2019 Novel Coronavirus (COVID-19) Pandemic: Built Environment Considerations To Reduce Transmission

Identification of Novel Neutralizing Monoclonal Antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 Spike Glycoprotein

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is caused by the newly emerged human coronavirus, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Due to the highly contagious nature of SARS-CoV-2, it has infected more than 137 million individuals and caused more than 2.9 million deaths globally as of April 13, 2021. There is an urgent need to develop effective novel therapeutic strategies to treat or prevent this infection. Toward this goal, we focused on the development of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) directed against the SARS-CoV-2 spike glycoprotein (SARS-CoV-2 Spike) present on the surface of virus particles as well as virus-infected cells. We isolated anti-SARS-CoV-2 Spike mAbs from animals immunized with a DNA vaccine. We then selected a highly potent set of mAbs against SARS-CoV-2 Spike protein and evaluated each candidate for their expression, target binding affinity, and neutralization potential using complementary ACE2-blocking and pseudovirus neutralization assays. We identified a total of 10 antibodies, which specifically and strongly bound to SARS-CoV-2 Spike, blocked the receptor binding domain (RBD) and angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) interaction, and neutralized SARS-CoV-2. Furthermore, the glycomic profile of the antibodies suggested that they have high Fc-mediated effector functions. These antibodies should be further investigated for elucidating the neutralizing epitopes on Spike for the design of next-generation vaccines and for their potential in diagnostic as well as therapeutic utilities against SARS-CoV-2.

Indoor Air Quality Strategies for Air-Conditioning and Ventilation Systems with the Spread of the Global Coronavirus (COVID-19) Epidemic: Improvements and Recommendations

The coronavirus has come to the world and spread with great wide among the countries of the world and has resulted in numerous infections that exceeded 167,181,023 million patients and are close to 3.5 deaths by September 2021. It also brought with it panic and fear, halted many activities, and led to the decline of the global economy. It changed human behavior and forced people to change their lifestyles to avoid infection. One of the most sectors that must be taken into consideration through pandemic coronavirus (COVID-19) around the globe is the air conditioning systems. The HVAC systems depend on the air as a heat transfer medium. The air contains a group of pollutants, viruses, and bacteria, and it affects and destroys human life. The air filter plays a major role as an important component in the air conditioning systems. Thus, it requires more effort by researchers to improve its design to prevent the ultra-size of particles loaded with coronavirus (COVID-19). This paper provides insight into the design of existing combined air-conditioners on their suitability and their impact on the spread of the hybrid coronavirus epidemic and review efforts to obtain a highly efficient air filter to get rid of super-sized particles for protection against epidemic infection. In addition, important guideline recommendations have been made to limit the spread of the COVID-19 virus and to obtain indoor air quality in air-conditioned places.

Addressing COVID-19 contagion through the HVAC systems by reviewing indoor airborne nature of infectious microbes: Will an innovative air recirculation concept provide a practical solution?

As the world continues to grapple with the reality of coronavirus disease, global research communities are racing to develop practical solutions to adjust to the new challenges. One such challenge is the control of indoor air quality in the COVID-19 era and beyond. Since COVID-19 became a global pandemic, the "super spread" of the virus has continued to amaze policymakers despite measures put in place by public health officials to sensitize the general public on the need for social distancing, personal hygiene, etc. In this work, we have reviewed the literature to demonstrate, by investigating the historical and present circumstances, that indoor spread of infectious diseases may be assisted by the conditions of the HVAC systems. While little consideration has been given to the possibility of indoor airborne transmission of the virus, the available reports have demonstrated that the virus, with average aerodynamic diameter up to 80-120 nm, is viable as aerosol in indoor atmosphere for more than 3 h, and its spread may be assisted by the HVAC systems. Having reviewed the vulnerability of the conventional ventilation systems, we recommend innovative air circulation concept supported by the use of UVGI in combination with nanoporous air filter to combat the spread of SARS-CoV-2 and other harmful microbes in enclosed spaces.

Investigating the Links Between Vaccination Against COVID-19 and Public Attitudes Toward Protective Countermeasures: Implications for Public Health

The COVID-19 pandemic caused by the novel coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2, is spreading globally at an unprecedented rate. To protect the world against this devastating catastrophe, vaccines for SARS-CoV-2 have been produced following consistent clinical trials. However, the durability of a protective immune response due to vaccination has not been confirmed. Moreover, COVID-19 vaccination against SARS-CoV-2 is not 100% guaranteed, as new variants arise due to mutations. Consequently, health officials are pleading with the public to take extra precautions against the virus and continue wearing masks, wash hands, and observe physical distancing even after vaccination. The current research collected data from 4,540 participants (1,825 vaccinated and 2,715 not vaccinated) in China to analyze this phenomenon empirically. The propensity score matching (PSM) model is employed to analyze the impact of vaccination against COVID-19 on participants' attitudes toward protective countermeasures. The findings showed that gender, age, education level, occupation risk, individual health risk perception, public health risk perception, social responsibility, peer effect, and government supervision are the main drivers for participants to be vaccinated with COVID-19's vaccines. The results further show that vaccination lessened participants' frequency of hand washing by 1.75 times and their compliance frequency intensity of observing physical distancing by 1.24 times. However, the rate of mask-wearing did not reduce significantly, implying that China's main countermeasure of effective mask-wearing effectively controls COVID-19. Moreover, the findings indicate that a reduction in the frequency of hand washing and observing physical distance could cause a resurgence of COVID-19. In conclusion, factors leading to the eradication of SARS-CoV-2 from the world are complex to be achieved, so the exploration of COVID-19 vaccination and people's attitude toward protective countermeasures may provide insights for policymakers to encourage vaccinated people to follow protective health measures and help in completely defeating the COVID-19 from the globe.

Review of Associations between Built Environment Characteristics and Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 Infection Risk

The coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic has stimulated intensive research interest in its transmission pathways and infection factors, e.g., socioeconomic and demographic characteristics, climatology, baseline health conditions or pre-existing diseases, and government policies. Meanwhile, some empirical studies suggested that built environment attributes may be associated with the transmission mechanism and infection risk of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). However, no review has been conducted to explore the effect of built environment characteristics on the infection risk. This research gap prevents government officials and urban planners from creating effective urban design guidelines to contain SARS-CoV-2 infections and face future pandemic challenges. This review summarizes evidence from 25 empirical studies and provides an overview of the effect of built environment on SARS-CoV-2 infection risk. Virus infection risk was positively associated with the density of commercial facilities, roads, and schools and with public transit accessibility, whereas it was negatively associated with the availability of green spaces. This review recommends several directions for future studies, namely using longitudinal research design and individual-level data, considering multilevel factors and extending to diversified geographic areas.

Efficacy of "Essential Iodine Drops" against Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome-Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)

BACKGROUND

Aerosolization of respiratory droplets is considered the main route of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Therefore, reducing the viral load of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome-Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) shed via respiratory droplets is potentially an ideal strategy to prevent the spread of the pandemic. The in vitro virucidal activity of intranasal Povidone-Iodine (PVP-I) has been demonstrated recently to reduce SARS-CoV-2 viral titres. This study evaluated the virucidal activity of the aqueous solution of Iodine-V (a clathrate complex formed by elemental iodine and fulvic acid) as in Essential Iodine Drops (EID) with 200 μg elemental iodine/ml content against SARS-CoV-2 to ascertain whether it is a better alternative to PVP-I.

METHODS

SARS-CoV-2 (USAWA1/2020 strain) virus stock was prepared by infecting Vero 76 cells (ATCC CRL-1587) until cytopathic effect (CPE). The virucidal activity of EID against SARS-CoV-2 was tested in three dilutions (1:1; 2:1 and 3:1) in triplicates by incubating at room temperature (22 ± 2°C) for either 60 or 90 seconds. The surviving viruses from each sample were quantified by a standard end-point dilution assay.

RESULTS

EID (200 μg iodine/ml) after exposure for 60 and 90 seconds was compared to controls. In both cases, the viral titre was reduced by 99% (LRV 2.0). The 1:1 dilution of EID with virus reduced SARS-CoV-2 virus from 31,623 cell culture infectious dose 50% (CCID50) to 316 CCID50 within 90 seconds.

CONCLUSION

Substantial reductions in LRV by Iodine-V in EID confirmed the activity of EID against SARS-CoV-2 in vitro, demonstrating that Iodine-V in EID is effective at inactivating the virus in vitro and therefore suggesting its potential application intranasally to reduce SARS-CoV-2 transmission from known or suspected COVID-19 patients.

High-Fidelity Simulation of Pathogen Propagation, Transmission and Mitigation in the Built Environment

An overview of high-fidelity modeling of pathogen propagation, transmission and mitigation in the built environment is given. In order to derive the required physical and numerical models, the current understanding of pathogen, and in particular virus transmission and mitigation is summarized. The ordinary and partial differential equations that describe the flow, the particles and possibly the UV radiation loads in rooms or HVAC ducts are presented, as well as proper numerical methods to solve them in an expedient way. Thereafter, the motion of pedestrians, as well as proper ways to couple computational fluid dynamics and computational crowd dynamics to enable high-fidelity pathogen transmission and infection simulations is treated. The present review shows that high-fidelity simulations of pathogen propagation, transmission and mitigation in the built environment have reached a high degree of sophistication, offering a quantum leap in accuracy from simpler probabilistic models. This is particularly the case when considering the propagation of pathogens via aerosols in the presence of moving pedestrians.

Multi-source sensor based urban habitat and resident health sensing: A case study of Wuhan, China

The COVID-19 pandemic undoubtedly has a great impact on the world economy, especially the urban economy. It is urgent to study the environmental pathogenic factors and transmission route of it. We want to discuss the relationship between the urban living environment and the number of confirmed cases at the community scale, and examine the driving forces of community infection (e.g., environment, ecology, convenience, livability, and population density). Besides, we hope that our research will help make our cities more inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustainable. 650 communities with confirmed COVID-19 cases in Wuhan were selected as the research objects. We utilize deep learning semantic segmentation technology to calculate the Visible Green Index (VGI) and Sky View Factor (SVF) of street view and use Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) to study the driving forces of pandemic situation. Temperature and humidity information recorded by sensors was also used for urban sensing. We find that the more SVF has a certain inhibitory effect on the virus transmission, but contrary to our intuitive perception, higher VGI has a certain promotion effect. Also, the structural equation model constructed in this paper can explain the variance of 28.9% of the number of confirmed cases, and results (path coef.) demonstrate that residential density of community (0.517) is a major influencing factor for pandemic cases, whereas convenience of community living (0.234) strongly influence it. Communities with good suitability of community human settlement (e.g., construction time, price) are safer in the face of pandemic events. Does the influence of SVF and VGI on the results of the pandemic situation mean that sunlight can effectively block the spread of the virus? This spatial heterogeneity in different communities is helpful for us to explore the environmental transmission route of COVID-19.

A Membrane-Targeting Photosensitizer with Aggregation-Induced Emission Characteristics for Highly Efficient Photodynamic Combat of Human Coronaviruses

COVID-19 pandemic, caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2, has resulted in global social and economic disruption, putting the world economy to the largest global recession since the Great Depression. To control the spread of COVID-19, cutting off the transmission route is a critical step. In this work, the efficient inactivation of human coronavirus with photodynamic therapy (PDT) by employing photosensitizers with aggregation-induced emission characteristics (DTTPB) is reported. DTTPB is designed to bear a hydrophilic head and two hydrophobic tails, mimicking the structure of phospholipids on biological membranes. DTTPB demonstrates a broad absorption band covering the whole visible light range and high molar absorptivity, as well as excellent reactive oxygen species sensitizing ability, making it an excellent candidate for PDT. Besides, DTTPB can target membrane structure, and bind to the envelope of human coronaviruses. Upon light irradiation, DTTPB demonstrates highly effective antiviral behavior: human coronavirus treated with DTTPB and white-light irradiation can be efficiently inactivated with complete loss of infectivity, as revealed by the significant decrease of virus RNA and proteins in host cells. Thus, DTTPB sensitized PDT can efficiently prevent the infection and the spread of human coronavirus, which provides a new avenue for photodynamic combating of COVID-19.

Can Copper Products and Surfaces Reduce the Spread of Infectious Microorganisms and Hospital-Acquired Infections?

Pathogen transfer and infection in the built environment are globally significant events, leading to the spread of disease and an increase in subsequent morbidity and mortality rates. There are numerous strategies followed in healthcare facilities to minimize pathogen transfer, but complete infection control has not, as yet, been achieved. However, based on traditional use in many cultures, the introduction of copper products and surfaces to significantly and positively retard pathogen transmission invites further investigation. For example, many microbes are rendered unviable upon contact exposure to copper or copper alloys, either immediately or within a short time. In addition, many disease-causing bacteria such as E. coli O157:H7, hospital superbugs, and several viruses (including SARS-CoV-2) are also susceptible to exposure to copper surfaces. It is thus suggested that replacing common touch surfaces in healthcare facilities, food industries, and public places (including public transport) with copper or alloys of copper may substantially contribute to limiting transmission. Subsequent hospital admissions and mortality rates will consequently be lowered, with a concomitant saving of lives and considerable levels of resources. This consideration is very significant in times of the COVID-19 pandemic and the upcoming epidemics, as it is becoming clear that all forms of possible infection control measures should be practiced in order to protect community well-being and promote healthy outcomes.

Efficiency of an air circulation decontamination device for micro-organisms using ultraviolet radiation

BACKGROUND

The concern with environmental security to avoid contamination of individuals was intensified with the crisis established by SARS-CoV-2. The COVID-19 pandemic has shown the necessity to create systems and devices capable of clearing the air in an environment of micro-organisms more efficiently. The development of systems that allow the removal of micro-droplets mainly originating from breathing or talking from the air was the motivation of this study.

AIM

This article describes a portable and easy-to-operate system that helps to eliminate the droplets or aerosols present in the environment by circulating air through an ultraviolet-C (UV-C) reactor.

METHODS

An air circulation device was developed, and a proof-of-principle study was performed using the device against bacteria in simulated and natural environments. The microbiological analysis was carried out by the simple sedimentation technique. In order to compare the experimental results and the expected results for other micro-organisms, the reduction rate values for bacteria and viruses were calculated and compared with the experimental results based on technical parameters (clean air delivery rate (CADR) and air changes per hour (ACH)).

FINDINGS

Results showed that the micro-organisms were eliminated with high efficiency by the air circulation decontamination device, with reductions of 99.9% in the proof-of-principle study, and 84-97% in the hospital environments study, contributing to reducing contamination of individuals in environments considered to present risk.

CONCLUSION

This study resulted in a low-cost and relatively simple device, which was shown to be effective and safe, and could be replicated, especially in low-income countries, respecting the standards for air disinfection using UV-C technologies.

Performance Investigation of a Hollow Fiber Membrane-Based Desiccant Liquid Air Dehumidification System

The membrane-based desiccant liquid air dehumidification system is a promising technology for efficient humidity control in buildings. The use of a membrane module allows, among other things, for a compact design with a relatively large heat and mass transfer area and eliminates carryover of solution droplets. In this paper, a cross-flow, hollow-fiber membrane module was proposed for air dehumidification and regeneration of lithium chloride. A two-dimensional heat and mass transfer model for cross-flow in a membrane module used for air dehumidification and liquid desiccant regeneration was developed. The effectiveness, moisture removal rate and moisture removal rate were studied numerically and validated against experimental results. Based on the numerical simulations, the most favorable ranges of operating conditions were determined. It was found that the operating conditions significantly impact the dehumidification performance. The proposed dehumidifier maintains its performance in a wide range of inlet air humidity ratios. For dehumidification, the recommended temperature of the incoming solution was in the range of 14–18 °C, while for regeneration the solution range was 40–50 °C. The packing fraction was suggested in the range of 0.30–0.40. These results can help design membrane-based liquid dehumidification systems.

COVID-19 and acute inpatient psychiatry: the shape of things to come

Psychiatric services that provide acute inpatient care have to respond to the challenges brought about by the COVID-19 pandemic to consistently deliver high standards of treatment to patients and ensure the safety of staff. This can only be achieved by fostering a culture that rewards initiative and empowers inpatient teams to implement and comply with changes which everyone understands and benefits from. The experience of an inner London acute psychiatric unit has shown the value of combining proactive leadership, multidisciplinary decision making and good communication in adapting services to an everchanging environment. Practical solutions have emerged that have improved service delivery and patient care, and which will likely outlast the COVID-19 pandemic. These include changes to team work and routine, streamlining patient care with a focus on goal directed admissions, developing a healthier work environment and adopting novel technology in patient care and multidisciplinary collaboration.KEY POINTSPsychiatric inpatient units have to manage the COVID-19 crisis alongside the risk of acutely disturbed behaviour, while ensuring high standards of care and patient throughput.To respond to the COVID-19 crisis, inpatient units have to foster a culture that rewards initiative and empowers teams to implement and comply with changes that everyone understands and benefits from.Adaptive strategies should include good communication, a healthy work environment, flexible rules, dynamic infection control and adopting novel technology for clinical care and multidisciplinary work.Proactive leadership, multidisciplinary teamwork, transparency and a shared ethos of responsibility are the main tools to build effective inpatient teams.

Impact of COVID-19 on IoT Adoption in Healthcare, Smart Homes, Smart Buildings, Smart Cities, Transportation and Industrial IoT

COVID-19 has disrupted normal life and has enforced a substantial change in the policies, priorities and activities of individuals, organisations and governments. These changes are proving to be a catalyst for technology and innovation. In this paper, we discuss the pandemic's potential impact on the adoption of the Internet of Things (IoT) in various broad sectors, namely healthcare, smart homes, smart buildings, smart cities, transportation and industrial IoT. Our perspective and forecast of this impact on IoT adoption is based on a thorough research literature review, a careful examination of reports from leading consulting firms and interactions with several industry experts. For each of these sectors, we also provide the details of notable IoT initiatives taken in the wake of COVID-19. We also highlight the challenges that need to be addressed and important research directions that will facilitate accelerated IoT adoption.

Environmental health research and the COVID-19 pandemic: A turning point towards sustainability

Based on a review of COVID-19 research from an environmental health perspective, this study theorizes the interdependence of the society, environment and health, and presents an integrated framework for environmental health problems arising due to COVID-19. Five guiding principles are proposed for conducting environmental health research, including employing a transdisciplinary approach, embracing complexity and uncertainty, addressing vulnerability, boosting resilience and promoting sustainable development. This study propagates that the pandemic could be an opportunity for sustainable transformation, wherein visionary leadership that facilitates sustainability policies based on environmental health science is required. This study can serve as a consolidated guide for professionals and stakeholders who conduct environmental health research in this challenging field.

COVID-19 Cases Among Employees of U.S. Federal and State Prisons

INTRODUCTION

Previous research has found COVID-19 cases to be disproportionately prevalent among U.S. prisoners. Similar to prisoners, prison staff experience ventilation and social distancing hazards and may have limited access to testing, paid sick leave, personal protective equipment, and other workplace protections. Yet, systematic case surveillance among prison staff remains unexplored. The objective of this study is to document the trends in COVID-19 cases among U.S. correctional staff relative to those among prisoners and the U.S.

POPULATION

METHODS

Reports of COVID-19 cases among prisoners and staff were collected from state Departments of Corrections and the Federal Bureau of Prisons from March 31, 2020 to November 4, 2020. In November 2020, this series of aggregated case records was linked to population estimates to calculate COVID-19 period prevalence among prison staff and residents in comparison with the U.S. population trends.

RESULTS

Within the prison environment, COVID-19 case burden was initially higher among staff than among prisoners in 89% of jurisdictions. Case prevalence escalated more quickly among prisoners but has remained persistently high among staff. By November 4, 2020, COVID-19 was 3.2 times more prevalent among prison staff than among the U.S.

POPULATION

CONCLUSIONS

Prison staff experienced substantially higher COVID-19 case prevalence than the U.S. population overall. Across prison staff and resident populations, cases were rapidly rising in November 2020, indicating poor outbreak containment within the prison environment. An Emergency Temporary Standard, issued by federal and state Occupational Safety and Health Administrations, and priority vaccination are urgently needed to reduce COVID-19 occupational risk. Reduced occupational transmission of COVID-19 will benefit workers, incarcerated people, and community members alike.

Could thermodynamics and heat and mass transfer research produce a fundamental step advance toward and significant reduction of SARS-COV-2 spread?

We are living an extraordinary season of uncertainty and danger, which is caused by SARS-Cov-2 infection and consequent COVID-19 infection. This preliminary study comes from both a mix of entrepreneurial experience and scientific research. It is aimed by the exigency to reach a new and more effective analysis of the risks on the filed and to reduce them inside a necessary cooperation process which may regard both research and some of the economic activities which are damaged by passive protection measures such as indiscriminate lockdowns. This global emergency requires specific efforts by any discipline that regards specific problems which need to be solved urgently. The characteristic airborne diffusion patterns of COVID-19 shows that the airborne presence of viruses depends on multiple factors which include the dimension of microdroplets emitted by a contagious person, the atmospheric temperature and humidity, the presence of atmospheric particulate and pollution, which may act as a transport vehicle for the virus. The pandemic diffusion shows a particular correlation with the air quality and levels of atmospheric pollution. Specific problems need to solved to understand better the virus, its reliability, diffusion, replication, how it attacks the persons and the conditions, which drives to both positive and deadly evolution of the illness. Most of these problems may benefit from the contribution from both heat and mass transfer and the unsteady thermodynamics of living systems which evolves according to constructal law. After the bibliographic research on the virus, emissive and spread modes, and consequent today adopted protection, a detailed analysis of the contributions which may be assessed by research in thermodynamics, heat and mass transfer, technical and chemical physics. Some possible areas of research have been identified and discussed to start an effective mobilization which may support the effort of the research toward a significant reduction of the impacts of the pandemic infection and the economic risks of new generalized lockdowns.

The blueprint of disaster: COVID-19, the Flint water crisis, and unequal ecological impacts

COVID-19 is unique in the scope of its effects on morbidity and mortality. However, the factors contributing to its disparate racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic effects are part of an expansive and continuous history of oppressive social policy and marginalising geopolitics. This history is characterised by institutionally generated spatial inequalities forged through processes of residential segregation and neglectful urban planning. In the USA, aspects of COVID-19's manifestation closely mirror elements of the build-up and response to the Flint crisis, Michigan's racially and class-contoured water crisis that began in 2014, and to other prominent environmental injustice cases, such as the 1995 Chicago (IL, USA) heatwave that severely affected the city's south and west sides, predominantly inhabited by Black people. Each case shares common macrosocial and spatial characteristics and is instructive in showing how civic trust suffers in the aftermath of public health disasters, becoming especially degenerative among historically and spatially marginalised populations. Offering a commentary on the sociogeographical dynamics that gave rise to these crises and this institutional distrust, we discuss how COVID-19 has both inherited and augmented patterns of spatial inequality. We conclude by outlining particular steps that can be taken to prevent and reduce spatial inequalities generated by COVID-19, and by discussing the preliminary steps to restore trust between historically disenfranchised communities and the public officials and institutions tasked with responding to COVID-19.

Effect of lockdown on activities of daily living in the built environment and wellbeing

In an effort to arrest the spread of coronavirus (COVID-19) infection, a nationwide lockdown was declared in India in March 2020. To assess how personal built environments affected the citizens in the first few weeks, an explorative online survey was conducted, eliciting responses about work habits before the lockdown, psychological wellbeing, time spent in various activities, characteristics of those who worked from home, and food and sleep patterns. We received 121 (76 male and 45 female) responses with an average age of 35.5 years [max: 70 years, min: 18 years, standard deviation (SD): 12.9 years]. The major difference caused by the lockdown was a reduction in the time taken and distance travelled of the commute to workplaces, which was an average of 30 minutes and 9.5 km, respectively. In terms of diet, subjects who were vegetarian did not experience any difference, unlike those who were non-vegetarians (p < 0.05). The results show an association of the dependent variable of 'feeling in general' with predictor variables of 'energy, pep, vitality' and 'feel healthy to work' during the pandemic, whereas the predictor variables of 'energy, pep, vitality', 'happy and satisfied personal life', 'feel healthy to work' show an association with the dependent variable of 'feeling in general' before the lockdown with a significance of p < 0.02 and R² = 0.51 and R² = 0.60, respectively. Among those who worked from home in constrained environments, people found spaces and seemed to adapt reasonably well to the built environment with employees showing a preference for working from bedrooms and students for working from 'sit-out' (outside) spaces (p < 0.05). There was no change in the quality or quantity of sleep during the lockdown. This study in the early weeks of the lockdown documents the way in which individuals lived through it in terms of the built environment at home.

Cycling in the Era of COVID-19: Lessons Learnt and Best Practice Policy Recommendations for a More Bike-Centric Future

The COVID-19 pandemic has affected our cities in monumental ways with no sector likely being more severely impacted than transport. Lockdowns, physical spacing, transport restrictions and stay-at-home guidelines have transformed personal mobility and highlighted the mistakes of an unbalanced pro-car culture that defined a century of urban planning. One immediate effect of the virus in relation to travel demand and supply was the emergence of active travel modes because of their unique ability to provide a socially distanced way of transport. Cycling is one of the modes that has enjoyed significant attention. Numerous cities have reallocated street and public space to cyclists and introduced pro-bike interventions like pop-up cycle lanes, e-bike subsidies, free bike-share use and traffic calming measures. This newly found outbreak-induced momentum creates an opportunity to establish a new ethos that allows the promotion of potentially permanent strategies that may help cycling to be (re-)established as a robust, mainstream and resilient travel mode for inner city trips and not as a second-class alternative operating under the automobile’s giant shadow. This paper provides a state-of-the-art description of the anti-COVID cycling-friendly initiatives that have been introduced globally, the successes and failures of these initiatives, the lessons learnt that can help us redefine the bicycle’s role in local societies today and a best cycling practice policy guide for planning a more bike-centric future.

Housing Spaces in Nine European Countries: A Comparison of Dimensional Requirements

Modern housing units must meet new needs and requirements; housing dimensions and functional characteristics are relevant issues, mainly considering population ageing and disability. The housing standards of nine European countries were compared to analyze their ability to satisfy new population need, in terms of size. The regulations were downloaded from the websites of the official channels of each country. A wide variability in room size was observed (e.g., single room: from 9 m2 in Italy to 7 m2 in France, to the absence of any limit in England and Wales, Germany-Hesse, and Denmark). Italian and French legislations define housing dimension considering the room destination and the number of people. The Swedish regulation provides performance requirements and functional indications but does not specify the minimum dimensions of habitable rooms. The rooms' minimum heights vary between 2.70 m in Italy and Portugal and 2.60 m in the Netherlands, but no limits are established in England and Wales. A diverse approach among European countries regulations is observed: from a market-oriented logic one (e.g., England and Wales) in which room minimum dimensions are not defined to a prescriptive one (Italy) and one that is functionality-oriented (the Netherlands). However, considering the health, social, environmental, and economic trends, many of these standards should be revised.

Public health response to an outbreak of SARS-CoV2 infection in a Barcelona prison

An outbreak of SARS-CoV2 infection in a Barcelona prison was studied. One hundred and forty-eight inmates and 36 prison staff were evaluated by rt-PCR, and 24.1% (40 prisoners, two health workers and four non-health workers) tested positive. In all, 94.8% of cases were asymptomatic. The inmates were isolated in prison module 4, which was converted into an emergency COVID unit. There were no deaths. Generalised screening and the isolation and evaluation of the people infected were key measures. Symptom-based surveillance must be supplemented by rapid contact-based monitoring in order to avoid asymptomatic spread among prisoners and the community at large.

COVID-19 Outbreak and Hospital Air Quality: A Systematic Review of Evidence on Air Filtration and Recirculation

The outbreak of SARS-CoV-2 has made us all think critically about hospital indoor air quality and the approaches to remove, dilute, and disinfect pathogenic organisms from the hospital environment. While specific aspects of the coronavirus infectivity, spread, and routes of transmission are still under rigorous investigation, it seems that a recollection of knowledge from the literature can provide useful lessons to cope with this new situation. As a result, a systematic literature review was conducted on the safety of air filtration and air recirculation in healthcare premises. This review targeted a wide range of evidence from codes and regulations, to peer-reviewed publications, and best practice standards. The literature search resulted in 394 publications, of which 109 documents were included in the final review. Overall, even though solid evidence to support current practice is very scarce, proper filtration remains one important approach to maintain the cleanliness of indoor air in hospitals. Given the rather large physical footprint of the filtration system, a range of short-term and long-term solutions from the literature are collected. Nonetheless, there is a need for a rigorous and feasible line of research in the area of air filtration and recirculation in healthcare facilities. Such efforts can enhance the performance of healthcare facilities under normal conditions or during a pandemic. Past innovations can be adopted for the new outbreak at low-to-minimal cost.

Challenges, Strategies, and Recommendations for the Huge Surge in Plastic and Medical Waste during the Global COVID-19 Pandemic with Circular Economy Approach

After December 2019, the globe was affected by a new coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) that causes severe respiratory illnesses, which is responsible for increasing environmental problem consequences related to the extra consumption of medical waste and single-use plastics (such as personal protective equipment (PPE) and packaging plastics). Although the consumption of these plastics protects our life during this crisis, it is pivotal to move toward plastic recycling processes and environmentally friendly and sustainable alternatives, like bio-based degradable plastics with a circular economy perspective. This review article collected scattered information and provided a future perspective on how worldwide COVID-19 disruption can perform as a catalyst to improve plastic and medical waste management. Additionally, this paper illustrates the most effective disinfection technologies for COVID-19 wastes, such as high/low heat technologies and chemical disinfection, and PPE reusing processes, including dry heat, vaporized hydrogen peroxide, ozone, and UV light during the outbreak. In this vein, medical waste treatment facilities must be more automatic, with a minimum of personnel involved. Moreover, some recent valid guidelines from different international organizations and countries, future outlook, and practical recommendations that could be effective during this epidemic or even in the post-pandemic world for plastic and medical waste management were provided. Ultimately, governments should improve their waste management because of the potential of pathogen transmission or increased plastic and medical waste generation and try to enhance the environmental knowledge of society. People also should revise their viewpoints on plastic consumption by elevating sustainable behaviors, abandoning old habits, and adjusting to novel ones.

Association of built environment attributes with the spread of COVID-19 at its initial stage in China

Evidence of the association of built environment (BE) attributes with the spread of COVID-19 remains limited. As an additional effort, this study regresses a ratio of accumulative confirmed infection cases at the city level in China on both inter-city and intra-city BE attributes. A mixed geographically weighted regression model was estimated to accommodate both local and global effects of BE attributes. It is found that spatial clusters are mostly related to low infections in 28.63 % of the cities. The density of point of interests around railway stations, travel time by public transport to activity centers, and the number of flights from Hubei Province are associated with the spread. On average, the most influential BE attribute is the number of trains from Hubei Province. Higher infection ratios are associated with higher values of between-ness centrality in 70.98 % of the cities. In 79.22 % of the cities, the percentage of the aging population shows a negative association. A positive association of the population density in built-up areas is found in 68.75 % of county-level cities. It is concluded that the countermeasures in China could have well reflected spatial heterogeneities, and the BE could be further improved to mitigate the impacts of future pandemics.

ASSURED-SQVM diagnostics for COVID-19: addressing the why, when, where, who, what and how of testing

Introduction: SARS-CoV-2, the new coronavirus that originated in 2019, continues to impact every aspect of society in a profound manner. Testing will remain an important tool to mitigate the effects of this pandemic as early and accurate diagnosis can lead to appropriate countermeasures to reduce mortality and morbidity. However, testing isn't a simple yes/no answer as the target and host are complex, the virus is a moving target, there is a plethora of tests that identify different parts of the virus and have their own limits and range of detection, and when prevalence is low, false positives and negatives can be very high.Areas covered: This article covers all the major questions related to COVID-19 diagnostics, the why, when, where, who, what and how of testing, the different types of tests, interpretation of results and the ideal ASSURED-SQVM diagnostic. A comprehensive literature review using all the publicly available databases and government websites and reports was performed.Expert opinion: Diagnostics that meet the 'ASSURED-SQVM' (Affordable, Selective and Sensitive, User-friendly, Rapid and Robust, Equipment-free, Deliverable to end-users and additionally, allows for Self-testing, Quantifiable, detects if pathogens are Viable and can detect Multiple pathogens) would make a major impact in our fight against the current pandemic. While a significant majority of researchers focus on developing novel diagnostics that are highly selective and sensitive, it is the opinion of these authors that other aspects of the ASSURED-SQVM principles also be considered early in the development process for widespread use.

Assessment of awareness and hygiene practices regarding COVID-19 among adults in Gaza, Palestine

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has spread worldwide and become an emerging life-threatening pandemic disease since 2019. This study aimed to evaluate the basic knowledge, awareness, personal hygiene and healthy practices regarding COVID-19 during its outbreak among the Palestinian population in the Gaza Strip. It is a cross-sectional survey carried out between July and August 2020 and included 458 participants, aged 18 years or older, belonging to the five Gaza Strip governorates, Palestine, with a variety of socio-economic status. Sociodemographic data and data on COVID-19 knowledge, awareness, personal hygiene and healthy practices were collected via email and social media applications (WhatsApp and Facebook) from the study participants. Statistical analyses were performed using Vr 22 of the SPSS software. Overall, the mean ± SD age of the participants was 26.5 ± 4.2 years. Our findings showed that most of the Gazan adults had very good knowledge regarding COVID-19 in terms of host sources, causative agents, incubation period, symptoms, transmission, treatment and prevention. Additionally, most of the participants had a high level of personal hygiene and healthy practices during the COVID-19 outbreak, where personal hygiene and healthy practices against COVID-19 was 77.4%. Furthermore, a higher educational level did not affect the quality of personal hygiene and healthy practice behaviours during the COVID-19 outbreak. Although most of the Gazans had good knowledge regarding the healthy practices, a significant percentage of the population did not practice the hygiene protocol. Despite the majority of the Gazan population having very good knowledge regarding COVID-19 and a high level of personal hygiene and healthy practices during the COVID-19 outbreak, a small proportion require education about avoiding physical contact and maintaining social distancing with others during the pandemic.

Spatial distribution characteristics of the COVID-19 pandemic in Beijing and its relationship with environmental factors

Investigating the spatial distribution characteristics of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and exploring the influence of environmental factors that drive it is the basis for formulating rational and efficient prevention and control countermeasures. Therefore, this study aims to analyze the spatial distribution characteristics of COVID-19 pandemic in Beijing and its relationship with the environmental factors. Based on the incidences of new local COVID-19 cases in Beijing from June 11 to July 5, the spatial clustering characteristics of the COVID-19 pandemic in Beijing was investigated using spatial autocorrelation analysis. The relation between COVID-19 cases and environmental factors was assessed using the Spearman correlation analysis. Finally, geographically weighted regression (GWR) was applied to explore the influence of environmental factors on the spatial distribution of COVID-19 cases. The results showed that the development of COVID-19 pandemic in Beijing from June 11 to July 5 could be divided into two stages. The first stage was the outward expansion from June 11 to June 21, and the second stage (from June 22 to July 5) was the growth of the transmission in areas with existing previous cases. In addition, there was a ring of low value clusters around the Xinfadi market. This area was the key area for prevention and control. Population density and distance to Xinfadi market were the most critical factors that explained the pandemic development. The findings of this study can provide useful information for the global fighting against COVID-19.

Fomite Transmission, Physicochemical Origin of Virus-Surface Interactions, and Disinfection Strategies for Enveloped Viruses with Applications to SARS-CoV-2

Inanimate objects or surfaces contaminated with infectious agents, referred to as fomites, play an important role in the spread of viruses, including SARS-CoV-2, the virus responsible for the COVID-19 pandemic. The long persistence of viruses (hours to days) on surfaces calls for an urgent need for effective surface disinfection strategies to intercept virus transmission and the spread of diseases. Elucidating the physicochemical processes and surface science underlying the adsorption and transfer of virus between surfaces, as well as their inactivation, is important for understanding how diseases are transmitted and for developing effective intervention strategies. This review summarizes the current knowledge and underlying physicochemical processes of virus transmission, in particular via fomites, and common disinfection approaches. Gaps in knowledge and the areas in need of further research are also identified. The review focuses on SARS-CoV-2, but discussion of related viruses is included to provide a more comprehensive review given that much remains unknown about SARS-CoV-2. Our aim is that this review will provide a broad survey of the issues involved in fomite transmission and intervention to a wide range of readers to better enable them to take on the open research challenges.

Modelling uncertainty in the relative risk of exposure to the SARS-CoV-2 virus by airborne aerosol transmission in well mixed indoor air

We present a mathematical model and a statistical framework to estimate uncertainty in the number of SARS-CoV-2 genome copies deposited in the respiratory tract of a susceptible person, ∑ n , over time in a well mixed indoor space. By relating the predicted median ∑ n for a reference scenario to other locations, a Relative Exposure Index (REI) is established that reduces the need to understand the infection dose probability but is nevertheless a function of space volume, viral emission rate, exposure time, occupant respiratory activity, and room ventilation. A 7  h day in a UK school classroom is used as a reference scenario because its geometry, building services, and occupancy have uniformity and are regulated. The REI is used to highlight types of indoor space, respiratory activity, ventilation provision and other factors that increase the likelihood of far field ( > 2  m) exposure. The classroom reference scenario and an 8  h day in a 20 person office both have an REI ≃ 1 and so are a suitable for comparison with other scenarios. A poorly ventilated classroom (1.2 l s-1 per person) has REI > 2 suggesting that ventilation should be monitored in classrooms to minimise far field aerosol exposure risk. Scenarios involving high aerobic activities or singing have REI > 1 ; a 1  h gym visit has a median REI = 1 . 4 , and the Skagit Choir superspreading event has REI > 12 . Spaces with occupancy activities and exposure times comparable to those of the reference scenario must preserve the reference scenario volume flow rate as a minimum rate to achieve REI = 1 , irrespective of the number of occupants present.

Distances of transmission risk of COVID-19 inside dwellings and evaluation of the effectiveness of reciprocal proximity warning sounds

One of the main modes of transmission and propagation of COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2) is the direct contact with respiratory droplets transmitted among individuals at a certain distance. There are indoor spaces, such as dwellings, in which the transmission risk is high. This research aims to record and analyze risk close contacts in this scope, experimentally assessing the effectiveness of using electronic proximity warning sound devices or systems. For this purpose, the methodology is based on monitoring the location of the occupants of a dwelling. Then, the days in which a proximity warning sound system is installed and activated are compared to the days in which the system is not activated. The results stressed the significant reduction of time and number of close contacts among individuals when the warning was activated. Regarding the relation between the number and the duration of close contacts, together with the reductions mentioned, the possibility of making certain predictions based on the distributions obtained is proved. All this contributes to the progress in the prevention of COVID-19 transmission because of close contacts in dwellings.

Outbreak investigation of COVID-19 in hospital food service workers

An outbreak of 10 COVID-19 cases among food and nutrition department employees occurred before the institution implemented universal masking and physical spacing between staff as part of an overall COVID-19 pandemic response. The outbreak highlighted the importance of early recognition of potential occupational exposure risks, prompt outbreak investigation and implementation of engineering and administrative safety controls. It also served as an opportunity for different departments within the institution to collaborate to prevent future outbreaks.

Investigating the Ventilation System of an Intensive Care Unit in the COVID-19 Crisis: A Study in a Hospital of Tehran, Iran

Background

Ventilation system besides other prevention strategies such as surface disinfecting and personal protective equipment (PPE) decrease the risk of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) infection. This study aimed to examine the ventilation system of an intensive care unit (ICU) in a hospital in Tehran, Iran to evaluate the potency of heating, ventilation, and air conditioning system (HVAC) for COVID-19 spread.

Materials and Methods

Contamination of air turnover caves was evaluated in supplier diffuser and extractor grills of negative pressure HVAC by ten samples. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) in the samples was evaluated by the real time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Moreover, air conditioning and sick building syndrome (SBS) was assessed according to MM040EA questioning from health care workers.

Results

In the health care workers, respiratory effects were more prevalent compared to other signs. Despite suitable air conditioning, this study highlighted carrier potency of ICU workers for SARS-COV-2.

Conclusion

According to our results, although the HVAC of ICU ward had an appropriate air movement, it was not safe enough for health care workers.

High fidelity modeling of aerosol pathogen propagation in built environments with moving pedestrians

A high fidelity model for the propagation of pathogens via aerosols in the presence of moving pedestrians is proposed. The key idea is the tight coupling of computational fluid dynamics and computational crowd dynamics in order to capture the emission, transport and inhalation of pathogen loads in space and time. An example simulating pathogen propagation in a narrow corridor with moving pedestrians clearly shows the considerable effect that pedestrian motion has on airflow, and hence on pathogen propagation and potential infectivity.

The ventilation of buildings and other mitigating measures for COVID-19: a focus on wintertime

The year 2020 has seen the emergence of a global pandemic as a result of the disease COVID-19. This report reviews knowledge of the transmission of COVID-19 indoors, examines the evidence for mitigating measures, and considers the implications for wintertime with a focus on ventilation.

Impact of the COVID-19 Crisis on Same-day Discharge After Robotic Urologic Surgery

OBJECTIVE

To assess the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the rate of same-day discharge (SDD) after robotic surgery METHODS: We reviewed our robotic surgeries during COVID-19 restrictions on surgery in Ohio between March 17 and June 5, 2020 and compared them with robotic procedures before COVID-19 and after restrictions were lifted. We followed our formerly described protocol in use since 2016 offering the option of SDD to all robotic urologic surgery patients, regardless of procedure type or patient-specific factors.

RESULTS

During COVID-19 restrictions (COV), 89 robotic surgeries were performed and compared with 1667 of the same procedures performed previously (pre-COV) and 42 during the following month (post-COV). Among COV patients 98% (87/89 patients) opted for same-day discharge after surgery versus 52% in the historical pre-COV group (P < .00001). Post-COV, the higher rate of SDD was maintained at 98% (41/42 patients). There were no differences in 30-day complications or readmissions between SDD and overnight patients with only 2 COV (2%) and no post-COV 30-day readmissions.

CONCLUSION

SDD after robotic surgery was safely applied during the COVID-19 crisis without increasing complications or readmissions. SDD may allow continuation of robotic surgery despite limited hospital beds and when minimizing hospital stay is important to protect postoperative patients from infection. Our experience suggests that patient attitude is a major factor in SDD after robotic surgery since the proportion of patients opting for SDD was much higher during COV and continued post-COV. Consideration of SDD long-term may be warranted for cost savings even in the absence of a crisis.

A Case Study: Analysis of Patents on Coronaviruses and Covid-19 for Technological Assessment and Future Research

BACKGROUND

Protecting intellectual property rights are important and particularly pertinent for inventions that are an outcome of rigorous research and development. While the grant of patents is subject to establishing novelty and inventive step, it further indicates the technological development and is helpful for researchers working in the same technical domain. The aim of the present research work is to map the existing work through an analysis of patent literature in the field of Coronaviruses (CoV), particularly COVID-19 (2019-nCoV). CoV is a large family of viruses known to cause illness in humans and animals, particularly known for causing respiratory infections, as evidenced in earlier times, such as in MERS i.e., Middle East Respiratory Syndrome; and SRS i.e., Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome. A recently identified novel-coronavirus, known as COVID-19, has caused pandemic situations across the globe.

OBJECTIVE

To expand the analysis of patents related to CoV and 2019-nCoV, an evaluation has been conducted by patenting trends of particular strains of identified CoV diseases by present legal status, main concerned countries via the earliest priority years and its assignee types and inventors of identified relevant patents. The global patent documents were analyzed to check the scope of claims along with focuses and trends of the published patent documents for the entire CoV family, including 2019-nCoV through the present landscape.

METHODS

To extract the results, the Derwent Innovation database was used by a combination of different keystrings. Approximately 3800 patents were obtained and further scrutinized and analyzed. The present write-up also discusses the recent progress of patent applications in a period of the year 2010 to 2020 (present) along with the recent developments in India for the treatment options for CoV and 2019-nCoV.

RESULTS

Present analysis showed that key areas of the inventions were the vaccines and diagnostic kits apart from the composition for the treatment of CoV. It was also observed that no specific vaccine treatments are available for the treatment of 2019-nCov; however, developing novel chemical or biological drugs and kits for early diagnosis, prevention, and disease management is the primary governing topic among the patented inventions. The present study also indicates potential research opportunities for the future, particularly to combat 2019-nCoV.

CONCLUSION

The present paper analyzes the existing patents in the field of Coronaviruses and 2019-nCoV and suggests a way forward for the effective contribution in this upcoming research area. From the trend analysis, an increase in the filing of the overall trend of patent families was observed for a period of 2010 to the current year. This multifaceted analysis of identified patent literature provides an understanding of the focuses on present ongoing research and a grey area in terms of the trends of technological innovations in disease management in patients with CoV and 2019-nCoV. Furthermore, the findings and outcome of the present study offer insights for the proposed research and innovation opportunities and provide actionable information in order to facilitate policymakers, academia, research-driven institutes and also investors to make better decisions regarding programmed steps for research and development for the diagnosis, treatment and taking preventive measures for CoV and 2019-nCoV. The present article also emphasizes the need for future development and the role of academia and collaboration with industry for speedy research with a rationale.

Health, work performance, and risk of infection in office-like environments: The role of indoor temperature, air humidity, and ventilation

Epidemiological and experimental studies have revealed the effects of the room temperature, indoor air humidity, and ventilation on human health, work and cognitive performance, and risk of infection. In this overview, we integrate the influence of these important microclimatic parameters and assess their influence in offices based on literature searches. The dose-effect curves of the temperature describe a concave shape. Low temperature increases the risk of cardiovascular and respiratory diseases and elevated temperature increases the risk of acute non-specific symptoms, e.g., dry eyes, and respiratory symptoms. Cognitive and work performance is optimal between 22 °C and 24 °C for regions with temperate or cold climate, but both higher and lower temperatures may deteriorate the performances and learning efficiency. Low temperature may favor virus viability, however, depending on the status of the physiological tissue in the airways. Low indoor air humidity causes vulnerable eyes and airways from desiccation and less efficient mucociliary clearance. This causes elevation of the most common mucous membrane-related symptoms, like dry and tired eyes, which deteriorates the work performance. Epidemiological, experimental, and clinical studies support that intervention of dry indoor air conditions by humidification alleviates symptoms of dry eyes and airways, fatigue symptoms, less complaints about perceived dry air, and less compromised work performance. Intervention of dry air conditions by elevation of the indoor air humidity may be a non-pharmaceutical treatment of the risk of infection by reduced viability and transport of influenza virus. Relative humidity between 40 and 60% appears optimal for health, work performance, and lower risk of infection. Ventilation can reduce both acute and chronic health outcomes and improve work performance, because the exposure is reduced by the dilution of the indoor air pollutants (including pathogens, e.g., as virus droplets), and in addition to general emission source control strategies. Personal control of ventilation appears an important factor that influences the satisfaction of the thermal comfort due to its physical and positive psychological impact. However, natural ventilation or mechanical ventilation can become sources of air pollutants, allergens, and pathogens of outdoor or indoor origin and cause an increase in exposure. The "health-based ventilation rate" in a building should meet WHO's air quality guidelines and dilute human bio-effluent emissions to reach an acceptable perceived indoor air quality. Ventilation is a modifying factor that should be integrated with both the indoor air humidity and the room temperature in a strategic joint control to satisfy the perceived indoor air quality, health, working performance, and minimize the risk of infection.

Indoor versus outdoor transmission of SARS-COV-2: environmental factors in virus spread and underestimated sources of risk

The first case of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19), which is caused by Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), in Europe was officially confirmed in February 2020. On 11 March 2020, after thousands of deaths from this disease had been reported worldwide, the WHO changed their classification of COVID-19 from a public health emergency of international concern to a pandemic. The SARS-CoV-2 virus has been shown to be much more resistant to environmental degradation than other coated viruses. Several studies have shown that environmental conditions can influence its viability and infectivity. This review summarizes current knowledge on the transmission pathways of the novel coronavirus, and directs attention towards potentially underestimated factors that affect its propagation, notably indoor spread and outdoor risk sources. The contributions of significant indoor factors such as ventilation systems to the spread of this virus need to be carefully ascertained. Outdoor risk sources such as aerosolized particles emitted during wastewater treatment and particulate matter (PM), both of which may act as virus carriers, should be examined as well. This study shows the influence of certain underestimated factors on the environmental behavior and survival of the SARS-CoV-2 virus. These aspects of coronavirus propagation need to be accounted for when devising actions to limit not only the current pandemic but also future outbreaks.

Transmission routes, preventive measures and control strategies of SARS-CoV-2 in the food factory

SARS-CoV-2 virus represents a health threat in food factories. This infectious virus is transmitted by direct contact and indirectly via airborne route, whereas contamination through inanimate objects/surfaces/equipment is uncertain. To limit the potential spread of the pathogen in the food industry, close working between individuals should be avoided and both personal and respiratory hygiene activities should be enforced. Despite the high infectivity, SARS-CoV-2, being an enveloped virus with a fragile lipid envelop, is sensitive to biocidal products and sanitizers commonly used in the food factory. In the context of the building design, interventions that promote healthy air quality should be adopted, especially in food areas with high-occupancy rates for prolonged times, to help minimize the potential exposure to airborne SARS-CoV-2. Air ventilation and filtration provided by heating, ventilation and air conditioning systems, are effective and easy-to-organize tools to reduce the risk of transmission through the air. In addition to conventional sanitation protocols, aerosolization of hydrogen peroxide, UV-C irradiation or in-situ ozone generation are complementary techniques for an effective virucidal treatment of the air.

What the reproductive number R0 can and cannot tell us about COVID-19 dynamics

The reproductive number R (or R0, the initial reproductive number in an immune-naïve population) has long been successfully used to predict the likelihood of pathogen invasion, to gauge the potential severity of an epidemic, and to set policy around interventions. However, often ignored complexities have generated confusion around use of the metric. This is particularly apparent with the emergent pandemic virus SARS-CoV-2, the causative agent of COVID-19. We address some misconceptions about the predictive ability of the reproductive number, focusing on how it changes over time, varies over space, and relates to epidemic size by referencing the mathematical definition of R and examples from the current pandemic. We hope that a better appreciation of the uses, nuances, and limitations of R and R0 facilitates a better understanding of epidemic spread, epidemic severity, and the effects of interventions in the context of SARS-CoV-2.

Translating Scientific Knowledge to Government Decision Makers Has Crucial Importance in the Management of the COVID-19 Pandemic

In times of epidemics and humanitarian crises, it is essential to translate scientific findings into digestible information for government policy makers who have a short time to make critical decisions. To predict how far and fast the disease would spread across Hungary and to support the epidemiological decision-making process, a multidisciplinary research team performed a large amount of scientific data analysis and mathematical and socioeconomic modeling of the COVID-19 epidemic in Hungary, including modeling the medical resources and capacities, the regional differences, gross domestic product loss, the impact of closing and reopening elementary schools, and the optimal nationwide screening strategy for various virus-spreading scenarios and R metrics. KETLAK prepared 2 extensive reports on the problems identified and suggested solutions, and presented these directly to the National Epidemiological Policy-Making Body. The findings provided crucial data for the government to address critical measures regarding health care capacity, decide on restriction maintenance, change the actual testing strategy, and take regional economic, social, and health differences into account. Hungary managed the first part of the COVID-19 pandemic with low mortality rate. In times of epidemics, the formation of multidisciplinary research groups is essential for policy makers. The establishment, research activity, and participation in decision-making of these groups, such as KETLAK, can serve as a model for other countries, researchers, and policy makers not only in managing the challenges of COVID-19, but in future pandemics as well.

Increased plastic pollution due to COVID-19 pandemic: Challenges and recommendations

Plastics have become a severe transboundary threat to natural ecosystems and human health, with studies predicting a twofold increase in the number of plastic debris (including micro and nano-sized plastics) by 2030. However, such predictions will likely be aggravated by the excessive use and consumption of single-use plastics (including personal protective equipment such as masks and gloves) due to COVID-19 pandemic. This review aimed to provide a comprehensive overview on the effects of COVID-19 on macroplastic pollution and its potential implications on the environment and human health considering short- and long-term scenarios; addressing the main challenges and discussing potential strategies to overcome them. It emphasises that future measures, involved in an emergent health crisis or not, should reflect a balance between public health and environmental safety as they are both undoubtedly connected. Although the use and consumption of plastics significantly improved our quality of life, it is crucial to shift towards sustainable alternatives, such as bio-based plastics. Plastics should remain in the top of the political agenda in Europe and across the world, not only to minimise plastic leakage and pollution, but to promote sustainable growth and to stimulate both green and blue- economies. Discussions on this topic, particularly considering the excessive use of plastic, should start soon with the involvement of the scientific community, plastic producers and politicians in order to be prepared for the near future.

An 11-week school-based 'health education through football programme' improves health knowledge related to hygiene, nutrition, physical activity and well-being-and it's fun! A scaled-up, cluster-RCT with over 3000 Danish school children aged 10-12 years old

ObjectivesOur large-scale cluster randomised controlled trial aimed to investigate the effects on health knowledge and enjoyment of an 11 week 'health education through football' programme for children aged 10-12 years old. Methods 3127 Danish school children (49% girls) aged 10-12 years from a total of 154 schools located in 63% of the Danish municipalities (69 of 98) took part in the analysis. A 5:1 cluster randomisation was performed at school level for the intervention group (IG) or the control group (CG). The twice-weekly 45 min intervention was the '11 for Health in Denmark' programme, which includes health education, football drills and small-sided games. The health education element focused on hygiene, nutrition, physical activity and well-being. Outcomes: The participants completed a 34-item multiple-choice computer-based health knowledge questionnaire preintervention and postintervention. IG also evaluated whether the programme was enjoyable. Results Between-group differences (p<0.05) were observed in overall health knowledge in favour of IG (+7.2% points, 95% CI 6.1% to 8.4%, effect size, ES:0.59), with similar effects for girls (+7.4% points, 95% CI 5.9% to 9.0%, ES:0.57) and for boys (+7.0% points, 95% CI 5.3% to 8.7%, p<0.05, ES:0.51). Marked between-group differences were observed in favour of IG, for health knowledge related to hygiene (IG vs CG:+13.9% points, 95% CI 11.1% to 16.7%, ES:0.53), nutrition (+10.3% points, 95% CI 8.5% to 12.1%, ES:0.53), physical activity (+5.9% points, 95% CI 4.1% to 7.7%, ES:0.36) and well-being (+4.4% points, 95% CI 2.7% to 6.1%, ES:0.28). Both girls and boys gave the programme moderate to high scores for enjoyment (3.6±1.0 and 3.7±1.1, respectively). Conclusion Health education through sport, using the '11 for Health' model, was enjoyable for girls and boys aged 10-12 years old, and improved health knowledge related to hygiene, nutrition, physical activity and well-being.

Ten questions concerning occupant health in buildings during normal operations and extreme events including the COVID-19 pandemic

Even before the COVID-19 pandemic, people spent on average around 90% of their time indoors. Now more than ever, with work-from-home orders in place, it is crucial that we radically rethink the design and operation of buildings. Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ) directly affects the comfort and well-being of occupants. When IEQ is compromised, occupants are at increased risk for many diseases that are exacerbated by both social and economic forces. In the U.S. alone, the annual cost attributed to sick building syndrome in commercial workplaces is estimated to be between $10 billion to $70 billion. It is imperative to understand how parameters that drive IEQ can be designed properly and how buildings can be operated to provide ideal IEQ to safeguard health. While IEQ is a fertile area of scholarship, there is a pressing need for a systematic understanding of how IEQ factors impact occupant health. During extreme events, such as a global pandemic, designers, facility managers, and occupants need pragmatic guidance on reducing health risks in buildings. This paper answers ten questions that explore the effects of buildings on the health of occupants. The study establishes a foundation for future work and provides insights for new research directions and discoveries.

The hierarchy of preventive measures to protect workers against the COVID-19 pandemic: A review

BACKGROUND

The high spread rate of coronaviruses, specifically severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), has raised concerns about the spread of the disease in crowded occupational environments. The risk of occupational exposure to coronavirus depends on the type of industry and the nature of work. Currently, most countries are working for reactivating their economies and need to improve working conditions for a safe situation during the COVID-19 pandemic.

OBJECTIVE

The present work aimed to investigate the current engineering and administrative control measures, which are necessary to protect workers against COVID-19 in workplaces.

METHODS

The current strategies, including engineering control, administrative control, personal protective equipment, and their efficiencies, were reviewed and discussed.

RESULTS

Reviewing the literature indicated that a collection of control approaches should be implemented for an effective control of the virus. Control measures could be selected based on the risk of exposure to COVID-19. The results also revealed that relying solely on a specific control measure could not effectively control the outbreak.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, employers and health professionals must continually monitor international and local guidelines to identify changes in recommendations to make their workplaces safer. Establishment of an expert team in any workplace for the implementation of more effective control measures is warranted, as well.

Modes of Transmission of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome-Coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) and Factors Influencing on the Airborne Transmission: A Review

The multiple modes of SARS-CoV-2 transmission including airborne, droplet, contact, and fecal-oral transmissions that cause coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) contribute to a public threat to the lives of people worldwide. Herein, different databases are reviewed to evaluate modes of transmission of SARS-CoV-2 and study the effects of negative pressure ventilation, air conditioning system, and related protection approaches of this virus. Droplet transmission was commonly reported to occur in particles with diameter >5 µm that can quickly settle gravitationally on surfaces (1-2 m). