101
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Cho H, Kim CH, Knight EQ, Oh HW, Park B, Kim DG, Park HJ. Changes in brain metabolic connectivity underlie autistic-like social deficits in a rat model of autism spectrum disorder. Sci Rep 2017; 7:13213. [PMID: 29038507 PMCID: PMC5643347 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-13642-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2017] [Accepted: 09/29/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The neurobiological basis of social dysfunction and the high male prevalence in autism spectrum disorder (ASD) remain poorly understood. Although network alterations presumably underlie the development of autistic-like behaviors, a clear pattern of connectivity differences specific to ASD has not yet emerged. Because the heterogeneous nature of ASD hinders investigations in human subjects, we explored brain connectivity in an etiologically homogenous rat model of ASD induced by exposure to valproic acid (VPA) in utero. We performed partial correlation analysis of cross-sectional resting-state 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography scans from VPA-exposed and control rats to estimate metabolic connectivity and conducted canonical correlation analysis of metabolic activity and behavior scores. VPA-treated rats exhibited impairments in social behaviors, and this difference was more pronounced in male than female rats. Similarly, current analyses revealed sex-specific changes in network connectivity and identified distinct alterations in the distributed metabolic activity patterns associated with autistic-like social deficits. Specifically, diminished activity in the salience network and enhanced activity in a cortico-cerebellar circuit correlated with the severity of social behavioral deficits. Such metabolic connectivity features may represent neurobiological substrates of autistic-like behavior, particularly in males, and may serve as a pathognomonic sign in the VPA rat model of ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hojin Cho
- Department of Pharmacology, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea.,BK21 PLUS Project for Medical Science, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea.,Department of Nuclear Medicine, Severance Hospital, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Chul Hoon Kim
- Department of Pharmacology, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea. .,BK21 PLUS Project for Medical Science, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea. .,Brain Research Institute, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea. .,Severance Biomedical Science Institute, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea.
| | | | - Hye Won Oh
- BK21 PLUS Project for Medical Science, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Bumhee Park
- Department of Statistics, Hankuk University of Foreign Studies, Yong-In, Republic of Korea
| | - Dong Goo Kim
- Department of Pharmacology, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Hae-Jeong Park
- BK21 PLUS Project for Medical Science, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea. .,Department of Nuclear Medicine, Severance Hospital, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea. .,Department of Psychiatry, Department of Cognitive Science, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea.
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102
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Varghese M, Keshav N, Jacot-Descombes S, Warda T, Wicinski B, Dickstein DL, Harony-Nicolas H, De Rubeis S, Drapeau E, Buxbaum JD, Hof PR. Autism spectrum disorder: neuropathology and animal models. Acta Neuropathol 2017; 134:537-566. [PMID: 28584888 PMCID: PMC5693718 DOI: 10.1007/s00401-017-1736-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 293] [Impact Index Per Article: 41.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2017] [Revised: 05/30/2017] [Accepted: 05/31/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) has a major impact on the development and social integration of affected individuals and is the most heritable of psychiatric disorders. An increase in the incidence of ASD cases has prompted a surge in research efforts on the underlying neuropathologic processes. We present an overview of current findings in neuropathology studies of ASD using two investigational approaches, postmortem human brains and ASD animal models, and discuss the overlap, limitations, and significance of each. Postmortem examination of ASD brains has revealed global changes including disorganized gray and white matter, increased number of neurons, decreased volume of neuronal soma, and increased neuropil, the last reflecting changes in densities of dendritic spines, cerebral vasculature and glia. Both cortical and non-cortical areas show region-specific abnormalities in neuronal morphology and cytoarchitectural organization, with consistent findings reported from the prefrontal cortex, fusiform gyrus, frontoinsular cortex, cingulate cortex, hippocampus, amygdala, cerebellum and brainstem. The paucity of postmortem human studies linking neuropathology to the underlying etiology has been partly addressed using animal models to explore the impact of genetic and non-genetic factors clinically relevant for the ASD phenotype. Genetically modified models include those based on well-studied monogenic ASD genes (NLGN3, NLGN4, NRXN1, CNTNAP2, SHANK3, MECP2, FMR1, TSC1/2), emerging risk genes (CHD8, SCN2A, SYNGAP1, ARID1B, GRIN2B, DSCAM, TBR1), and copy number variants (15q11-q13 deletion, 15q13.3 microdeletion, 15q11-13 duplication, 16p11.2 deletion and duplication, 22q11.2 deletion). Models of idiopathic ASD include inbred rodent strains that mimic ASD behaviors as well as models developed by environmental interventions such as prenatal exposure to sodium valproate, maternal autoantibodies, and maternal immune activation. In addition to replicating some of the neuropathologic features seen in postmortem studies, a common finding in several animal models of ASD is altered density of dendritic spines, with the direction of the change depending on the specific genetic modification, age and brain region. Overall, postmortem neuropathologic studies with larger sample sizes representative of the various ASD risk genes and diverse clinical phenotypes are warranted to clarify putative etiopathogenic pathways further and to promote the emergence of clinically relevant diagnostic and therapeutic tools. In addition, as genetic alterations may render certain individuals more vulnerable to developing the pathological changes at the synapse underlying the behavioral manifestations of ASD, neuropathologic investigation using genetically modified animal models will help to improve our understanding of the disease mechanisms and enhance the development of targeted treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Merina Varghese
- Fishberg Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, Box 1639, One Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY, 10029, USA
- Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Neha Keshav
- Fishberg Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, Box 1639, One Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY, 10029, USA
- Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
- Seaver Autism Center for Research and Treatment, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Sarah Jacot-Descombes
- Fishberg Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, Box 1639, One Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY, 10029, USA
- Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
- Unit of Psychiatry, Department of Children and Teenagers, University Hospitals and School of Medicine, Geneva, CH-1205, Switzerland
| | - Tahia Warda
- Fishberg Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, Box 1639, One Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY, 10029, USA
- Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Bridget Wicinski
- Fishberg Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, Box 1639, One Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY, 10029, USA
- Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Dara L Dickstein
- Fishberg Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, Box 1639, One Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY, 10029, USA
- Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
- Department of Pathology, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD, 20814, USA
| | - Hala Harony-Nicolas
- Seaver Autism Center for Research and Treatment, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Silvia De Rubeis
- Seaver Autism Center for Research and Treatment, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Elodie Drapeau
- Seaver Autism Center for Research and Treatment, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Joseph D Buxbaum
- Fishberg Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, Box 1639, One Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY, 10029, USA
- Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
- Seaver Autism Center for Research and Treatment, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Patrick R Hof
- Fishberg Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, Box 1639, One Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY, 10029, USA.
- Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA.
- Seaver Autism Center for Research and Treatment, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA.
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103
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Li Y, Zhou Y, Peng L, Zhao Y. Reduced protein expressions of cytomembrane GABA ARβ3 at different postnatal developmental stages of rats exposed prenatally to valproic acid. Brain Res 2017; 1671:33-42. [PMID: 28641949 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2017.06.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2017] [Revised: 05/15/2017] [Accepted: 06/13/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Decreased inhibition plays an extremely important role in pathogenesis of autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Therefore, we aimed to determine whether expression levels of the γ-aminobutyric acid type A receptor β3 subunit (GABAARβ3), K+-Cl- cotransporter 2 (KCC2), and Na+-K+-Cl- cotransporter 1 (NKCC1) related to inhibition transmission are changed in a sodium valproate-induced rat model of ASD. Decreased expression levels of membrane GABAARβ3 (m-GABAARβ3) and KCC2 as well as increased endocytosis of GABAARs were found in the model group. However, there were no significant differences in expression of total GABAARβ3 and NKCC1 between the control and model groups. In addition, we observed growth retardation, impaired spatial memory, limited exploration, increased anxiety, and reduced sociability in the model group. These results suggest alterations in m-GABAARβ3 levels, KCC2 levels, and trafficking of GABAARs in rats prenatally exposed to valproic acid and advance our understanding of the pathogenesis of ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yixin Li
- Department of Pathology, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, People's Republic of China; Institute of Neuroscience, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, People's Republic of China; Key Laboratory of Neurobiology, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, People's Republic of China
| | - Yang Zhou
- Department of Pathology, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, People's Republic of China; Institute of Neuroscience, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, People's Republic of China; Key Laboratory of Neurobiology, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, People's Republic of China
| | - Li Peng
- Department of Pathology, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, People's Republic of China; Institute of Neuroscience, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, People's Republic of China; Key Laboratory of Neurobiology, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, People's Republic of China
| | - Yong Zhao
- Department of Pathology, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, People's Republic of China; Institute of Neuroscience, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, People's Republic of China; Key Laboratory of Neurobiology, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, People's Republic of China.
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104
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Anshu K, Nair AK, Kumaresan UD, Kutty BM, Srinath S, Laxmi TR. Altered attentional processing in male and female rats in a prenatal valproic acid exposure model of autism spectrum disorder. Autism Res 2017; 10:1929-1944. [PMID: 28851114 DOI: 10.1002/aur.1852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2017] [Revised: 07/25/2017] [Accepted: 08/03/2017] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Attention is foundational to efficient perception and optimal goal driven behavior. Intact attentional processing is crucial for the development of social and communication skills. Deficits in attention are therefore likely contributors to the core pathophysiology of autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Clinical evidence in ASD is suggestive of impairments in attention and its control, but the underlying mechanisms remain elusive. We examined sustained, spatially divided attention in a prenatal valproic acid (VPA) model of ASD using the 5-choice serial reaction time task (5-CSRTT). As compared to controls, male and female VPA rats had progressively lower accuracy and higher omissions with increasing attentional demands during 5-CSRTT training, and showed further performance decrements when subjected to parametric task manipulations. It is noteworthy that although VPA exposure induced attentional deficits in both sexes, there were task parameter specific sex differences. Importantly, we did not find evidence of impulsivity or motivational deficits in VPA rats but we did find reduced social preference, as well as sensorimotor deficits that suggest pre-attentional information processing impairments. Importantly, with fixed rules, graded difficulty levels, and more time, VPA rats could be successfully trained on the attentional task. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study examining attentional functions in a VPA model. Our work underscores the need for studying both sexes in ASD animal models and validates the use of the VPA model in the quest for mechanistic understanding of aberrant attentional functions and for evaluating suitable therapeutic targets. Autism Res 2017, 10: 1929-1944. © 2017 International Society for Autism Research, Wiley Periodicals, Inc. LAY SUMMARY We studied rats prenatally exposed to valproic acid (VPA), an established rodent model of autism. Both male and female VPA rats had a range of attentional impairments with sex-specific characteristics. Importantly, with fixed rules, graded difficulty levels, and more time, VPA rats could be successfully trained on the attentional task. Our work validates the use of the VPA model in the quest for evaluating suitable therapeutic targets for improving attentional performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kumari Anshu
- Department of Neurophysiology, National Institute of Mental Health and Neuro Sciences (NIMHANS), Bengaluru, Karnataka, 560029, India
| | - Ajay Kumar Nair
- Department of Neurophysiology, National Institute of Mental Health and Neuro Sciences (NIMHANS), Bengaluru, Karnataka, 560029, India
| | - U D Kumaresan
- Department of Neurophysiology, National Institute of Mental Health and Neuro Sciences (NIMHANS), Bengaluru, Karnataka, 560029, India
| | - Bindu M Kutty
- Department of Neurophysiology, National Institute of Mental Health and Neuro Sciences (NIMHANS), Bengaluru, Karnataka, 560029, India
| | - Shoba Srinath
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, National Institute of Mental Health and Neuro Sciences (NIMHANS), Bengaluru, Karnataka, 560029, India
| | - T Rao Laxmi
- Department of Neurophysiology, National Institute of Mental Health and Neuro Sciences (NIMHANS), Bengaluru, Karnataka, 560029, India
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105
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Mahmood U, Ahn S, Yang EJ, Choi M, Kim H, Regan P, Cho K, Kim HS. Dendritic spine anomalies and PTEN alterations in a mouse model of VPA-induced autism spectrum disorder. Pharmacol Res 2017; 128:110-121. [PMID: 28823725 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2017.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2017] [Revised: 08/08/2017] [Accepted: 08/12/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Mounting evidence suggests that the etiology of autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) is profoundly influenced by exposure to environmental factors, although the precise molecular and cellular links remain ill-defined. In this study, we examined how exposure to valproic acid (VPA) during pregnancy is associated with an increased incidence of ASD. A mouse model was established by injecting VPA at embryonic day 13, and its behavioral phenotypes including impaired social interaction, increased repetitive behaviors and decreased nociception were observed at postnatal days 21-42. VPA-treated mice showed dysregulation of synaptic structure in cortical neurons, including a reduced proportion of filopodium-type and stubby spines and increased proportions of thin and mushroom-type spines, along with a decreased spine head size. We also found that VPA-treatment led to decreased expression of phosphate and tensin homolog (PTEN) and increased levels of p-AKT protein in the hippocampus and cortex. Our data suggest that there is a correlation between VPA exposure and dysregulation of PTEN with ASD-like behavioral and neuroanatomical changes, and this may be a potential mechanism of VPA-induced ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Usman Mahmood
- Interdisciplinary Program in Brain Sciences, Seoul National University College of Natural Sciences, Seoul, 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Sangzin Ahn
- Department of Pharmacology and Biomedical Sciences, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, 03080, Republic of Korea; Present address: Department of Pharmacology, Inje University College of Medicine, Busan, 47392, Republic of Korea
| | - Eun-Jeong Yang
- Department of Pharmacology and Biomedical Sciences, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, 03080, Republic of Korea
| | - Moonseok Choi
- Department of Pharmacology and Biomedical Sciences, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, 03080, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyunju Kim
- Department of Pharmacology and Biomedical Sciences, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, 03080, Republic of Korea
| | - Philip Regan
- School of Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Bristol, Whitson Street, Bristol BS1 3NY, United Kingdom
| | - Kwangwook Cho
- School of Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Bristol, Whitson Street, Bristol BS1 3NY, United Kingdom
| | - Hye-Sun Kim
- Interdisciplinary Program in Brain Sciences, Seoul National University College of Natural Sciences, Seoul, 08826, Republic of Korea; Department of Pharmacology and Biomedical Sciences, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, 03080, Republic of Korea; Seoul National University Bundang Hospital, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Sungnam, 13620, Republic of Korea.
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106
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Barrett CE, Hennessey TM, Gordon KM, Ryan SJ, McNair ML, Ressler KJ, Rainnie DG. Developmental disruption of amygdala transcriptome and socioemotional behavior in rats exposed to valproic acid prenatally. Mol Autism 2017; 8:42. [PMID: 28775827 PMCID: PMC5539636 DOI: 10.1186/s13229-017-0160-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2017] [Accepted: 07/19/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The amygdala controls socioemotional behavior and has consistently been implicated in the etiology of autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Precocious amygdala development is commonly reported in ASD youth with the degree of overgrowth positively correlated to the severity of ASD symptoms. Prenatal exposure to VPA leads to an ASD phenotype in both humans and rats and has become a commonly used tool to model the complexity of ASD symptoms in the laboratory. Here, we examined abnormalities in gene expression in the amygdala and socioemotional behavior across development in the valproic acid (VPA) rat model of ASD. Methods Rat dams received oral gavage of VPA (500 mg/kg) or saline daily between E11 and 13. Socioemotional behavior was tracked across development in both sexes. RNA sequencing and proteomics were performed on amygdala samples from male rats across development. Results Effects of VPA on time spent in social proximity and anxiety-like behavior were sex dependent, with social abnormalities presenting in males and heightened anxiety in females. Across time VPA stunted developmental and immune, but enhanced cellular death and disorder, pathways in the amygdala relative to saline controls. At postnatal day 10, gene pathways involved in nervous system and cellular development displayed predicted activations in prenatally exposed VPA amygdala samples. By juvenile age, however, transcriptomic and proteomic pathways displayed reductions in cellular growth and neural development. Alterations in immune pathways, calcium signaling, Rho GTPases, and protein kinase A signaling were also observed. Conclusions As behavioral, developmental, and genomic alterations are similar to those reported in ASD, these results lend support to prenatal exposure to VPA as a useful tool for understanding how developmental insults to molecular pathways in the amygdala give rise to ASD-related syndromes. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13229-017-0160-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine E Barrett
- Silvio O. Conte Center for Oxytocin and Social Cognition, Division of Behavioral Neuroscience and Psychiatric Disorders, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, 954 Gatewood Rd, 30329 Atlanta, GA USA.,Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, 30329 Atlanta, GA USA
| | - Thomas M Hennessey
- Silvio O. Conte Center for Oxytocin and Social Cognition, Division of Behavioral Neuroscience and Psychiatric Disorders, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, 954 Gatewood Rd, 30329 Atlanta, GA USA.,Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, 30329 Atlanta, GA USA
| | - Katelyn M Gordon
- Silvio O. Conte Center for Oxytocin and Social Cognition, Division of Behavioral Neuroscience and Psychiatric Disorders, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, 954 Gatewood Rd, 30329 Atlanta, GA USA.,Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, 30329 Atlanta, GA USA
| | - Steve J Ryan
- Silvio O. Conte Center for Oxytocin and Social Cognition, Division of Behavioral Neuroscience and Psychiatric Disorders, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, 954 Gatewood Rd, 30329 Atlanta, GA USA.,Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, 30329 Atlanta, GA USA
| | - Morgan L McNair
- Silvio O. Conte Center for Oxytocin and Social Cognition, Division of Behavioral Neuroscience and Psychiatric Disorders, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, 954 Gatewood Rd, 30329 Atlanta, GA USA.,Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, 30329 Atlanta, GA USA
| | - Kerry J Ressler
- Department of Psychiatry, McLean Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Belmont, MA 02478 USA
| | - Donald G Rainnie
- Silvio O. Conte Center for Oxytocin and Social Cognition, Division of Behavioral Neuroscience and Psychiatric Disorders, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, 954 Gatewood Rd, 30329 Atlanta, GA USA.,Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, 30329 Atlanta, GA USA
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107
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Acosta J, Campolongo MA, Höcht C, Depino AM, Golombek DA, Agostino PV. Deficits in temporal processing in mice prenatally exposed to Valproic Acid. Eur J Neurosci 2017; 47:619-630. [DOI: 10.1111/ejn.13621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2017] [Revised: 06/02/2017] [Accepted: 06/05/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Julieta Acosta
- Laboratorio de Cronobiología; Departamento de Ciencia y Tecnología; Universidad Nacional de Quilmes/CONICET; Roque Sáenz Peña 352 Bernal Buenos Aires B1876BXD Argentina
| | - Marcos A. Campolongo
- Instituto de Fisiología; Biología Molecular y Neurociencias; CONICET-UBA; Buenos Aires Argentina
| | - Christian Höcht
- Cátedra de Farmacología; Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica; UBA; Buenos Aires Argentina
| | - Amaicha M. Depino
- Instituto de Fisiología; Biología Molecular y Neurociencias; CONICET-UBA; Buenos Aires Argentina
| | - Diego A. Golombek
- Laboratorio de Cronobiología; Departamento de Ciencia y Tecnología; Universidad Nacional de Quilmes/CONICET; Roque Sáenz Peña 352 Bernal Buenos Aires B1876BXD Argentina
| | - Patricia V. Agostino
- Laboratorio de Cronobiología; Departamento de Ciencia y Tecnología; Universidad Nacional de Quilmes/CONICET; Roque Sáenz Peña 352 Bernal Buenos Aires B1876BXD Argentina
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108
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Kim KC, Cho KS, Yang SM, Gonzales EL, Valencia S, Eun PH, Choi CS, Mabunga DF, Kim JW, Noh JK, Kim HJ, Jeon SJ, Han SH, Bahn GH, Shin CY. Sex Differences in Autism-Like Behavioral Phenotypes and Postsynaptic Receptors Expression in the Prefrontal Cortex of TERT Transgenic Mice. Biomol Ther (Seoul) 2017; 25:374-382. [PMID: 28208013 PMCID: PMC5499615 DOI: 10.4062/biomolther.2016.242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2016] [Revised: 11/24/2016] [Accepted: 12/06/2016] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) remains unexplained and untreated despite the high attention of research in recent years. Aside from its various characteristics is the baffling male preponderance over the female population. Using a validated animal model of ASD which is the telomerase reverse transcriptase overexpressing mice (TERT-tg), we conducted ASD-related behavioral assessments and protein expression experiments to mark the difference between male and females of this animal model. After statistically analyzing the results, we found significant effects of TERT overexpression in sociability, social novelty preference, anxiety, nest building, and electroseizure threshold in the males but not their female littermates. Along these differences are the male-specific increased expressions of postsynaptic proteins which are the NMDA and AMPA receptors in the prefrontal cortex. The vGluT1 presynaptic proteins, but not GAD, were upregulated in both sexes of TERT-tg mice, although it is more significantly pronounced in the male group. Here, we confirmed that the behavioral effect of TERT overexpression in mice was male-specific, suggesting that the aberration of this gene and its downstream pathways preferentially affect the functional development of the male brain, consistent with the male preponderance in ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ki Chan Kim
- Center for Neuroscience Research, SMART Institute of Advanced Biomedical Sciences, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyu Suk Cho
- Center for Neuroscience Research, SMART Institute of Advanced Biomedical Sciences, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea
| | - Sung Min Yang
- Center for Neuroscience Research, SMART Institute of Advanced Biomedical Sciences, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea
| | - Edson Luck Gonzales
- Center for Neuroscience Research, SMART Institute of Advanced Biomedical Sciences, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea
| | - Schley Valencia
- Center for Neuroscience Research, SMART Institute of Advanced Biomedical Sciences, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea
| | - Pyeong Hwa Eun
- Center for Neuroscience Research, SMART Institute of Advanced Biomedical Sciences, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea
| | - Chang Soon Choi
- Center for Neuroscience Research, SMART Institute of Advanced Biomedical Sciences, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea
| | - Darine Froy Mabunga
- Center for Neuroscience Research, SMART Institute of Advanced Biomedical Sciences, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea
| | - Ji-Woon Kim
- Center for Neuroscience Research, SMART Institute of Advanced Biomedical Sciences, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea
| | - Judy Kyoungju Noh
- College of Human Ecology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, United States of America
| | - Hee Jin Kim
- Uimyung Research Institute for Neuroscience, School of Pharmacy, Sahmyook University, Seoul 01795, Republic of Korea
| | - Se Jin Jeon
- Department of Life and Nanopharmaceutical Science, College of Pharmacy, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 02447, Republic of Korea
| | - Seol-Heui Han
- Center for Neuroscience Research, SMART Institute of Advanced Biomedical Sciences, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea
| | - Geon Ho Bahn
- Department of Neuropsychiatry, School of Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 02447, Republic of Korea
| | - Chan Young Shin
- Center for Neuroscience Research, SMART Institute of Advanced Biomedical Sciences, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea
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Zucker I. Risk mitigation for children exposed to drugs during gestation: A critical role for animal preclinical behavioral testing. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2017; 77:107-121. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2016] [Accepted: 03/08/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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Flores-Ramos M, Leff P, Fernández-Guasti A, Becerra Palars C. Is it important to consider the sex of the patient when using lithium or valproate to treat the bipolar disorder? Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2017; 152:105-111. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2016.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2015] [Revised: 02/03/2016] [Accepted: 02/09/2016] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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111
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Puig-Lagunes AA, Manzo J, Beltrán-Parrazal L, Morgado-Valle C, Toledo-Cárdenas R, López-Meraz ML. Pentylenetetrazole-induced seizures in developing rats prenatally exposed to valproic acid. PeerJ 2016; 4:e2709. [PMID: 27917314 PMCID: PMC5131616 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.2709] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2016] [Accepted: 10/21/2016] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Epidemiological evidence indicates epilepsy is more common in patients with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) (20-25%) than in the general population. The aim of this project was to analyze seizure susceptibility in developing rats prenatally exposed to valproic acid (VPA) as autism model. METHODS Pregnant females were injected with VPA during the twelfth embryonic day. Seizures were induced in fourteen-days-old rat pups using two models of convulsions: pentylenetetrazole (PTZ) and lithium-pilocarpine (Li-Pilo). RESULTS Two subgroups with different PTZ-induced seizure susceptibility in rats exposed to VPA were found: a high susceptibility (VPA+) (28/42, seizure severity 5) and a low susceptibility (VPA-) (14/42, seizure severity 2). The VPA+ subgroup exhibited an increased duration of the generalized tonic-clonic seizure (GTCS; 45 ± 2.7 min), a higher number of rats showed several GTCS (14/28) and developed status epilepticus (SE) after PTZ injection (19/27) compared with control animals (36.6 ± 1.9 min; 10/39; 15/39, respectively). No differences in seizure severity, latency or duration of SE induced by Li-Pilo were detected between VPA and control animals. DISCUSSION Prenatal VPA modifies the susceptibility to PTZ-induced seizures in developing rats, which may be linked to an alteration in the GABAergic transmission. These findings contribute to a better understanding of the comorbidity between autism and epilepsy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angel A. Puig-Lagunes
- Doctorado en Investigaciones Cerebrales, Universidad Veracruzana, Xalapa, Veracruz, Mexico
| | - Jorge Manzo
- Centro de Investigaciones Cerebrales, Universidad Veracruzana, Xalapa, Veracruz, Mexico
| | - Luis Beltrán-Parrazal
- Centro de Investigaciones Cerebrales, Universidad Veracruzana, Xalapa, Veracruz, Mexico
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112
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The transgenerational inheritance of autism-like phenotypes in mice exposed to valproic acid during pregnancy. Sci Rep 2016; 6:36250. [PMID: 27819277 PMCID: PMC5098241 DOI: 10.1038/srep36250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2016] [Accepted: 10/12/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a heterogeneously pervasive developmental disorder in which various genetic and environmental factors are believed to underlie its development. Recently, epigenetics has been suggested as a novel concept for ASD aetiology with a proposition that epigenetic marks can be transgenerationally inherited. Based on this assumption of epigenetics, we investigated the transgenerational inheritance of ASD-like behaviours and their related synaptic changes in the VPA animal model of ASD. The first generation (F1) VPA-exposed offspring exhibited autistic-like impaired sociability and increased marble burying. They also showed increased seizure susceptibility, hyperactivity and decreased anxiety. We mated the VPA-exposed F1 male offspring with naïve females to produce the second generation (F2), and then similarly mated the F2 to deliver the third generation (F3). Remarkably, the autism-like behavioural phenotypes found in F1 persisted to the F2 and F3. Additionally, the frontal cortices of F1 and F3 showed some imbalanced expressions of excitatory/inhibitory synaptic markers, suggesting a transgenerational epigenetic inheritance. These results open the idea that E/I imbalance and ASD-like behavioural changes induced by environmental insults in mice can be epigenetically transmitted, at least, to the third generation. This study could help explain the unprecedented increase in ASD prevalence.
