia participate in synaptic remodeling, neurogenesis, elimination of unwanted neurons and cellular debris. The complex interplay between microglia and neurons drives the formation of functional neuronal connections and maintains an optimal neural network. However, activation of microglia induced by chronic inflammation increases synaptic phagocytosis and leads to neuronal impairment or death. Microglial dysfunction is implicated in almost all brain diseases and leads to long-lasting functional deficiency, such as hippocampus-related cognitive decline and hypothalamus-associated energy imbalance (i.e., obesity). High-fat diet (HFD) consumption triggers mediobasal hypothalamic microglial activation and inflammation. Moreover, HFD-induced inflammation results in cognitive deficits by triggering hippocampal microglial activation. Here, we have summarized the current knowledge of microglial characteristics and biological functions and also reviewed the molecular mechanism of microglia in shaping neural circuitries mainly related to cognition and energy balance in homeostatic and diet-induced inflammatory conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Lan Wang
- Department of Nephrology, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Lianjian Li
- Department of Surgery, Hubei Provincial Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Wuhan, China.,Hubei Province Academy of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Wuhan, China
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134
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Li T, Yu D, Oak HC, Zhu B, Wang L, Jiang X, Molday RS, Kriegstein A, Piao X. Phospholipid-flippase chaperone CDC50A is required for synapse maintenance by regulating phosphatidylserine exposure. EMBO J 2021; 40:e107915. [PMID: 34585770 PMCID: PMC8561630 DOI: 10.15252/embj.2021107915] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2021] [Revised: 08/25/2021] [Accepted: 09/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Synaptic refinement is a critical physiological process that removes excess synapses to establish and maintain functional neuronal circuits. Recent studies have shown that focal exposure of phosphatidylserine (PS) on synapses acts as an "eat me" signal to mediate synaptic pruning. However, the molecular mechanism underlying PS externalization at synapses remains elusive. Here, we find that murine CDC50A, a chaperone of phospholipid flippases, localizes to synapses, and that its expression depends on neuronal activity. Cdc50a knockdown leads to phosphatidylserine exposure at synapses and subsequent erroneous synapse removal by microglia partly via the GPR56 pathway. Taken together, our data support that CDC50A safeguards synapse maintenance by regulating focal phosphatidylserine exposure at synapses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tao Li
- Weill Institute for NeuroscienceUniversity of California, San Francisco (UCSF)San FranciscoCAUSA
- Newborn Brain Research InstituteUniversity of California, San Francisco (UCSF)San FranciscoCAUSA
| | - Diankun Yu
- Weill Institute for NeuroscienceUniversity of California, San Francisco (UCSF)San FranciscoCAUSA
- Newborn Brain Research InstituteUniversity of California, San Francisco (UCSF)San FranciscoCAUSA
| | - Hayeon C Oak
- Weill Institute for NeuroscienceUniversity of California, San Francisco (UCSF)San FranciscoCAUSA
- Newborn Brain Research InstituteUniversity of California, San Francisco (UCSF)San FranciscoCAUSA
| | - Beika Zhu
- Weill Institute for NeuroscienceUniversity of California, San Francisco (UCSF)San FranciscoCAUSA
- Newborn Brain Research InstituteUniversity of California, San Francisco (UCSF)San FranciscoCAUSA
| | - Li Wang
- Weill Institute for NeuroscienceUniversity of California, San Francisco (UCSF)San FranciscoCAUSA
- Department of NeurologyUniversity of California, San FranciscoSan FranciscoCAUSA
| | - Xueqiao Jiang
- Weill Institute for NeuroscienceUniversity of California, San Francisco (UCSF)San FranciscoCAUSA
- Newborn Brain Research InstituteUniversity of California, San Francisco (UCSF)San FranciscoCAUSA
| | - Robert S Molday
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular BiologyUniversity of British ColumbiaVancouverBCCanada
| | - Arnold Kriegstein
- Weill Institute for NeuroscienceUniversity of California, San Francisco (UCSF)San FranciscoCAUSA
- Department of NeurologyUniversity of California, San FranciscoSan FranciscoCAUSA
| | - Xianhua Piao
- Weill Institute for NeuroscienceUniversity of California, San Francisco (UCSF)San FranciscoCAUSA
- Newborn Brain Research InstituteUniversity of California, San Francisco (UCSF)San FranciscoCAUSA
- Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regeneration Medicine and Stem Cell ResearchUniversity of California, San Francisco (UCSF)San FranciscoCAUSA
- Division of NeonatologyDepartment of PediatricsUniversity of California, San Francisco (UCSF)San FranciscoCAUSA
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135
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Nakahashi-Oda C, Fujiyama S, Nakazawa Y, Kanemaru K, Wang Y, Lyu W, Shichita T, Kitaura J, Abe F, Shibuya A. CD300a blockade enhances efferocytosis by infiltrating myeloid cells and ameliorates neuronal deficit after ischemic stroke. Sci Immunol 2021; 6:eabe7915. [PMID: 34652960 DOI: 10.1126/sciimmunol.abe7915] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
[Figure: see text].
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Affiliation(s)
- Chigusa Nakahashi-Oda
- Department of Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8575, Japan.,R&D Center for Innovative Drug Discovery, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8575, Japan
| | - Satoshi Fujiyama
- Department of Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8575, Japan.,Doctoral Program of Biomedical Sciences, Graduate School of Comprehensive Human Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8575, Japan
| | - Yuta Nakazawa
- Department of Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8575, Japan.,Doctoral Program of Biomedical Sciences, Graduate School of Comprehensive Human Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8575, Japan
| | - Kazumasa Kanemaru
- Department of Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8575, Japan.,R&D Center for Innovative Drug Discovery, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8575, Japan
| | - Yaqiu Wang
- Department of Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8575, Japan.,PhD Program in Human Biology, School of Integrative and Global Majors, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8575, Japan
| | - Wenxin Lyu
- Department of Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8575, Japan.,PhD Program in Human Biology, School of Integrative and Global Majors, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8575, Japan
| | - Takashi Shichita
- Stroke Renaissance Project, Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Medical Science, Setagaya, Tokyo 156-8506, Japan
| | - Jiro Kitaura
- The Atopy (Allergy) Research Center, Juntendo University Graduate School of Medicine, Bunkyo, Tokyo 113-8421, Japan
| | - Fumie Abe
- Department of Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8575, Japan.,TNAX Biopharma Corporation, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8575, Japan
| | - Akira Shibuya
- Department of Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8575, Japan.,R&D Center for Innovative Drug Discovery, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8575, Japan.,Life Science Center for Survival Dynamics, Tsukuba Advanced Research Alliance (TARA), University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8575, Japan
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136
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Apoptotic Cells Trigger Calcium Entry in Phagocytes by Inducing the Orai1-STIM1 Association. Cells 2021; 10:cells10102702. [PMID: 34685684 PMCID: PMC8534458 DOI: 10.3390/cells10102702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2021] [Revised: 09/30/2021] [Accepted: 10/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Swift and continuous phagocytosis of apoptotic cells can be achieved by modulation of calcium flux in phagocytes. However, the molecular mechanism by which apoptotic cells modulate calcium flux in phagocytes is incompletely understood. Here, using biophysical, biochemical, pharmaceutical, and genetic approaches, we show that apoptotic cells induced the Orai1-STIM1 interaction, leading to store-operated calcium entry (SOCE) in phagocytes through the Mertk-phospholipase C (PLC) γ1-inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate receptor (IP3R) axis. Apoptotic cells induced calcium release from the endoplasmic reticulum, which led to the Orai1-STIM1 association and, consequently, SOCE in phagocytes. This association was attenuated by masking phosphatidylserine. In addition, the depletion of Mertk, which indirectly senses phosphatidylserine on apoptotic cells, reduced the phosphorylation levels of PLCγ1 and IP3R, resulting in attenuation of the Orai1-STIM1 interaction and inefficient SOCE upon apoptotic cell stimulation. Taken together, our observations uncover the mechanism of how phagocytes engulfing apoptotic cells elevate the calcium level.
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137
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Nikovics K, Favier AL. Macrophage Identification In Situ. Biomedicines 2021; 9:biomedicines9101393. [PMID: 34680510 PMCID: PMC8533306 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines9101393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2021] [Revised: 09/28/2021] [Accepted: 09/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding the processes of inflammation and tissue regeneration after injury is of great importance. For a long time, macrophages have been known to play a central role during different stages of inflammation and tissue regeneration. However, the molecular and cellular mechanisms by which they exert their effects are as yet mostly unknown. While in vitro macrophages have been characterized, recent progress in macrophage biology studies revealed that macrophages in vivo exhibited distinctive features. Actually, the precise characterization of the macrophages in vivo is essential to develop new healing treatments and can be approached via in situ analyses. Nowadays, the characterization of macrophages in situ has improved significantly using antigen surface markers and cytokine secretion identification resulting in specific patterns. This review aims for a comprehensive overview of different tools used for in situ macrophage identification, reporter genes, immunolabeling and in situ hybridization, discussing their advantages and limitations.
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138
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Khera L, Lev S. Accelerating AXL targeting for TNBC therapy. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 2021; 139:106057. [PMID: 34403827 DOI: 10.1016/j.biocel.2021.106057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2021] [Revised: 08/02/2021] [Accepted: 08/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The tyrosine kinase receptor AXL of the TAM (TYRO3, AXL and MERTK) family is considered as a promising therapeutic target for different hematological cancers and solid tumors. AXL is involved in multiple pro-tumorigenic processes including cell migration, invasion, epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), and stemness, and recent studies demonstrated its impact on cancer metastasis and drug resistance. Extensive studies on AXL have highlighted its unique characteristics and physiological functions and suggest that targeting of AXL could be beneficial in combination with chemotherapy, radiotherapy, immunotherapy, and targeted therapy. In this mini review, we discuss possible outcomes of AXL targeting either alone or together with other therapeutic agents and emphasize its impact on triple negative breast cancer (TNBC).
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Affiliation(s)
- Lohit Khera
- Molecular Cell Biology Department, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Sima Lev
- Molecular Cell Biology Department, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel.
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139
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Shen-Sampas JH, Duret S, Duncan JL. Retinal Degeneration Secondary to MERTK Mutations: Potential Candidate for Gene Therapy. Int Ophthalmol Clin 2021; 61:143-148. [PMID: 34584051 PMCID: PMC8486302 DOI: 10.1097/iio.0000000000000374] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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140
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AXL Receptor in Cancer Metastasis and Drug Resistance: When Normal Functions Go Askew. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:cancers13194864. [PMID: 34638349 PMCID: PMC8507788 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13194864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2021] [Revised: 09/15/2021] [Accepted: 09/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary AXL is a member of the TAM (TYRO3, AXL, MER) family of receptor tyrosine kinases. In normal physiological conditions, AXL is involved in removing dead cells and their remains, and limiting the duration of immune responses. Both functions are utilized by cancers in the course of tumour progression. Cancer cells use the AXL pathway to detect toxic environments and to activate molecular mechanisms, thereby ensuring their survival or escape from the toxic zone. AXL is instrumental in controlling genetic programs of epithelial-mesenchymal and mesenchymal-epithelial transitions, enabling cancer cells to metastasize. Additionally, AXL signaling suppresses immune responses in tumour microenvironment and thereby helps cancer cells to evade immune surveillance. The broad role of AXL in tumour biology is the reason why its inhibition sensitizes tumours to a broad spectrum of anti-cancer drugs. In this review, we outline molecular mechanisms underlying AXL function in normal tissues, and discuss how these mechanisms are adopted by cancers to become metastatic and drug-resistant. Abstract The TAM proteins TYRO3, AXL, and MER are receptor tyrosine kinases implicated in the clearance of apoptotic debris and negative regulation of innate immune responses. AXL contributes to immunosuppression by terminating the Toll-like receptor signaling in dendritic cells, and suppressing natural killer cell activity. In recent years, AXL has been intensively studied in the context of cancer. Both molecules, the receptor, and its ligand GAS6, are commonly expressed in cancer cells, as well as stromal and infiltrating immune cells. In cancer cells, the activation of AXL signaling stimulates cell survival and increases migratory and invasive potential. In cells of the tumour microenvironment, AXL pathway potentiates immune evasion. AXL has been broadly implicated in the epithelial-mesenchymal plasticity of cancer cells, a key factor in drug resistance and metastasis. Several antibody-based and small molecule AXL inhibitors have been developed and used in preclinical studies. AXL inhibition in various mouse cancer models reduced metastatic spread and improved the survival of the animals. AXL inhibitors are currently being tested in several clinical trials as monotherapy or in combination with other drugs. Here, we give a brief overview of AXL structure and regulation and discuss the normal physiological functions of TAM receptors, focusing on AXL. We present a theory of how epithelial cancers exploit AXL signaling to resist cytotoxic insults, in order to disseminate and relapse.
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141
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Schulz M, Sevenich L. TAMs in Brain Metastasis: Molecular Signatures in Mouse and Man. Front Immunol 2021; 12:716504. [PMID: 34539650 PMCID: PMC8447936 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.716504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2021] [Accepted: 08/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Macrophages not only represent an integral part of innate immunity but also critically contribute to tissue and organ homeostasis. Moreover, disease progression is accompanied by macrophage accumulation in many cancer types and is often associated with poor prognosis and therapy resistance. Given their critical role in modulating tumor immunity in primary and metastatic brain cancers, macrophages are emerging as promising therapeutic targets. Different types of macrophages infiltrate brain cancers, including (i) CNS resident macrophages that comprise microglia (TAM-MG) as well as border-associated macrophages and (ii) monocyte-derived macrophages (TAM-MDM) that are recruited from the periphery. Controversy remained about their disease-associated functions since classical approaches did not reliably distinguish between macrophage subpopulations. Recent conceptual and technological advances, such as large-scale omic approaches, provided new insight into molecular profiles of TAMs based on their cellular origin. In this review, we summarize insight from recent studies highlighting similarities and differences of TAM-MG and TAM-MDM at the molecular level. We will focus on data obtained from RNA sequencing and mass cytometry approaches. Together, this knowledge significantly contributes to our understanding of transcriptional and translational programs that define disease-associated TAM functions. Cross-species meta-analyses will further help to evaluate the translational significance of preclinical findings as part of the effort to identify candidates for macrophage-targeted therapy against brain metastasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Schulz
- Institute for Tumor Biology and Experimental Therapy, Georg-Speyer-Haus, Frankfurt am Main, Germany.,Biological Sciences, Faculty 15, Goethe University Frankfurt, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Lisa Sevenich
- Institute for Tumor Biology and Experimental Therapy, Georg-Speyer-Haus, Frankfurt am Main, Germany.,German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), Partner Site Frankfurt/Mainz, Frankfurt am Main, Germany.,German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany.,Frankfurt Cancer Institute (FCI), Goethe University Frankfurt, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
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142
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Witas R, Rasmussen A, Scofield RH, Radfar L, Stone DU, Grundahl K, Lewis D, Sivils KL, Lessard CJ, Farris AD, Nguyen CQ. Defective Efferocytosis in a Murine Model of Sjögren's Syndrome Is Mediated by Dysfunctional Mer Tyrosine Kinase Receptor. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22189711. [PMID: 34575873 PMCID: PMC8466327 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22189711] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2021] [Revised: 08/31/2021] [Accepted: 09/02/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Sjögren's syndrome (SjS) is a chronic autoimmune disease primarily involving the exocrine glands in which the involvement of the innate immune system is largely uncharacterized. Mer signaling has been found to be protective in several autoimmune diseases but remains unstudied in SjS. Here, we investigated the role of Mer signaling in SjS. Mer knockout (MerKO) mice were examined for SjS disease criteria. SjS-susceptible (SjSS) C57BL/6.NOD-Aec1Aec2 mice were assessed for defective Mer signaling outcomes, soluble Mer (sMer) levels, A disintegrin and metalloprotease 17 (ADAM17) activity, and Rac1 activation. In addition, SjS patient plasma samples were evaluated for sMer levels via ELISA, and sMer levels were correlated to disease manifestations. MerKO mice developed submandibular gland (SMG) lymphocytic infiltrates, SMG apoptotic cells, anti-nuclear autoantibodies (ANA), and reduced saliva flow. Mer signaling outcomes were observed to be diminished in SjSS mice, as evidenced by reduced Rac1 activation in SjSS mice macrophages in response to apoptotic cells and impaired efferocytosis. Increased sMer was also detected in SjSS mouse sera, coinciding with higher ADAM17 activity, the enzyme responsible for cleavage and inactivation of Mer. sMer levels were elevated in patient plasma and positively correlated with focus scores, ocular staining scores, rheumatoid factors, and anti-Ro60 levels. Our data indicate that Mer plays a protective role in SjS, similar to other autoimmune diseases. Furthermore, we suggest a series of events where enhanced ADAM17 activity increases Mer inactivation and depresses Mer signaling, thus removing protection against the loss of self-tolerance and the onset of autoimmune disease in SjSS mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Witas
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32608, USA;
- Department of Oral Biology, College of Dentistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32608, USA
| | - Astrid Rasmussen
- Genes and Human Disease Research Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA; (A.R.); (K.G.); (C.J.L.)
| | - Robert H. Scofield
- Arthritis and Clinical Immunology Research Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA; (R.H.S.); (K.L.S.); (A.D.F.)
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA
- Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA
| | - Lida Radfar
- Department of Oral Diagnosis and Radiology, College of Dentistry, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA;
| | - Donald U. Stone
- Dean McGee Eye Institute, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA;
| | - Kiely Grundahl
- Genes and Human Disease Research Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA; (A.R.); (K.G.); (C.J.L.)
| | - David Lewis
- Department of Oral Pathology, College of Dentistry, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA;
| | - Kathy L. Sivils
- Arthritis and Clinical Immunology Research Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA; (R.H.S.); (K.L.S.); (A.D.F.)
| | - Christopher J. Lessard
- Genes and Human Disease Research Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA; (A.R.); (K.G.); (C.J.L.)
| | - A. Darise Farris
- Arthritis and Clinical Immunology Research Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA; (R.H.S.); (K.L.S.); (A.D.F.)
| | - Cuong Q. Nguyen
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32608, USA;
- Department of Oral Biology, College of Dentistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32608, USA
- Center of Orphaned Autoimmune Diseases, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611-0880, USA
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-352-294-4180; Fax: +1-352-392-9704
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143
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Brenner AK, Gunnes MW. Therapeutic Targeting of the Anaplastic Lymphoma Kinase (ALK) in Neuroblastoma-A Comprehensive Update. Pharmaceutics 2021; 13:pharmaceutics13091427. [PMID: 34575503 PMCID: PMC8470592 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics13091427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2021] [Revised: 08/27/2021] [Accepted: 08/29/2021] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Neuroblastoma (NBL) is an embryonic malignancy of the sympathetic nervous system and mostly affects children under the age of five. NBL is highly heterogeneous and ranges from spontaneously regressing to highly aggressive disease. One of the risk factors for poor prognosis are aberrations in the receptor tyrosine kinase anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK), which is involved in the normal development and function of the nervous system. ALK mutations lead to constitutive activation of ALK and its downstream signalling pathways, thus driving tumorigenesis. A wide range of steric ALK inhibitors has been synthesized, and several of these inhibitors are already in clinical use. Major challenges are acquired drug resistance to steric inhibitors and pathway evasion strategies of cancer cells upon targeted therapy. This review will give a comprehensive overview on ALK inhibitors in clinical use in high-risk NBL and on the potential and limitations of novel inhibitors. Because combinatory treatment regimens are probably less likely to induce drug resistance, a special focus will be on the combination of ALK inhibitors with drugs that either target downstream signalling pathways or that affect the survival and proliferation of cancer cells in general.
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144
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Xie S, Liang Z, Yang X, Pan J, Yu D, Li T, Cao R. Japanese Encephalitis Virus NS2B-3 Protein Complex Promotes Cell Apoptosis and Viral Particle Release by Down-Regulating the Expression of AXL. Virol Sin 2021; 36:1503-1519. [PMID: 34487337 DOI: 10.1007/s12250-021-00442-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2021] [Accepted: 07/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) is a flavivirus transmitted by mosquitoes that causes severe encephalitis in humans and animals. It has been suggested that AXL, a transmembrane protein, can promote the replication of various flaviviruses, such as dengue (DENV), Zika (ZIKV), and West Nile (WNV) viruses. However, the effect of AXL on JEV infection has not yet been determined. In the present study, we demonstrate that AXL is down-regulated after JEV infection in the late stage. JEV NS2B-3 protein specifically interacted with AXL, and promoted AXL degradation through the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway. AXL-degradation increased cell apoptosis by disrupting phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt signal transduction. In addition, the degradation of AXL promoted JEV release to supernatant, whereas the virus in the cell lysates decreased. The supplementation of AXL ligand Gas6 inhibited the JEV-mediated degradation of AXL. Altogether, we discover a new function of NS2B-3 during the process of JEV replication, and provide a new insight into the interactions between JEV and cell hosts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shengda Xie
- MOE Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, China
| | - Zhenjie Liang
- MOE Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, China
| | - Xingmiao Yang
- MOE Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, China
| | - Junhui Pan
- MOE Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, China
| | - Du Yu
- MOE Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, China
| | - Tongtong Li
- MOE Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, China
| | - Ruibing Cao
- MOE Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, China.
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145
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Ghafouri-Fard S, Khoshbakht T, Taheri M, Mokhtari M. A review on the role of GAS6 and GAS6-AS1 in the carcinogenesis. Pathol Res Pract 2021; 226:153596. [PMID: 34481213 DOI: 10.1016/j.prp.2021.153596] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2021] [Revised: 08/23/2021] [Accepted: 08/23/2021] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Growth arrest specific 6 (GAS6) encodes a protein that serves as a ligand for AXL receptor tyrosine kinase and stimulates cell proliferation. Notably, an antisense RNA, namely GAS6-AS1 is transcribed from chromosome 13q34, near GAS6 gene. In vitro functional experiments have demonstrated that GAS6-AS1 can promote proliferation, migration and invasive properties of transformed cells through enhancing entry into S-phase. Notably, mechanistic investigations have shown that GAS6-AS1 can regulate expression of GAS6 at the transcriptional or translational stages through constructing a RNA-RNA duplex, thus enhancing expression of AXL and inducing AXL signaling. Both GAS6 and its antisense transcript contribute in the pathogenesis of human malignancies. In the current review, we provide a summary of studies that appraised the role of these genes in the carcinogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soudeh Ghafouri-Fard
- Department of Medical Genetics, School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Tayyebeh Khoshbakht
- Men's Health and Reproductive Health Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mohammad Taheri
- Urology and Nephrology Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Majid Mokhtari
- Skull Base Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
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146
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Oleari R, Massa V, Cariboni A, Lettieri A. The Differential Roles for Neurodevelopmental and Neuroendocrine Genes in Shaping GnRH Neuron Physiology and Deficiency. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:9425. [PMID: 34502334 PMCID: PMC8431607 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22179425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2021] [Revised: 08/27/2021] [Accepted: 08/28/2021] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) neurons are hypothalamic neuroendocrine cells that control sexual reproduction. During embryonic development, GnRH neurons migrate from the nose to the hypothalamus, where they receive inputs from several afferent neurons, following the axonal scaffold patterned by nasal nerves. Each step of GnRH neuron development depends on the orchestrated action of several molecules exerting specific biological functions. Mutations in genes encoding for these essential molecules may cause Congenital Hypogonadotropic Hypogonadism (CHH), a rare disorder characterized by GnRH deficiency, delayed puberty and infertility. Depending on their action in the GnRH neuronal system, CHH causative genes can be divided into neurodevelopmental and neuroendocrine genes. The CHH genetic complexity, combined with multiple inheritance patterns, results in an extreme phenotypic variability of CHH patients. In this review, we aim at providing a comprehensive and updated description of the genes thus far associated with CHH, by dissecting their biological relevance in the GnRH system and their functional relevance underlying CHH pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberto Oleari
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Milan, 20133 Milano, Italy;
| | - Valentina Massa
- Department of Health Sciences, University of Milan, 20142 Milano, Italy;
- CRC Aldo Ravelli for Neurotechnology and Experimental Brain Therapeutics, Department of Health Sciences, University of Milan, 20142 Milano, Italy
| | - Anna Cariboni
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Milan, 20133 Milano, Italy;
| | - Antonella Lettieri
- Department of Health Sciences, University of Milan, 20142 Milano, Italy;
- CRC Aldo Ravelli for Neurotechnology and Experimental Brain Therapeutics, Department of Health Sciences, University of Milan, 20142 Milano, Italy
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147
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Novoyatleva T, Rai N, Kojonazarov B, Veeroju S, Ben-Batalla I, Caruso P, Shihan M, Presser N, Götz E, Lepper C, Herpel S, Manaud G, Perros F, Gall H, Ghofrani HA, Weissmann N, Grimminger F, Wharton J, Wilkins M, Upton PD, Loges S, Morrell NW, Seeger W, Schermuly RT. Deficiency of Axl aggravates pulmonary arterial hypertension via BMPR2. Commun Biol 2021; 4:1002. [PMID: 34429509 PMCID: PMC8385080 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-021-02531-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2020] [Accepted: 08/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH), is a fatal disease characterized by a pseudo-malignant phenotype. We investigated the expression and the role of the receptor tyrosine kinase Axl in experimental (i.e., monocrotaline and Su5416/hypoxia treated rats) and clinical PAH. In vitro Axl inhibition by R428 and Axl knock-down inhibited growth factor-driven proliferation and migration of non-PAH and PAH PASMCs. Conversely, Axl overexpression conferred a growth advantage. Axl declined in PAECs of PAH patients. Axl blockage inhibited BMP9 signaling and increased PAEC apoptosis, while BMP9 induced Axl phosphorylation. Gas6 induced SMAD1/5/8 phosphorylation and ID1/ID2 increase were blunted by BMP signaling obstruction. Axl association with BMPR2 was facilitated by Gas6/BMP9 stimulation and diminished by R428. In vivo R428 aggravated right ventricular hypertrophy and dysfunction, abrogated BMPR2 signaling, elevated pulmonary endothelial cell apoptosis and loss. Together, Axl is a key regulator of endothelial BMPR2 signaling and potential determinant of PAH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatyana Novoyatleva
- Universities of Giessen and Marburg Lung Center (UGMLC), Excellence Cluster Cardio-Pulmonary System (ECCPS), Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Giessen, Germany.
| | - Nabham Rai
- Universities of Giessen and Marburg Lung Center (UGMLC), Excellence Cluster Cardio-Pulmonary System (ECCPS), Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - Baktybek Kojonazarov
- Universities of Giessen and Marburg Lung Center (UGMLC), Excellence Cluster Cardio-Pulmonary System (ECCPS), Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
- Institute for Lung Health, Giessen, Germany
| | - Swathi Veeroju
- Universities of Giessen and Marburg Lung Center (UGMLC), Excellence Cluster Cardio-Pulmonary System (ECCPS), Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - Isabel Ben-Batalla
- Department of Oncology, Hematology and Bone Marrow Transplantation with section Pneumology, Hubertus Wald University Comprehensive Cancer Center Hamburg, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
- Department of Tumor Biology, Center of Experimental Medicine, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Paola Caruso
- Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Mazen Shihan
- Universities of Giessen and Marburg Lung Center (UGMLC), Excellence Cluster Cardio-Pulmonary System (ECCPS), Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - Nadine Presser
- Universities of Giessen and Marburg Lung Center (UGMLC), Excellence Cluster Cardio-Pulmonary System (ECCPS), Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - Elsa Götz
- Universities of Giessen and Marburg Lung Center (UGMLC), Excellence Cluster Cardio-Pulmonary System (ECCPS), Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - Carina Lepper
- Universities of Giessen and Marburg Lung Center (UGMLC), Excellence Cluster Cardio-Pulmonary System (ECCPS), Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - Sebastian Herpel
- Universities of Giessen and Marburg Lung Center (UGMLC), Excellence Cluster Cardio-Pulmonary System (ECCPS), Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - Grégoire Manaud
- Université Paris-Saclay, AP-HP, INSERM UMR_S 999, Service de Pneumologie et Soins Intensifs Respiratoires, Hôpital de Bicêtre, Le Kremlin Bicêtre, France
| | - Frédéric Perros
- Université Paris-Saclay, AP-HP, INSERM UMR_S 999, Service de Pneumologie et Soins Intensifs Respiratoires, Hôpital de Bicêtre, Le Kremlin Bicêtre, France
| | - Henning Gall
- Universities of Giessen and Marburg Lung Center (UGMLC), Excellence Cluster Cardio-Pulmonary System (ECCPS), Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - Hossein Ardeschir Ghofrani
- Universities of Giessen and Marburg Lung Center (UGMLC), Excellence Cluster Cardio-Pulmonary System (ECCPS), Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - Norbert Weissmann
- Universities of Giessen and Marburg Lung Center (UGMLC), Excellence Cluster Cardio-Pulmonary System (ECCPS), Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - Friedrich Grimminger
- Universities of Giessen and Marburg Lung Center (UGMLC), Excellence Cluster Cardio-Pulmonary System (ECCPS), Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - John Wharton
- Centre for Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Martin Wilkins
- Centre for Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Paul D Upton
- Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Sonja Loges
- Department of Oncology, Hematology and Bone Marrow Transplantation with section Pneumology, Hubertus Wald University Comprehensive Cancer Center Hamburg, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
- Department of Tumor Biology, Center of Experimental Medicine, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | | | - Werner Seeger
- Universities of Giessen and Marburg Lung Center (UGMLC), Excellence Cluster Cardio-Pulmonary System (ECCPS), Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
- Max Planck Institute for Heart and Lung Research, Bad Nauheim, Germany
| | - Ralph T Schermuly
- Universities of Giessen and Marburg Lung Center (UGMLC), Excellence Cluster Cardio-Pulmonary System (ECCPS), Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Giessen, Germany.
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148
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Abstract
Tyro3, Axl and Mertk are members of the TAM family of tyrosine kinase receptors. TAMs are activated by two structurally homologous ligands GAS6 and PROS1. TAM receptors and ligands are widely distributed and often co-expressed in the same cells allowing diverse functions across many systems including the immune, reproductive, vascular, and the developing as well as adult nervous systems. This review will focus specifically on TAM signaling in the nervous system, highlighting the essential roles this pathway fulfills in maintaining cell survival and homeostasis, cellular functions such as phagocytosis, immunity and tissue repair. Dysfunctional TAM signaling can cause complications in development, disruptions in homeostasis which can rouse autoimmunity, neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration. The development of therapeutics modulating TAM activities in the nervous system has great prospects, however, foremost we need a complete understanding of TAM signaling pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tal Burstyn-Cohen
- Institute for Dental Sciences, Faculty of Dental Medicine, The Hebrew University-Hadassah, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Arielle Hochberg
- Institute for Dental Sciences, Faculty of Dental Medicine, The Hebrew University-Hadassah, Jerusalem, Israel
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149
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Zaman A, Bivona TG. Targeting AXL in NSCLC. LUNG CANCER (AUCKLAND, N.Z.) 2021; 12:67-79. [PMID: 34408519 PMCID: PMC8364399 DOI: 10.2147/lctt.s305484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2021] [Accepted: 07/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
State-of-the-art cancer precision medicine approaches involve targeted inactivation of chemically and immunologically addressable vulnerabilities that often yield impressive initial anti-tumor responses in patients. Nonetheless, these responses are overshadowed by therapy resistance that follows. AXL, a receptor tyrosine kinase with bona fide oncogenic capacity, has been associated with the emergence of resistance in an array of cancers with varying pathophysiology and cellular origins, including in non-small-cell lung cancers (NSCLCs). Here in this review, we summarize AXL biology during normal homeostasis, oncogenic development and therapy resistance with a focus on NSCLC. In the context of NSCLC therapy resistance, we delineate AXL's role in mediating resistance to tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) deployed against epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) as well as other notable oncogenes and to chemotherapeutics. We also discuss the current understanding of AXL's role in mediating cell-biological variables that function as important modifiers of therapy resistance such as epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT), the tumor microenvironment and tumor heterogeneity. We also catalog and discuss a set of effective pharmacologic tools that are emerging to strategically perturb AXL mediated resistance programs in NSCLC. Finally, we enumerate ongoing and future exciting precision medicine approaches targeting AXL as well as challenges in this regard. We highlight that a holistic understanding of AXL biology in NSCLC may allow us to predict and improve targeted therapeutic strategies, such as through polytherapy approaches, potentially against a broad spectrum of NSCLC sub-types to forestall tumor evolution and drug resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aubhishek Zaman
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
- UCSF Helen Diller Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Trever G Bivona
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
- UCSF Helen Diller Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
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150
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Sakti DH, Cornish EE, Mustafic N, Zaheer A, Retsas S, Rajagopalan S, Chung CW, Ewans L, McCluskey P, Nash BM, Jamieson RV, Grigg JR. MERTK retinopathy: biomarkers assessing vision loss. Ophthalmic Genet 2021; 42:706-716. [PMID: 34289798 DOI: 10.1080/13816810.2021.1955278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Mer tyrosine kinase-retinitis pigmentosa (MERTK-RP) causes a primary defect in the retinal pigment epithelium, which subsequently affects rod and cone photoreceptors. The study aims to identify the most appropriate MERTK-RP biomarkers to measure disease progression for deciding the optimum therapeutic trial intervention time. MATERIALS AND METHODS Patients' data from baseline (BL) and last follow-up (LFU) were reviewed. Best corrected visual acuity (BCVA), spectral domain-optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT), ultra-widefield fundus autofluorescence (UWF-FAF) patterns, kinetic perimetry (KP), and electroretinography (ERG) parameters were analyzed. RESULTS Five patients were included with the mean age of 17.7 ± 14.4 years old (6.7-42.3) at BL and mean BCVA follow-up of 8.4 ± 5.1 years. Mean BCVA at BL and LFU were 0.84 ± 0.86 LogMAR and 1.14 ± 0.86 LogMAR, respectively. The BCVA decline rate was 0.05 ± 0.03 LogMAR units/year. Ellipzoid zones (EZ) were measurable in eight eyes with mean BL length of 1293.75 ± 421.07 µm and reduction of 140.95 ± 69.28 µm/year and mean BL CMT of 174.2 ± 37.52 µm with the rate of 11.2 ± 12.77 µm declining/year. Full-field ERG (ffERG) and pattern ERG (pERG) were barely recordable. UWF-FAF showed central macular hyper-autofluorescence (hyperAF). KP (III4e and V4e) was normal in two eyes, restricted nasally in four eyes, superior wedge defect in two eyes and undetectable in two eyes. The four restricted nasally KPs became worse, while the others stayed almost unchanged. CONCLUSIONS This cohort showed early visual loss, moderately rapid EZ reduction and macular hyperAF. EZ, CMT, and BCVA were consistently reduced. Relative rapid decline in these biomarkers reflecting visual function suggests an early and narrow timespan for intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dhimas H Sakti
- Save Sight Institute, Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,Department of Ophthalmology, Faculty of Medicine, Public Health and Nursing; Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
| | - Elisa E Cornish
- Save Sight Institute, Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,Eye Genetics Research Unit, Children's Medical Research Institute, the Children's Hospital at Westmead, Save Sight Institute, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Nina Mustafic
- Save Sight Institute, Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Afsah Zaheer
- Save Sight Institute, Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Stephanie Retsas
- Save Sight Institute, Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Sulekha Rajagopalan
- Department of Clinical Genetics, Liverpool Hospital, Liverpool BC, NSW, Australia
| | - Clara Wt Chung
- Department of Clinical Genetics, Liverpool Hospital, Liverpool BC, NSW, Australia.,School of Women's & Children's Health, University of NSW, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Lisa Ewans
- Department of Clinical Genetics, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Camperdown, NSW, Australia.,Faculty of Medicine and Health Central Clinical School, Sydney Medical School, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Peter McCluskey
- Save Sight Institute, Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Benjamin M Nash
- Eye Genetics Research Unit, Children's Medical Research Institute, the Children's Hospital at Westmead, Save Sight Institute, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,Disciplines of Genomic Medicine & Child and Adolescent Health, Sydney Medical School, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,Sydney Genome Diagnostics, Western Sydney Genetics Program, the Children's Hospital at Westmead, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Robyn V Jamieson
- Save Sight Institute, Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,Eye Genetics Research Unit, Children's Medical Research Institute, the Children's Hospital at Westmead, Save Sight Institute, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,Disciplines of Genomic Medicine & Child and Adolescent Health, Sydney Medical School, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,Department of Clinical Genetics, Western Sydney Genetics Program, the Children's Hospital at Westmead, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - John R Grigg
- Save Sight Institute, Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,Eye Genetics Research Unit, Children's Medical Research Institute, the Children's Hospital at Westmead, Save Sight Institute, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
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