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113
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Pharmacological inhibition of fatty acid amide hydrolase attenuates social behavioural deficits in male rats prenatally exposed to valproic acid. Pharmacol Res 2016; 113:228-235. [DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2016.08.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2016] [Revised: 07/12/2016] [Accepted: 08/30/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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114
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Bertolino B, Crupi R, Impellizzeri D, Bruschetta G, Cordaro M, Siracusa R, Esposito E, Cuzzocrea S. Beneficial Effects of Co-Ultramicronized Palmitoylethanolamide/Luteolin in a Mouse Model of Autism and in a Case Report of Autism. CNS Neurosci Ther 2016; 23:87-98. [PMID: 27701827 DOI: 10.1111/cns.12648] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2016] [Revised: 09/05/2016] [Accepted: 09/05/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
AIMS Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a condition defined by social communication deficits and repetitive restrictive behaviors. Association of the fatty acid amide palmitoylethanolamide (PEA) with the flavonoid luteolin displays neuroprotective and antiinflammatory actions in different models of central nervous system pathologies. We hypothesized that association of PEA with luteolin might have therapeutic utility in ASD, and we employed a well-recognized autism animal model, namely sodium valproate administration, to evaluate cognitive and motor deficits. METHODS Two sets of experiments were conducted. In the first, we investigated the effect of association of ultramicronized PEA with luteolin, co-ultramicronized PEA-LUT® (co-ultraPEA-LUT®) in a murine model of autistic behaviors, while in the second, the effect of co-ultraPEA-LUT® in a patient affected by ASD was examined. RESULTS Co-ultraPEA-LUT® treatment ameliorated social and nonsocial behaviors in valproic acid-induced autistic mice and improved clinical picture with reduction in stereotypes in a 10-year-old male child. CONCLUSION These data suggest that ASD symptomatology may be improved by agents documented to control activation of mast cells and microglia. Co-ultraPEA-LUT® might be a valid and safe therapy for the symptoms of ASD alone or in combination with other used drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Rosalia Crupi
- Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmacological and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, Messina, Italy
| | - Daniela Impellizzeri
- Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmacological and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, Messina, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Bruschetta
- Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmacological and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, Messina, Italy
| | - Marika Cordaro
- Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmacological and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, Messina, Italy
| | - Rosalba Siracusa
- Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmacological and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, Messina, Italy
| | - Emanuela Esposito
- Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmacological and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, Messina, Italy
| | - Salvatore Cuzzocrea
- Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmacological and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, Messina, Italy.,Department of Pharmacological and Physiological Science, Saint Louis University, Saint Louis, MO, USA
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Postnatal behavioral and inflammatory alterations in female pups prenatally exposed to valproic acid. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2016; 72:11-21. [PMID: 27337090 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2016.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2016] [Revised: 05/06/2016] [Accepted: 06/01/2016] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
In Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD), a bias to a higher incidence in boys than in girls has been reported. With the aim to identify biological mechanisms acting in female animals that could underlie this bias, we used an extensively validated mouse model of ASD: the prenatal exposure to valproic acid (VPA). We found postnatal behavioral alterations in female VPA pups: a longer latency in righting reflex at postnatal day (P) 3, and a delay in the acquisition of the acoustic startle response. We also analyzed the density of glial cells in the prefrontal cortex, hippocampus and cerebellum, in VPA and control animals. Female VPA pups showed alterations in the density of astrocytes and microglial cells between P21 and P42, with specific dynamics in each brain region. We also found a decrease in histone 3 acetylation in the cerebellum of female VPA pups at P14, suggesting that the changes in glial cell density could be due to alterations in the epigenetic developmental program. Finally, no differences in maternal behavior were found. Our results show that female VPA pups exhibit behavioral and inflammatory alterations postnatally, although they have been reported to have normal levels of sociability in adulthood. With our work, we contribute to the understanding of biological mechanisms underlying different effects of VPA on male and female rodents, and we hope to help elucidate whether there are factors increasing susceptibility to ASD in boys and/or resilience in girls.
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116
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Kim JW, Seung H, Kim KC, Gonzales ELT, Oh HA, Yang SM, Ko MJ, Han SH, Banerjee S, Shin CY. Agmatine rescues autistic behaviors in the valproic acid-induced animal model of autism. Neuropharmacology 2016; 113:71-81. [PMID: 27638451 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2016.09.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2016] [Revised: 09/09/2016] [Accepted: 09/12/2016] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is an immensely challenging developmental disorder characterized primarily by two core behavioral symptoms of social communication deficits and restricted/repetitive behaviors. Investigating the etiological process and identifying an appropriate therapeutic target remain as formidable challenges to overcome ASD due to numerous risk factors and complex symptoms associated with the disorder. Among the various mechanisms that contribute to ASD, the maintenance of excitation and inhibition balance emerged as a key factor to regulate proper functioning of neuronal circuitry. Interestingly, our previous study involving the valproic acid animal model of autism (VPA animal model) has demonstrated excitatory-inhibitory imbalance (E/I imbalance) due to enhanced differentiation of glutamatergic neurons and reduced GABAergic neurons. Here, we investigated the potential of agmatine, an endogenous NMDA receptor antagonist, as a novel therapeutic candidate in ameliorating ASD symptoms by modulating E/I imbalance using the VPA animal model. We observed that a single treatment of agmatine rescued the impaired social behaviors as well as hyperactive and repetitive behaviors in the VPA animal model. We also observed that agmatine treatment rescued the overly activated ERK1/2 signaling in the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus of VPA animal models, possibly, by modulating over-excitability due to enhanced excitatory neural circuit. Taken together, our results have provided experimental evidence suggesting a possible therapeutic role of agmatine in ameliorating ASD-like symptoms in the VPA animal model of ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ji-Woon Kim
- Department of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea; Department of Advanced Translational Medicine, School of Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea
| | - Hana Seung
- Department of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea; Department of Advanced Translational Medicine, School of Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea
| | - Ki Chan Kim
- KU Open Innovation Center and IBST, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea
| | - Edson Luck T Gonzales
- Department of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea; Department of Advanced Translational Medicine, School of Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyun Ah Oh
- Department of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea; Department of Advanced Translational Medicine, School of Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea
| | - Sung Min Yang
- Department of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea; Department of Advanced Translational Medicine, School of Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea
| | - Mee Jung Ko
- Department of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea; Department of Advanced Translational Medicine, School of Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea
| | - Seol-Heui Han
- KU Open Innovation Center and IBST, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea
| | - Sourav Banerjee
- National Brain Research Center, NH-8, Nainwal Mode, Haryana, India
| | - Chan Young Shin
- Department of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea; Department of Advanced Translational Medicine, School of Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea; KU Open Innovation Center and IBST, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea.
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A single low dose of valproic acid in late prenatal life alters postnatal behavior and glutamic acid decarboxylase levels in the mouse. Behav Brain Res 2016; 314:190-8. [PMID: 27498245 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2016.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2016] [Revised: 08/01/2016] [Accepted: 08/03/2016] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Rodents exposed to valproic acid (VPA) in prenatal life exhibit post-natal characteristics analogous to autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Many previous studies used relatively high doses of VPA during early pregnancy, potentially confounding interpretation because the offspring are the 'survivors' of a toxic insult. Low dose or late gestation exposure has not been widely studied. OBJECTIVES We examined the behavioral sequelae of late gestation exposure to low dose VPA in the mouse. We also examined postnatal levels of glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD65 and GAD67) as markers for GABA neurons, because GABA pathology and subsequent excitatory/inhibitory imbalance is strongly implicated in ASD. METHODS Pregnant C57BL/6N mice received a single subcutaneous injection of 100 or 200mg/kg on gestation day 17. The control group received a saline injection on the same day. The offspring were tested in a battery of behavioral tests in adolescence and adulthood. Six brain regions were harvested and GAD65 and GAD67 were measured by western blotting. RESULTS Compared to saline-exposed controls, adult mice exposed to prenatal VPA had impaired novel object exploration and fear conditioning anomalies. GAD67 was decreased in midbrain, olfactory bulb, prefrontal cortex and increased in cerebellum, hippocampus and striatum; GAD65 was decreased in all 6 regions. CONCLUSIONS Our results suggest that a low dose of VPA in late pregnancy has persistent effects on brain development, and in particular the GABA system, which may be relevant to ASD. Further attention to the impact of gestation time and dose of exposure in VPA-induced ASD models is encouraged.
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118
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Olexová L, Štefánik P, Kršková L. Increased anxiety-like behaviour and altered GABAergic system in the amygdala and cerebellum of VPA rats - An animal model of autism. Neurosci Lett 2016; 629:9-14. [PMID: 27353514 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2016.06.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2016] [Revised: 06/01/2016] [Accepted: 06/20/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Anxiety is one of the associated symptoms of autism spectrum disorder. According to the literature, increases in anxiety are accompanied by GABAergic system deregulation. The aim of our study, performed using an animal model of autism in the form of rats prenatally treated with valproic acid (VPA rats), was to investigate changes in anxiety-like behaviour and the gene expression of molecules that control levels of the inhibitory neurotransmitter γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) in the brain. Anxiety-like behaviours were investigated using zone preferences in the open field test. The levels of the 65 and 67kDa enzymes of l-glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD) mRNAs and type 1 GABA transporter (GAT1) were evaluated in the amygdala, as well as GABA producing enzymes in the cortex layer of the cerebellum. Our research showed that adult VPA rats spent less time in the inner zone of the testing chamber and more time in the outer zone of the testing chamber in the open field test. We also found that adult VPA rats had increased expression of GAT1 in the amygdala, as well as decreased levels of GAD65 and GAD67 mRNA in the cerebellum compared to control animals. These findings support the existence of a relationship between increased anxiety-like behaviour and changes in the regulation of the GABAergic system in VPA rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucia Olexová
- Department of Animal Physiology and Ethology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius University in Bratislava, Slovakia.
| | - Peter Štefánik
- Department of Animal Physiology and Ethology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius University in Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Lucia Kršková
- Department of Animal Physiology and Ethology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius University in Bratislava, Slovakia
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119
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Validation of reference genes for quantitative real-time PCR in valproic acid rat models of autism. Mol Biol Rep 2016; 43:837-47. [DOI: 10.1007/s11033-016-4015-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2015] [Accepted: 05/14/2016] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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120
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Distinct Defects in Synaptic Differentiation of Neocortical Neurons in Response to Prenatal Valproate Exposure. Sci Rep 2016; 6:27400. [PMID: 27264355 PMCID: PMC4893673 DOI: 10.1038/srep27400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2016] [Accepted: 05/18/2016] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) are a heterogeneous group of neurodevelopmental disorders characterized by impairments in social interactions and stereotyped behaviors. Valproic acid (VPA) is frequently used to treat epilepsy and bipolar disorders. When taken during pregnancy, VPA increases the risk of the unborn child to develop an ASD. In rodents, in utero VPA exposure can precipitate behavioral phenotypes related to ASD in the offspring. Therefore, such rodent models may allow for identification of synaptic pathophysiology underlying ASD risk. Here, we systematically probed alterations in synaptic proteins that might contribute to autism-related behavior in the offspring of in utero VPA-exposed mice. Moreover, we tested whether direct VPA exposure of cultured neocortical neurons may recapitulate the molecular alterations seen in vivo. VPA-exposed neurons in culture exhibit a significant increase in the number of glutamatergic synapses accompanied by a significant decrease in the number of GABAergic synapses. This shift in excitatory/inhibitory balance results in substantially increased spontaneous activity in neuronal networks arising from VPA-exposed neurons. Pharmacological experiments demonstrate that the alterations in GABAergic and glutamatergic synaptic proteins and structures are largely caused by inhibition of histone deacetylases. Therefore, our study highlights an epigenetic mechanism underlying the synaptic pathophysiology in this ASD model.
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121
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Zilkha N, Sofer Y, Beny Y, Kimchi T. From classic ethology to modern neuroethology: overcoming the three biases in social behavior research. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2016; 38:96-108. [PMID: 27179302 DOI: 10.1016/j.conb.2016.04.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2016] [Revised: 04/22/2016] [Accepted: 04/25/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
A typical current study investigating the neurobiology of animal behavior is likely restricted to male subjects, of standard inbred mouse strains, tested in simple behavioral assays under laboratory conditions. This approach enables the use of advanced molecular tools, alongside standardization and reproducibility, and has led to tremendous discoveries. However, the cost is a loss of genetic and phenotypic diversity and a divergence from ethologically-relevant behaviors. Here we review the pros and cons in behavioral neuroscience studies of the new era, focusing on reproductive behaviors in rodents. Recent advances in molecular technology and behavioral phenotyping in semi-natural conditions, together with an awareness of the critical need to study both sexes, may provide new insights into the neural mechanisms underlying social behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noga Zilkha
- Department of Neurobiology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 7610001, Israel
| | - Yizhak Sofer
- Department of Neurobiology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 7610001, Israel
| | - Yamit Beny
- Department of Neurobiology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 7610001, Israel
| | - Tali Kimchi
- Department of Neurobiology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 7610001, Israel.
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122
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Gonzales ELT, Jang JH, Mabunga DFN, Kim JW, Ko MJ, Cho KS, Bahn GH, Hong M, Ryu JH, Kim HJ, Cheong JH, Shin CY. Supplementation of Korean Red Ginseng improves behavior deviations in animal models of autism. Food Nutr Res 2016; 60:29245. [PMID: 26837496 PMCID: PMC4737717 DOI: 10.3402/fnr.v60.29245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2015] [Revised: 11/23/2015] [Accepted: 11/25/2015] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is heterogeneous neurodevelopmental disorders that primarily display social and communication impairments and restricted/repetitive behaviors. ASD prevalence has increased in recent years, yet very limited therapeutic targets and treatments are available to counteract the incapacitating disorder. Korean Red Ginseng (KRG) is a popular herbal plant in South Korea known for its wide range of therapeutic effects and nutritional benefits and has recently been gaining great scientific attention, particularly for its positive effects in the central nervous system. Objectives Thus, in this study, we investigated the therapeutic potential of KRG in alleviating the neurobehavioral deficits found in the valproic acid (VPA)-exposed mice models of ASD. Design Starting at 21 days old (P21), VPA-exposed mice were given daily oral administrations of KRG solution (100 or 200 mg/kg) until the termination of all experiments. From P28, mice behaviors were assessed in terms of social interaction capacity (P28–29), locomotor activity (P30), repetitive behaviors (P32), short-term spatial working memory (P34), motor coordination (P36), and seizure susceptibility (P38). Results VPA-exposed mice showed sociability and social novelty preference deficits, hyperactivity, increased repetitive behavior, impaired spatial working memory, slightly affected motor coordination, and high seizure susceptibility. Remarkably, long-term KRG treatment in both dosages normalized all the ASD-related behaviors in VPA-exposed mice, except motor coordination ability. Conclusion As a food and herbal supplement with various known benefits, KRG demonstrated its therapeutic potential in rescuing abnormal behaviors related to autism caused by prenatal environmental exposure to VPA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edson Luck T Gonzales
- Department of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul, Korea.,Neuroscience Research Center, IABS, Konkuk University, Seoul, Korea.,KU Open Innovation Center, Konkuk University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Jong-Hwa Jang
- Department of Dental Hygiene, Hanseo University, Seosan, Korea
| | - Darine Froy N Mabunga
- Department of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul, Korea.,Neuroscience Research Center, IABS, Konkuk University, Seoul, Korea.,KU Open Innovation Center, Konkuk University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Ji-Woon Kim
- Department of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul, Korea.,Neuroscience Research Center, IABS, Konkuk University, Seoul, Korea.,KU Open Innovation Center, Konkuk University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Mee Jung Ko
- Department of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul, Korea.,Neuroscience Research Center, IABS, Konkuk University, Seoul, Korea.,KU Open Innovation Center, Konkuk University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Kyu Suk Cho
- Department of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul, Korea.,Neuroscience Research Center, IABS, Konkuk University, Seoul, Korea.,KU Open Innovation Center, Konkuk University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Geon Ho Bahn
- Department of Neuropsychiatry, School of Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Minha Hong
- Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, Dankook University Hospital, Cheonan, Korea
| | - Jong Hoon Ryu
- Department of Oriental Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Hee Jin Kim
- Department of Pharmacy, Sahmyook University, Seoul, Korea
| | | | - Chan Young Shin
- Department of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul, Korea.,Neuroscience Research Center, IABS, Konkuk University, Seoul, Korea.,KU Open Innovation Center, Konkuk University, Seoul, Korea;
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Characterization of social behaviors in caspase-3 deficient mice. Sci Rep 2016; 6:18335. [PMID: 26783106 PMCID: PMC4726076 DOI: 10.1038/srep18335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2015] [Accepted: 11/16/2015] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Impaired social interaction is a defining feature of autism spectrum disorder, a neurodevelopmental disorder that shows a strong male preponderance in prevalence. Studies have identified neural circuits, neuromodulators and genetic factors involved in social behaviors, but mechanistic understanding of gender-specific social deficits is lacking. We report that deletion of the caspase-3 gene, encoding a protease with functions in apoptosis and neural plasticity, alters specific social behaviors in male mice, while leaving females unaffected. Casp3−/− mice showed normal behavioral responses to olfactory cues from food, neutral chemical and biological sources. Both Casp3−/− males and females displayed robust social exploration, sociability, recognition and preference for an enclosed novel mouse in the three-chamber test. However, Casp3−/− males showed significantly reduced social interaction behaviors when exposed to a freely moving novel mouse, including decreased interaction time and diminished mounting. Thus caspase-3 is essential for a subset of social behaviors, but despite similar hyper-locomotion in both sexes, only male Casp3−/− mice exhibited social interaction deficits, which is interesting given the male bias of autism.
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124
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Mabunga DFN, Gonzales ELT, Kim JW, Kim KC, Shin CY. Exploring the Validity of Valproic Acid Animal Model of Autism. Exp Neurobiol 2015; 24:285-300. [PMID: 26713077 PMCID: PMC4688329 DOI: 10.5607/en.2015.24.4.285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 149] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2015] [Revised: 12/01/2015] [Accepted: 12/02/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The valproic acid (VPA) animal model of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is one of the most widely used animal model in the field. Like any other disease models, it can't model the totality of the features seen in autism. Then, is it valid to model autism? This model demonstrates many of the structural and behavioral features that can be observed in individuals with autism. These similarities enable the model to define relevant pathways of developmental dysregulation resulting from environmental manipulation. The uncovering of these complex pathways resulted to the growing pool of potential therapeutic candidates addressing the core symptoms of ASD. Here, we summarize the validity points of VPA that may or may not qualify it as a valid animal model of ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Darine Froy N Mabunga
- Department of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, and Neuroscience Research Center, SMART-IABS and KU Open Innovation Center, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Korea
| | - Edson Luck T Gonzales
- Department of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, and Neuroscience Research Center, SMART-IABS and KU Open Innovation Center, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Korea
| | - Ji-Woon Kim
- Department of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, and Neuroscience Research Center, SMART-IABS and KU Open Innovation Center, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Korea
| | - Ki Chan Kim
- Department of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, and Neuroscience Research Center, SMART-IABS and KU Open Innovation Center, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Korea
| | - Chan Young Shin
- Department of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, and Neuroscience Research Center, SMART-IABS and KU Open Innovation Center, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Korea. ; Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Korea
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Mottron L, Duret P, Mueller S, Moore RD, Forgeot d'Arc B, Jacquemont S, Xiong L. Sex differences in brain plasticity: a new hypothesis for sex ratio bias in autism. Mol Autism 2015; 6:33. [PMID: 26052415 PMCID: PMC4456778 DOI: 10.1186/s13229-015-0024-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2014] [Accepted: 04/27/2015] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Several observations support the hypothesis that differences in synaptic and regional cerebral plasticity between the sexes account for the high ratio of males to females in autism. First, males are more susceptible than females to perturbations in genes involved in synaptic plasticity. Second, sex-related differences in non-autistic brain structure and function are observed in highly variable regions, namely, the heteromodal associative cortices, and overlap with structural particularities and enhanced activity of perceptual associative regions in autistic individuals. Finally, functional cortical reallocations following brain lesions in non-autistic adults (for example, traumatic brain injury, multiple sclerosis) are sex-dependent. Interactions between genetic sex and hormones may therefore result in higher synaptic and consecutively regional plasticity in perceptual brain areas in males than in females. The onset of autism may largely involve mutations altering synaptic plasticity that create a plastic reaction affecting the most variable and sexually dimorphic brain regions. The sex ratio bias in autism may arise because males have a lower threshold than females for the development of this plastic reaction following a genetic or environmental event.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurent Mottron
- Centre d'excellence en Troubles envahissants du dévelopement de l'Université de Montréal (CETEDUM), Montréal, Canada.,Hôpital Rivière-des-Prairies, Département de Psychiatrie, Montréal, Canada.,Centre de Recherche de l'Institut Universitaire en Santé Mentale de Montréal, Québec, Canada.,Department of Psychiatry, University of Montreal, Québec, Canada
| | - Pauline Duret
- Centre d'excellence en Troubles envahissants du dévelopement de l'Université de Montréal (CETEDUM), Montréal, Canada.,Hôpital Rivière-des-Prairies, Département de Psychiatrie, Montréal, Canada.,Centre de Recherche de l'Institut Universitaire en Santé Mentale de Montréal, Québec, Canada.,Department of Psychiatry, University of Montreal, Québec, Canada.,Département de Biologie, École Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Lyon, CEDEX 07 France
| | - Sophia Mueller
- Institute of Clinical Radiology, University Hospitals, Munich, Germany.,Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, MA 02129 USA.,Harvard University, Center for Brain Science, Cambridge, MA 02138 USA
| | - Robert D Moore
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Montreal, Québec, Canada.,Department of Health Sciences, University of Montreal, Montreal, Canada.,College of Applied Health Sciences, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, USA
| | - Baudouin Forgeot d'Arc
- Centre d'excellence en Troubles envahissants du dévelopement de l'Université de Montréal (CETEDUM), Montréal, Canada.,Hôpital Rivière-des-Prairies, Département de Psychiatrie, Montréal, Canada.,Centre de Recherche de l'Institut Universitaire en Santé Mentale de Montréal, Québec, Canada.,Department of Psychiatry, University of Montreal, Québec, Canada
| | - Sebastien Jacquemont
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Montreal, Québec, Canada.,Centre de recherche, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Sainte Justine, Montréal, Canada.,Service of Medical Genetics, University Hospital of Lausanne, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, 1011 Switzerland
| | - Lan Xiong
- Centre de Recherche de l'Institut Universitaire en Santé Mentale de Montréal, Québec, Canada.,Department of Psychiatry, University of Montreal, Québec, Canada
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126
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Favre MR, La Mendola D, Meystre J, Christodoulou D, Cochrane MJ, Markram H, Markram K. Predictable enriched environment prevents development of hyper-emotionality in the VPA rat model of autism. Front Neurosci 2015; 9:127. [PMID: 26089770 PMCID: PMC4452729 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2015.00127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2015] [Accepted: 03/27/2015] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding the effects of environmental stimulation in autism can improve therapeutic interventions against debilitating sensory overload, social withdrawal, fear and anxiety. Here, we evaluate the role of environmental predictability on behavior and protein expression, and inter-individual differences, in the valproic acid (VPA) model of autism. Male rats embryonically exposed (E11.5) either to VPA, a known autism risk factor in humans, or to saline, were housed from weaning into adulthood in a standard laboratory environment, an unpredictably enriched environment, or a predictably enriched environment. Animals were tested for sociability, nociception, stereotypy, fear conditioning and anxiety, and for tissue content of glutamate signaling proteins in the primary somatosensory cortex, hippocampus and amygdala, and of corticosterone in plasma, amygdala and hippocampus. Standard group analyses on separate measures were complemented with a composite emotionality score, using Cronbach's Alpha analysis, and with multivariate profiling of individual animals, using Hierarchical Cluster Analysis. We found that predictable environmental enrichment prevented the development of hyper-emotionality in the VPA-exposed group, while unpredictable enrichment did not. Individual variation in the severity of the autistic-like symptoms (fear, anxiety, social withdrawal and sensory abnormalities) correlated with neurochemical profiles, and predicted their responsiveness to predictability in the environment. In controls, the association between socio-affective behaviors, neurochemical profiles and environmental predictability was negligible. This study suggests that rearing in a predictable environment prevents the development of hyper-emotional features in animals exposed to an autism risk factor, and demonstrates that unpredictable environments can lead to negative outcomes, even in the presence of environmental enrichment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mônica R Favre
- Laboratory of Neural Microcircuits, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Deborah La Mendola
- Laboratory of Neural Microcircuits, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Julie Meystre
- Laboratory of Neural Microcircuits, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Dimitri Christodoulou
- Laboratory of Neural Microcircuits, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Melissa J Cochrane
- Laboratory of Neural Microcircuits, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Henry Markram
- Laboratory of Neural Microcircuits, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Kamila Markram
- Laboratory of Neural Microcircuits, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne Lausanne, Switzerland
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127
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Kang J, Kim E. Suppression of NMDA receptor function in mice prenatally exposed to valproic acid improves social deficits and repetitive behaviors. Front Mol Neurosci 2015; 8:17. [PMID: 26074764 PMCID: PMC4444740 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2015.00017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2015] [Accepted: 05/09/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Animals prenatally exposed to valproic acid (VPA), an antiepileptic agent, have been used as a model for autism spectrum disorders (ASDs). Previous studies have identified enhanced NMDA receptor (NMDAR) function in the brain of VPA rats, and demonstrated that pharmacological suppression of NMDAR function normalizes social deficits in these animals. However, whether repetitive behavior, another key feature of ASDs, can be rescued by NMDAR inhibition remains unknown. We report here that memantine, an NMDAR antagonist, administered to VPA mice rescues both social deficits and repetitive behaviors such as self-grooming and jumping. These results suggest that suppression of elevated NMDAR function in VPA animals normalizes repetitive behaviors in addition to social deficits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaeseung Kang
- Department of Biological Sciences, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology Daejeon, Korea
| | - Eunjoon Kim
- Department of Biological Sciences, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology Daejeon, Korea ; Center for Synaptic Brain Dysfunctions, Institute for Basic Science Daejeon, Korea
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128
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Zhao G, Gao J, Liang S, Wang X, Sun C, Xia W, Hao Y, Li X, Cao Y, Wu L. Study of the serum levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids and the expression of related liver metabolic enzymes in a rat valproate-induced autism model. Int J Dev Neurosci 2015; 44:14-21. [PMID: 25916973 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijdevneu.2015.04.350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2015] [Revised: 04/22/2015] [Accepted: 04/22/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022] Open
Abstract
To investigate whether the decreased level of serum polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) in patients with autism is associated with the expression of related liver metabolic enzymes, we selected rats that were exposed to valproic acid (VPA) on embryonic day 12.5 (E12.5) as a model of autism. We observed the serum levels of PUFAs and the expression of related liver metabolic enzymes, including Δ5-desaturase, Δ6-desaturase and elongase (Elovl2), in VPA-exposed and control rats on postnatal day 35 (PND35) and conducted sex dimorphic analysis. We found that the levels of serum PUFAs and related liver metabolic enzymes in the VPA rats were significantly reduced, in association with autism-like behavioral changes, the abnormal expression of apoptosis-related proteins and hippocampal neuronal injury, compared to the control rats and showed sex difference in VPA group. This finding indicated that rats exposed to VPA at the embryonic stage may exhibit reduced synthesis of serum PUFAs due to the down-regulation of liver metabolic enzymes, thereby inducing nervous system injury and behavioral changes, which is affected by sex in the meantime.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gang Zhao
- Department of Children's and Adolescent Health, Public Health College of Harbin Medical University, Harbin 150081, China
| | - Jingquan Gao
- Department of Nursing, Daqing Campus of Harbin Medical University, Daqing 163319, China
| | - Shuang Liang
- Department of Children's and Adolescent Health, Public Health College of Harbin Medical University, Harbin 150081, China
| | - Xuelai Wang
- Department of Children's and Adolescent Health, Public Health College of Harbin Medical University, Harbin 150081, China
| | - Caihong Sun
- Department of Children's and Adolescent Health, Public Health College of Harbin Medical University, Harbin 150081, China
| | - Wei Xia
- Department of Children's and Adolescent Health, Public Health College of Harbin Medical University, Harbin 150081, China
| | - Yanqiu Hao
- Department of Pediatric, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin 150081, China
| | - Xiang Li
- Department of Children's and Adolescent Health, Public Health College of Harbin Medical University, Harbin 150081, China
| | - Yonggang Cao
- Department of Pharmacology, Daqing Campus of Harbin Medical University, Daqing 163319, China.
| | - Lijie Wu
- Department of Children's and Adolescent Health, Public Health College of Harbin Medical University, Harbin 150081, China.
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129
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Codagnone MG, Podestá MF, Uccelli NA, Reinés A. Differential Local Connectivity and Neuroinflammation Profiles in the Medial Prefrontal Cortex and Hippocampus in the Valproic Acid Rat Model of Autism. Dev Neurosci 2015; 37:215-31. [DOI: 10.1159/000375489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2014] [Accepted: 01/26/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are a group of developmental disabilities characterized by impaired social interaction, communication deficit and repetitive and stereotyped behaviors. Neuroinflammation and synaptic alterations in several brain areas have been suggested to contribute to the physiopathology of ASD. Although the limbic system plays an important role in the functions found impaired in ASD, reports on these areas are scarce and results controversial. In the present study we searched in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) and hippocampus of rats exposed to the valproic acid (VPA) model of ASD for early structural and molecular changes, coincident in time with the behavioral alterations. After confirming delayed growth and maturation in VPA rats, we were able to detect decreased exploratory activity and social interaction at an early time point (postnatal day 35). In mPFC, although typical cortical column organization was preserved in VPA animals, we found that interneuronal space was wider than in controls. Hippocampal CA3 (cornu ammonis 3) pyramidal layer and the granular layer of the dentate gyrus both showed a disorganized spatial arrangement in VPA animals. Neuronal alterations were accompanied with increased tomato lectin and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) immunostainings both in the mPFC and hippocampus. In the latter region, the increased GFAP immunoreactivity was CA3 specific. At the synaptic level, while mPFC from VPA animals showed increased synaptophysin (SYN) immunostaining, a SYN deficit was found in all hippocampal subfields. Additionally, both the mPFC and the hippocampus of VPA rats showed increased neuronal cell adhesion molecule (NCAM) immunostaining together with decreased levels of its polysialylated form (PSA-NCAM). Interestingly, these changes were more robust in the CA3 hippocampal subfield. Our results indicate that exploratory and social deficits correlate with region-dependent neuronal disorganization and reactive gliosis in the mPFC and hippocampus of VPA rats. While microgliosis is spread in these two limbic areas, astrogliosis, although extended in the mPFC, is circumscribed to the CA3 hippocampal subfield. Our work indicates that neuroinflammation and synaptic alterations do coexist in VPA rats, making this model suitable for studying novel aspects of neuron-glia interactions. Moreover, it suggests that the mPFC and hippocampus might behave differently in the context of the local hyperconnectivity and synaptic hypotheses of autism.
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130
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Štefánik P, Olexová L, Kršková L. Increased sociability and gene expression of oxytocin and its receptor in the brains of rats affected prenatally by valproic acid. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2015; 131:42-50. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2015.01.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2014] [Revised: 01/27/2015] [Accepted: 01/30/2015] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
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131
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Perinatal Influences of Valproate on Brain and Behaviour: An Animal Model for Autism. Curr Top Behav Neurosci 2015; 29:363-386. [PMID: 26510739 DOI: 10.1007/7854_2015_404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Valproic acid or valproate (VPA) is an anti-convulsant and mood stabiliser effective in treating epilepsy and bipolar disorders. Although in adults VPA is well tolerated and safe, there is convincing evidence that it has teratogenic properties, ranging from mild neurodevelopmental changes to severe congenital malformations. In particular, studies involving humans and other animals have shown that prenatal exposure to VPA can induce developmental abnormalities reminiscent of autism spectrum disorder (ASD). In this chapter, we discuss the connection between VPA and ASD, evaluate the VPA animal model of ASD, and describe the possible molecular mechanisms underlying VPA's teratogenic properties.
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132
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MeCP2 Modulates Sex Differences in the Postsynaptic Development of the Valproate Animal Model of Autism. Mol Neurobiol 2014; 53:40-56. [PMID: 25404090 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-014-8987-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2014] [Accepted: 11/04/2014] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Males are predominantly affected by autism spectrum disorders (ASD) with a prevalence ratio of 5:1. However, the underlying pathological mechanisms governing the male preponderance of ASD remain unclear. Recent studies suggested that epigenetic aberrations may cause synaptic dysfunctions, which might be related to the pathophysiology of ASD. In this study, we used rat offspring prenatally exposed to valproic acid (VPA) as an animal model of ASD. We found male-selective abnormalities in the kinetic profile of the excitatory glutamatergic synaptic protein expressions linked to N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR), alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid receptor (AMPAR) and metabotropic glutamate receptor 5 (mGluR5) pathways in the prefrontal cortex of the VPA-exposed offspring at postnatal weeks 1, 2, and 4. Furthermore, VPA exposure showed a male-specific attenuation of the methyl-CpG-binding protein 2 (MeCP2) expressions both in the prefrontal cortex of offspring and in the gender-isolated neural progenitor cells (NPCs). In the gender-isolated NPCs culture, higher concentration of VPA induced an increased glutamatergic synaptic development along with decreased MeCP2 expression in both genders suggesting the role of MeCP2 in the modulation of synaptic development. In the small interfering RNA (siRNA) knock-down study, 50 pmol of Mecp2 siRNA inhibited the MeCP2 expression in male- but not in female-derived NPCs with concomitant induction of postsynaptic proteins such as PSD95. Taken together, we suggest that the male-inclined reduction of MeCP2 expression is involved in the abnormal development of glutamatergic synapse and male preponderance in the VPA animal models of ASD.
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133
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Bambini-Junior V, Nunes GDF, Schneider T, Gottfried C. Comment on "Oxytocin-mediated GABA inhibition during delivery attenuates autism pathogenesis in rodent offspring". Science 2014; 346:176. [PMID: 25301610 DOI: 10.1126/science.1255679] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Tyzio et al. (Reports, 7 February 2014, p. 675) reported that bumetanide restored the impaired oxytocin-mediated γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) excitatory-inhibitory shift during delivery in animal models of autism, ameliorating some autistic-like characteristics in the offspring. However, standard practices in the study of these models, such as the use of sex-dimorphic or males-only analyses and implementation of tests measuring social behavior, are lacking to definitely associate their findings to autism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victorio Bambini-Junior
- Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Research Group in Neuroglial Plasticity at the Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Health's Basic Science, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Translational Research Group in Autism Spectrum Disorders (GETTEA), Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil.
| | - Gustavo Della Flora Nunes
- Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Research Group in Neuroglial Plasticity at the Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Health's Basic Science, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Translational Research Group in Autism Spectrum Disorders (GETTEA), Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Tomasz Schneider
- School of Medicine, Pharmacy and Health, TS17 6BH, Durham University, Durham, UK
| | - Carmem Gottfried
- Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Research Group in Neuroglial Plasticity at the Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Health's Basic Science, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Translational Research Group in Autism Spectrum Disorders (GETTEA), Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
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134
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Mowery TM, Wilson SM, Kostylev PV, Dina B, Buchholz JB, Prieto AL, Garraghty PE. Embryological exposure to valproic acid disrupts morphology of the deep cerebellar nuclei in a sexually dimorphic way. Int J Dev Neurosci 2014; 40:15-23. [PMID: 25447790 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijdevneu.2014.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2014] [Revised: 09/26/2014] [Accepted: 10/23/2014] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) is diagnosed in males at a much higher rate than females. For this reason, the majority of autism research has used male subjects exclusively. However; more recent studies using genetic sex as a factor find that the development of the male and female brain is differentially affected by ASD. That is, the natural sex-specific differences that exist between male and female brains lead to sexually dimorphic expressions of autism. Here we investigate the putative sexual dimorphism that exists in the deep cerebellar nuclei of male and female rats exposed to valproic acid (VPA) on embryological day 12.5. We find natural sex-specific differences in adult nucleus area, length, and estimated cell populations. Therefore VPA exposure during embryology creates some sex-specific deficits such as higher cell counts in the VPA males and lower cell counts in the VPA females. At the same time, some effects of VPA exposure occur regardless of sex. That is, smaller nucleus area and length lead to truncated nuclei in both VPA males and females. These deficits are more pronounced in the VPA males suggesting that genetic sex could play a role in teratogenic susceptibility to VPA. Taken together our results suggests that VPA exposure induces sexually dimorphic aberrations in morphological development along a mediolateral gradient at a discrete region of the hindbrain approximate to rhombomere (R) 1 and 2. Sex-specific disruption of the local and long-range projections emanating from this locus of susceptibility could offer a parsimonious explanation for the brain-wide neuroanatomical variance reported in males and females with ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Todd M Mowery
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, United States.
| | - Sarah M Wilson
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, United States
| | - Polina V Kostylev
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, United States
| | - Blair Dina
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, United States
| | - Jennifer B Buchholz
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, United States
| | - Anne L Prieto
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, United States; Program in Neuroscience, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, United States
| | - Preston E Garraghty
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, United States; Program in Neuroscience, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, United States
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Abstract
OBJECTIVE Autism, a lifelong neuro-developmental disorder is a uniquely human condition. Animal models are not the perfect tools for the full understanding of human development and behavior, but they can be an important place to start. This review focused on the recent updates of animal model research in autism. METHODS We have reviewed the publications over the last three decades, which are related to animal model study in autism. RESULTS Animal models are important because they allow researchers to study the underlying neurobiology in a way that is not possible in humans. Improving the availability of better animal models will help the field to increase the development of medicines that can relieve disabling symptoms. Results from the therapeutic approaches are encouraging remarkably, since some behavioral alterations could be reversed even when treatment was performed on adult mice. Finding an animal model system with similar behavioral tendencies as humans is thus vital for understanding the brain mechanisms, supporting social motivation and attention, and the manner in which these mechanisms break down in autism. The ongoing studies should therefore increase the understanding of the biological alterations associated with autism as well as the development of knowledge-based treatments therapy for those struggling with autism. CONCLUSION In this review, we have presented recent advances in research based on animal models of autism, raising hope for understanding the disease biology for potential therapeutic intervention to improve the quality of life of autism individuals.
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Choi CS, Hong M, Kim KC, Kim JW, Yang SM, Seung H, Ko MJ, Choi DH, You JS, Shin CY, Bahn GH. Effects of atomoxetine on hyper-locomotive activity of the prenatally valproate-exposed rat offspring. Biomol Ther (Seoul) 2014; 22:406-13. [PMID: 25414770 PMCID: PMC4201219 DOI: 10.4062/biomolther.2014.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2014] [Revised: 06/23/2014] [Accepted: 07/21/2014] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
A substantial proportion of patients with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) display hyperactivity as a comorbid symptom. Exposure to valproic acid (VPA) during pregnancy produces ASD-like core behavioral phenotypes as well as hyperactivity in offspring both in human and experimental animals, which makes it a plausible model to study ASD-related neurobiological processes. In this study, we examined the effects of two of currently available attention defecit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) medications, methylphenidate (MPH) and atomoxetine (ATX) targeting dopamine and norepinephrine transporters (DAT and NET), respectively, on hyperactive behavior of prenatally VPA-exposed rat offspring. In the prefrontal cortex of VPA exposed rat offspring, both mRNA and protein expression of DAT was increased as compared with control. VPA function as a histone deacetylase inhibitor (HDACi) and chromatin immunoprecipitation experiments demonstrated that the acetylation of histone bound to DAT gene promoter was increased in VPA-exposed rat offspring suggesting epigenetic mechanism of DAT regulation. Similarly, the expression of NET was increased, possibly via increased histone acetylation in prefrontal cortex of VPA-exposed rat offspring. When we treated the VPA-exposed rat offspring with ATX, a NET selective inhibitor, hyperactivity was reversed to control level. In contrast, MPH that inhibits both DAT and NET, did not produce inhibitory effects against hyperactivity. The results suggest that NET abnormalities may underlie the hyperactive phenotype in VPA animal model of ASD. Profiling the pharmacological responsiveness as well as investigating underlying mechanism in multiple models of ASD and ADHD may provide more insights into the neurobiological correlates regulating the behavioral abnormalities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chang Soon Choi
- Department of Neuroscience and Center for Neuroscience Research, SMART Institute of Advanced Biomedical Sciences, Seoul 143-701 ; Department of Advanced Translational Medical Science, School of Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul 143-701
| | - Minha Hong
- Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, Dankook University Hospital, Cheonan 330-715 ; Department of Neuropsychiatry, School of Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 130-702, Republic of Korea
| | - Ki Chan Kim
- Department of Neuroscience and Center for Neuroscience Research, SMART Institute of Advanced Biomedical Sciences, Seoul 143-701 ; Department of Pharmacology, College of Pharmacy, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742
| | - Ji-Woon Kim
- Department of Neuroscience and Center for Neuroscience Research, SMART Institute of Advanced Biomedical Sciences, Seoul 143-701 ; Department of Advanced Translational Medical Science, School of Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul 143-701
| | - Sung Min Yang
- Department of Neuroscience and Center for Neuroscience Research, SMART Institute of Advanced Biomedical Sciences, Seoul 143-701 ; Department of Advanced Translational Medical Science, School of Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul 143-701
| | - Hana Seung
- Department of Neuroscience and Center for Neuroscience Research, SMART Institute of Advanced Biomedical Sciences, Seoul 143-701 ; Department of Advanced Translational Medical Science, School of Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul 143-701
| | - Mee Jung Ko
- Department of Neuroscience and Center for Neuroscience Research, SMART Institute of Advanced Biomedical Sciences, Seoul 143-701 ; Department of Advanced Translational Medical Science, School of Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul 143-701
| | - Dong-Hee Choi
- Department of Neuroscience and Center for Neuroscience Research, SMART Institute of Advanced Biomedical Sciences, Seoul 143-701
| | - Jueng Soo You
- Department of Neuroscience and Center for Neuroscience Research, SMART Institute of Advanced Biomedical Sciences, Seoul 143-701
| | - Chan Young Shin
- Department of Neuroscience and Center for Neuroscience Research, SMART Institute of Advanced Biomedical Sciences, Seoul 143-701 ; Department of Advanced Translational Medical Science, School of Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul 143-701
| | - Geon Ho Bahn
- Department of Neuropsychiatry, School of Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 130-702, Republic of Korea
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137
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Shen EY, Ahern TH, Cheung I, Straubhaar J, Dincer A, Houston I, de Vries GJ, Akbarian S, Forger NG. Epigenetics and sex differences in the brain: A genome-wide comparison of histone-3 lysine-4 trimethylation (H3K4me3) in male and female mice. Exp Neurol 2014; 268:21-9. [PMID: 25131640 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2014.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2014] [Revised: 07/30/2014] [Accepted: 08/05/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Many neurological and psychiatric disorders exhibit gender disparities, and sex differences in the brain likely explain some of these effects. Recent work in rodents points to a role for epigenetics in the development or maintenance of neural sex differences, although genome-wide studies have so far been lacking. Here we review the existing literature on epigenetics and brain sexual differentiation and present preliminary analyses on the genome-wide distribution of histone-3 lysine-4 trimethylation in a sexually dimorphic brain region in male and female mice. H3K4me3 is a histone mark primarily organized as 'peaks' surrounding the transcription start site of active genes. We microdissected the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis and preoptic area (BNST/POA) in adult male and female mice and used ChIP-Seq to compare the distribution of H3K4me3 throughout the genome. We found 248 genes and loci with a significant sex difference in H3K4me3. Of these, the majority (71%) had larger H3K4me3 peaks in females. Comparisons with existing databases indicate that genes and loci with increased H3K4me3 in females are associated with synaptic function and with expression atlases from related brain areas. Based on RT-PCR, only a minority of genes with a sex difference in H3K4me3 has detectable sex differences in expression at baseline conditions. Together with previous findings, our data suggest that there may be sex biases in the use of epigenetic marks. Such biases could underlie sex differences in vulnerabilities to drugs or diseases that disrupt specific epigenetic processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erica Y Shen
- Department of Psychiatry, Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA; Department of Neuroscience, Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Todd H Ahern
- Center for Behavioral Neuroscience, Department of Psychology, Quinnipiac University, Hamden, CT 06518, USA
| | - Iris Cheung
- Brudnick Neuropsychiatric Research Institute, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01604, USA
| | - Juerg Straubhaar
- Brudnick Neuropsychiatric Research Institute, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01604, USA
| | - Aslihan Dincer
- Department of Psychiatry, Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA; Department of Genetics and Genomics Science, Icahn Institute for Genomics and Multiscale Biology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Isaac Houston
- Brudnick Neuropsychiatric Research Institute, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01604, USA
| | - Geert J de Vries
- Neuroscience Institute, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA 30302, USA
| | - Schahram Akbarian
- Department of Psychiatry, Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA; Department of Neuroscience, Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Nancy G Forger
- Neuroscience Institute, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA 30302, USA.
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138
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Gender-dependent effects of maternal immune activation on the behavior of mouse offspring. PLoS One 2014; 9:e104433. [PMID: 25111339 PMCID: PMC4128679 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0104433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2014] [Accepted: 06/24/2014] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorders are neurodevelopmental disorders characterized by two core symptoms; impaired social interactions and communication, and ritualistic or repetitive behaviors. Both epidemiological and biochemical evidence suggests that a subpopulation of autistics may be linked to immune perturbations that occurred during fetal development. These findings have given rise to an animal model, called the "maternal immune activation" model, whereby the offspring from female rodents who were subjected to an immune stimulus during early or mid-pregnancy are studied. Here, C57BL/6 mouse dams were treated mid-gestation with saline, lipopolysaccharide (LPS) to mimic a bacterial infection, or polyinosinic:polycytidylic acid (Poly IC) to mimic a viral infection. Autism-associated behaviors were examined in the adult offspring of the treated dams. Behavioral tests were conducted to assess motor activity, exploration in a novel environment, sociability, and repetitive behaviors, and data analyses were carried independently on male and female mice. We observed a main treatment effect whereby male offspring from Poly IC-treated dams showed reduced motor activity. In the marble burying test of repetitive behavior, male offspring but not female offspring from both LPS and Poly IC-treated mothers showed increased marble burying. Our findings indicate that offspring from mothers subjected to immune stimulation during gestation show a gender-specific increase in stereotyped repetitive behavior.
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139
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Engineer CT, Centanni TM, Im KW, Borland MS, Moreno NA, Carraway RS, Wilson LG, Kilgard MP. Degraded auditory processing in a rat model of autism limits the speech representation in non-primary auditory cortex. Dev Neurobiol 2014; 74:972-86. [PMID: 24639033 DOI: 10.1002/dneu.22175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2013] [Revised: 02/17/2014] [Accepted: 03/07/2014] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Although individuals with autism are known to have significant communication problems, the cellular mechanisms responsible for impaired communication are poorly understood. Valproic acid (VPA) is an anticonvulsant that is a known risk factor for autism in prenatally exposed children. Prenatal VPA exposure in rats causes numerous neural and behavioral abnormalities that mimic autism. We predicted that VPA exposure may lead to auditory processing impairments which may contribute to the deficits in communication observed in individuals with autism. In this study, we document auditory cortex responses in rats prenatally exposed to VPA. We recorded local field potentials and multiunit responses to speech sounds in primary auditory cortex, anterior auditory field, ventral auditory field. and posterior auditory field in VPA exposed and control rats. Prenatal VPA exposure severely degrades the precise spatiotemporal patterns evoked by speech sounds in secondary, but not primary auditory cortex. This result parallels findings in humans and suggests that secondary auditory fields may be more sensitive to environmental disturbances and may provide insight into possible mechanisms related to auditory deficits in individuals with autism.
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Affiliation(s)
- C T Engineer
- School of Behavioral and Brain Sciences, The University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, Texas, 75080
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140
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de Theije CGM, Koelink PJ, Korte-Bouws GAH, Lopes da Silva S, Korte SM, Olivier B, Garssen J, Kraneveld AD. Intestinal inflammation in a murine model of autism spectrum disorders. Brain Behav Immun 2014; 37:240-7. [PMID: 24321212 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2013.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2013] [Revised: 11/25/2013] [Accepted: 12/02/2013] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a cluster of neurodevelopmental disorders characterized by impairments in communication, social interest and stereotypical behaviour. Dysfunction of the intestinal tract is reported in patients with ASD and implicated in the development and severity of ASD symptoms. However, more research is required to investigate the association of intestinal problems with ASD and the potential underlying mechanisms. The purpose of this study was to investigate comorbid symptoms of intestinal inflammation in a murine model of ASD induced by prenatal exposure to valproic acid (VPA). Pregnant BALB/c females were treated subcutaneously with 600 mg/kg VPA or phosphate buffered saline on gestational day 11. Offspring were housed with their mother until weaning on postnatal day 21 (P21). All pups were exposed to a social behaviour test on P28. Inflammatory correlates and activity of the serotonergic system were measured in brain and intestinal tissue. Here we demonstrate, in addition to reduced social behaviour and increased expression of neuroinflammatory markers in the brain, that VPA in utero- exposed male offspring showed epithelial cell loss and neutrophil infiltration in the intestinal tract. Furthermore, reduced levels of serotonin were not only observed the prefrontal cortex and amygdala of VPA in utero- exposed males, but also in the small intestine. Overall, we demonstrate that gender-specific inflammatory conditions are present in the small intestines of VPA in utero- exposed mice and are accompanied by a disturbed serotonergic system in the brain as well as in the intestinal tract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline G M de Theije
- Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands.
| | - Pim J Koelink
- Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Gerdien A H Korte-Bouws
- Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Sofia Lopes da Silva
- Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands; Nutricia Research, Uppsalalaan 12, 3584 CT Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - S Mechiel Korte
- Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Berend Olivier
- Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Johan Garssen
- Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands; Nutricia Research, Uppsalalaan 12, 3584 CT Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Aletta D Kraneveld
- Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands
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141
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Assessing behavioural and cognitive domains of autism spectrum disorders in rodents: current status and future perspectives. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2014; 231:1125-46. [PMID: 24048469 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-013-3268-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2013] [Accepted: 08/27/2013] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The establishment of robust and replicable behavioural testing paradigms with translational value for psychiatric diseases is a major step forward in developing and testing etiology-directed treatment for these complex disorders. Based on the existing literature, we have generated an inventory of applied rodent behavioural testing paradigms relevant to autism spectrum disorders (ASD). This inventory focused on previously used paradigms that assess behavioural domains that are affected in ASD, such as social interaction, social communication, repetitive behaviours and behavioural inflexibility, cognition as well as anxiety behaviour. A wide range of behavioural testing paradigms for rodents were identified. However, the level of face and construct validity is highly variable. The predictive validity of these paradigms is unknown, as etiology-directed treatments for ASD are currently not on the market. To optimise these studies, future efforts should address aspects of reproducibility and take into account data about the neurodevelopmental underpinnings and trajectory of ASD. In addition, with the increasing knowledge of processes underlying ASD, such as sensory information processes and synaptic plasticity, phenotyping efforts should include multi-level automated analysis of, for example, representative task-related behavioural and electrophysiological read-outs.
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142
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Altered gut microbiota and activity in a murine model of autism spectrum disorders. Brain Behav Immun 2014; 37:197-206. [PMID: 24333160 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2013.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 289] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2013] [Revised: 11/25/2013] [Accepted: 12/03/2013] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a heterogeneous group of complex neurodevelopmental disorders with evidence of genetic predisposition. Intestinal disturbances are reported in ASD patients and compositional changes in gut microbiota are described. However, the role of microbiota in brain disorders is poorly documented. Here, we used a murine model of ASD to investigate the relation between gut microbiota and autism-like behaviour. Using next generation sequencing technology, microbiota composition was investigated in mice in utero exposed to valproic acid (VPA). Moreover, levels of short chain fatty acids (SCFA) and lactic acid in caecal content were determined. Our data demonstrate a transgenerational impact of in utero VPA exposure on gut microbiota in the offspring. Prenatal VPA exposure affected operational taxonomic units (OTUs) assigned to genera within the main phyla of Bacteroidetes and Firmicutes and the order of Desulfovibrionales, corroborating human ASD studies. In addition, OTUs assigned to genera of Alistipes, Enterorhabdus, Mollicutes and Erysipelotrichalis were especially associated with male VPA-exposed offspring. The microbial differences of VPA in utero-exposed males deviated from those observed in females and was (i) positively associated with increased levels of caecal butyrate as well as ileal neutrophil infiltration and (ii) inversely associated with intestinal levels of serotonin and social behaviour scores. These findings show that autism-like behaviour and its intestinal phenotype is associated with altered microbial colonization and activity in a murine model for ASD, with preponderance in male offspring. These results open new avenues in the scientific trajectory of managing neurodevelopmental disorders by gut microbiome modulation.
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143
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Kim JW, Choi CS, Kim KC, Park JH, Seung H, Joo SH, Yang SM, Shin CY, Park SH. Gastrointestinal tract abnormalities induced by prenatal valproic Acid exposure in rat offspring. Toxicol Res 2014; 29:173-9. [PMID: 24386517 PMCID: PMC3877996 DOI: 10.5487/tr.2013.29.3.173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2013] [Revised: 09/25/2013] [Accepted: 09/27/2013] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
In-utero exposure to valproic acid (VPA) has been known as a potent inducer of autism spectrum disorder (ASD), not only in humans, but also in animals. In addition to the defects in communication and social interaction as well as repetitive behaviors, ASD patients usually suffer from gastrointestinal (GI) problems. However, the exact mechanism underlying these disorders is not known. In this study, we examined the gross GI tract structure and GI motility in a VPA animal model of ASD. On embryonic day 12 (E12), 4 pregnant Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats were subcutaneously injected with VPA (400 mg/kg) in the treatment group, and with phosphate buffered saline (PBS) in the control group; the resulting male offspring were analyzed at 4 weeks of age. VPA exposure decreased the thickness of tunica mucosa and tunica muscularis in the stomach and ileum. Other regions such as duodenum, jejunum, and colon did not show a significant difference. In high-resolution microscopic observation, atrophy of the parietal and chief cells in the stomach and absorptive cells in the ileum was observed. In addition, decreased staining of the epithelial cells was observed in the hematoxylin and eosin (H&E)-stained ileum section. Furthermore, decreased motility in GI tract was also observed in rat offspring prenatally exposed to VPA. However, the mechanism underlying GI tract defects in VPA animal model as well as the association between abnormal GI structure and function with ASD is yet to be clearly understood. Nevertheless, the results from the present study suggest that this VPA ASD model undergoes abnormal changes in the GI structure and function, which in turn could provide beneficial clues pertaining to the pathophysiological relevance of GI complications and ASD phenotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ji-Woon Kim
- Department of Neuroscience, School of Medicine and Center for Neuroscience Research, SMART Institute of Advanced Biomedical Sciences, Konkuk University, Korea
| | - Chang Soon Choi
- Department of Neuroscience, School of Medicine and Center for Neuroscience Research, SMART Institute of Advanced Biomedical Sciences, Konkuk University, Korea
| | - Ki Chan Kim
- Department of Neuroscience, School of Medicine and Center for Neuroscience Research, SMART Institute of Advanced Biomedical Sciences, Konkuk University, Korea
| | - Jin Hee Park
- Department of Neuroscience, School of Medicine and Center for Neuroscience Research, SMART Institute of Advanced Biomedical Sciences, Konkuk University, Korea
| | - Hana Seung
- Department of Neuroscience, School of Medicine and Center for Neuroscience Research, SMART Institute of Advanced Biomedical Sciences, Konkuk University, Korea
| | - So Hyun Joo
- Department of Neuroscience, School of Medicine and Center for Neuroscience Research, SMART Institute of Advanced Biomedical Sciences, Konkuk University, Korea
| | - Sung Min Yang
- Department of Neuroscience, School of Medicine and Center for Neuroscience Research, SMART Institute of Advanced Biomedical Sciences, Konkuk University, Korea
| | - Chan Young Shin
- Department of Neuroscience, School of Medicine and Center for Neuroscience Research, SMART Institute of Advanced Biomedical Sciences, Konkuk University, Korea ; Institute of Functional Genomics, Konkuk University, Korea
| | - Seung Hwa Park
- Department of Neuroscience, School of Medicine and Center for Neuroscience Research, SMART Institute of Advanced Biomedical Sciences, Konkuk University, Korea ; Institute of Functional Genomics, Konkuk University, Korea
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144
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Varlinskaya EI, Mooney SM. Acute exposure to ethanol on gestational day 15 affects social motivation of female offspring. Behav Brain Res 2013; 261:106-9. [PMID: 24355753 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2013.12.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2013] [Revised: 12/03/2013] [Accepted: 12/09/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Alterations in social behavior are a hallmark of many neurodevelopmental disorders in humans. In rodents, social behavior is affected by prenatal insults. The outcomes are dependent on the timing of the insult as well as the sex and age of the animal tested. The limbic system is particularly important for social behavior, and a peak of neurogenesis within this system occurs on gestational day (G)15. Neurons appear particularly vulnerable to ethanol insult around the time they become post-mitotic. We tested the hypothesis that acute exposure to ethanol on G15 would result in significant social behavior deficits. Accordingly, Long Evans pregnant females were injected with ethanol (2.9 g/kg) or an equivalent volume of saline on G15. Offspring were assessed in a modified social interaction test on postnatal day (P) 28, P42, or P75, i.e., during early adolescence, late adolescence, or young adulthood. Prenatal ethanol exposure decreased social investigation in P28 females and transformed social preference into social avoidance in 75-day-old females. Contact behavior, play fighting, and locomotor activity differed as a function of age, but were not significantly affected by ethanol exposure. Males demonstrated significantly more contact behavior and play fighting at P42 than at P28 or P70, whereas there were no age-related changes in females. Adult females showed more locomotor activity than adult males. Overall, prenatal ethanol exposure on G15 enhanced social anxiety in females, with these effects seen in adulthood only.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena I Varlinskaya
- Department of Psychology, Center for Development and Behavioral Neuroscience, Binghamton University, Binghamton, NY 13902, United States; Developmental Exposure Alcohol Research Center, Baltimore, MD 21201; Binghamton, NY 13902; Cortland, NY 13054; Syracuse, NY 13210, United States.
| | - Sandra M Mooney
- Developmental Exposure Alcohol Research Center, Baltimore, MD 21201; Binghamton, NY 13902; Cortland, NY 13054; Syracuse, NY 13210, United States; Department of Pediatrics, University of Maryland, Baltimore, MD 21201, United States; Department of Neuroscience and Physiology, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY 13210, United States(1).
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145
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Translational regulation of NeuroD1 expression by FMRP: involvement in glutamatergic neuronal differentiation of cultured rat primary neural progenitor cells. Cell Mol Neurobiol 2013; 34:297-305. [PMID: 24338128 DOI: 10.1007/s10571-013-0014-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2013] [Accepted: 11/27/2013] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Fragile X mental retardation protein (FMRP) is encoded by Fmr1 gene in which mutation is known to cause fragile X syndrome characterized by mental impairment and other psychiatric symptoms similar to autism spectrum disorders. FMRP plays important roles in cellular mRNA biology such as transport, stability, and translation as an RNA-binding protein. In the present study, we identified potential role of FMRP in the neural differentiation, using cortical neural progenitor cells from Sprague-Dawley rat. We newly found NeuroD1, an essential regulator of glutamatergic neuronal differentiation, as a new mRNA target interacting with FMRP in co-immunoprecipitation experiments. We also identified FMRP as a regulator of neuronal differentiation by modulating NeuroD1 expression. Down-regulation of FMRP by siRNA also increased NeuroD1 expression along with increased pre- and post-synaptic development of glutamatergic neuron, as evidenced by Western blot and immunocytochemistry. On the contrary, cells harboring FMRP over-expression construct showed decreased NeuroD1 expression. Treatment of cultured neural precursor cells with a histone deacetylase inhibitor, valproic acid known as an inducer of hyper-glutamatergic neuronal differentiation, down-regulated the expression of FMRP, and induced NeuroD1 expression. Our study suggests that modulation of FMRP expression regulates neuronal differentiation by interaction with its binding target mRNA, and provides an example of the gene and environmental interaction regulating glutamatergic neuronal differentiation.
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146
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5-HT1A-receptor agonist modified amygdala activity and amygdala-associated social behavior in a valproate-induced rat autism model. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 2013; 16:2027-39. [PMID: 23823694 DOI: 10.1017/s1461145713000473] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Accumulating evidence suggests that dysfunction of the amygdala is related to abnormal fear processing, anxiety, and social behaviors noted in autistic spectrum disorders (ASDs). In addition, studies have shown that disrupted brain serotonin homeostasis is linked to ASD. With a valproate (VPA)-induced rat ASD model, we investigated the possible role of amygdala serotonin homeostasis in autistic phenotypes and further explored the underlying mechanism. We first discovered that the distribution of tryptophan hydroxylase immunoreactivity in the caudal raphe system was modulated on postnatal day (PD) 28 of the VPA-exposed offspring. Then, we found a significantly higher serotonin transporter availability in the amygdala of the VPA-exposed offspring on PD 56 by using single photon emission computed tomography and computed tomography co-registration following injection of (123)I-labeled 2-((2-(dimethylamino)methyl)phenyl)thio)-5-iodophenylamine((123)I[ADAM]). Furthermore, treatment with 8-hydroxy-2-(di-n-propylamino)tetralin (8-OH-DPAT), a 5-HT1A receptor agonist, increased social interaction and improved fear memory extinction in the VPA-exposed offspring. 8-OH-DPAT treatment also reversed the characteristics of miniature excitatory post-synaptic currents as well as paired pulse facilitation observed in lateral amygdala slices. These results provided further evidence to support the role of the amygdala in characteristic behavioral changes in the rat ASD model. The serotonergic projections that modulate the amygdala function might play a certain role in the development and treatment of behavioral symptoms exhibited in individuals with ASD.
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147
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Ali EH, Elgoly AHM. Combined prenatal and postnatal butyl paraben exposure produces autism-like symptoms in offspring: Comparison with valproic acid autistic model. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2013; 111:102-10. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2013.08.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2013] [Revised: 08/23/2013] [Accepted: 08/31/2013] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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148
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de Bartolomeis A, Latte G, Tomasetti C, Iasevoli F. Glutamatergic postsynaptic density protein dysfunctions in synaptic plasticity and dendritic spines morphology: relevance to schizophrenia and other behavioral disorders pathophysiology, and implications for novel therapeutic approaches. Mol Neurobiol 2013; 49:484-511. [PMID: 23999870 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-013-8534-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2013] [Accepted: 08/13/2013] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Emerging researches point to a relevant role of postsynaptic density (PSD) proteins, such as PSD-95, Homer, Shank, and DISC-1, in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia and autism spectrum disorders. The PSD is a thickness, detectable at electronic microscopy, localized at the postsynaptic membrane of glutamatergic synapses, and made by scaffolding proteins, receptors, and effector proteins; it is considered a structural and functional crossroad where multiple neurotransmitter systems converge, including the dopaminergic, serotonergic, and glutamatergic ones, which are all implicated in the pathophysiology of psychosis. Decreased PSD-95 protein levels have been reported in postmortem brains of schizophrenia patients. Variants of Homer1, a key PSD protein for glutamate signaling, have been associated with schizophrenia symptoms severity and therapeutic response. Mutations in Shank gene have been recognized in autism spectrum disorder patients, as well as reported to be associated to behaviors reminiscent of schizophrenia symptoms when expressed in genetically engineered mice. Here, we provide a critical appraisal of PSD proteins role in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia and autism spectrum disorders. Then, we discuss how antipsychotics may affect PSD proteins in brain regions relevant to psychosis pathophysiology, possibly by controlling synaptic plasticity and dendritic spine rearrangements through the modulation of glutamate-related targets. We finally provide a framework that may explain how PSD proteins might be useful candidates to develop new therapeutic approaches for schizophrenia and related disorders in which there is a need for new biological treatments, especially against some symptom domains, such as negative symptoms, that are poorly affected by current antipsychotics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea de Bartolomeis
- Laboratory of Molecular and Translational Psychiatry, Unit of Treatment Resistant Psychosis, Department of Neuroscience, Reproductive and Odontostomatologic Sciences, Section of Psychiatry, University School of Medicine "Federico II", Via Pansini 5, 80131, Naples, Italy,
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149
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Favre MR, Barkat TR, LaMendola D, Khazen G, Markram H, Markram K. General developmental health in the VPA-rat model of autism. Front Behav Neurosci 2013; 7:88. [PMID: 23898245 PMCID: PMC3721005 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2013.00088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2013] [Accepted: 07/01/2013] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Autism is a neurodevelopmental condition diagnosed by impaired social interaction, abnormal communication and, stereotyped behaviors. While post-mortem and imaging studies have provided good insights into the neurobiological symptomology of autism, animal models can be used to study the neuroanatomical, neurophysiological and molecular mediators in more detail and in a more controlled environment. The valproic acid (VPA) rat model is an environmentally triggered model with strong construct and clinical validity. It is based on VPA teratogenicity in humans, where mothers who are medicated with VPA during early pregnancy show an increased risk for giving birth to an autistic child. In rats, early embryonic exposure, around the time of neural tube closure, leads to autism-like anatomical and behavioral abnormalities in the offspring. Considering the increasing use of the VPA rat model, we present our observations of the general health of Wistar dams treated with a single intraperitoneal injection of 500 or, 600 mg/kg VPA on embryonic day E12.5, as well as their male and female offspring, in comparison to saline-exposed controls. We report increased rates of complete fetal reabsorption after both VPA doses. VPA 500 mg/kg showed no effect on dam body weight during pregnancy or, on litter size. Offspring exposed to VPA 500 mg/kg showed smaller brain mass on postnatal days 1 (P1) and 14 (P14), in addition to abnormal nest seeking behavior at P10 in the olfactory discrimination test, relative to controls. We also report increased rates of physical malformations in the offspring, rare occurrences of chromodacryorrhea and, developmentally similar body mass gain. Further documentation of developmental health may guide sub-grouping of individuals in a way to better predict core symptom severity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mônica R. Favre
- Laboratory of Neural Microcircuits, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de LausanneLausanne, Switzerland
| | - Tania R. Barkat
- Department of Neuroscience and Pharmacology, Copenhagen UniversityCopenhagen, Denmark
| | - Deborah LaMendola
- Laboratory of Neural Microcircuits, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de LausanneLausanne, Switzerland
| | - Georges Khazen
- Computer Science and Mathematics Department, School of Arts and Sciences, Lebanese American UniversityByblos, Lebanon
| | - Henry Markram
- Laboratory of Neural Microcircuits, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de LausanneLausanne, Switzerland
| | - Kamila Markram
- Laboratory of Neural Microcircuits, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de LausanneLausanne, Switzerland
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Kerr DM, Downey L, Conboy M, Finn DP, Roche M. Alterations in the endocannabinoid system in the rat valproic acid model of autism. Behav Brain Res 2013; 249:124-32. [PMID: 23643692 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2013.04.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2013] [Revised: 04/22/2013] [Accepted: 04/24/2013] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The endocannabinoid system plays a crucial role in regulating emotionality and social behaviour, however it is unknown whether this system plays a role in symptoms associated with autism spectrum disorders. The current study evaluated if alterations in the endocannabinoid system accompany behavioural changes in the valproic acid (VPA) rat model of autism. Adolescent rats prenatally exposed to VPA exhibited impaired social investigatory behaviour, hypoalgesia and reduced lococmotor activity on exposure to a novel aversive arena. Levels of the endocananbinoids, anandamide (AEA) and 2-arachidonylglycerol (2-AG) in the hippocampus, frontal cortex or cerebellum were not altered in VPA- versus saline-exposed animals. However, the expression of mRNA for diacylglycerol lipase α, the enzyme primarily responsible for the synthesis of 2-AG, was reduced in the cerebellum of VPA-exposed rats. Furthermore, while the expression of mRNA for the 2-AG-catabolising enzyme monoacylglycerol lipase was reduced, the activity of this enzyme was increased, in the hippocampus of VPA-exposed animals. CB1 or CB2 receptor expression was not altered in any of the regions examined, however VPA-exposed rats exhibited reduced PPARα and GPR55 expression in the frontal cortex and PPARγ and GPR55 expression in the hippocampus, additional receptor targets of the endocannabinoids. Furthermore, tissue levels of the fatty acid amide hydrolase substrates, AEA, oleoylethanolamide and palmitoylethanolamide, were higher in the hippocampus of VPA-exposed rats immediately following social exposure. These data indicate that prenatal VPA exposure is associated with alterations in the brain's endocannabinoid system and support the hypothesis that endocannabinoid dysfunction may underlie behavioural abnormalities observed in autism spectrum disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- D M Kerr
- Physiology, School of Medicine, National University of Ireland Galway, Ireland
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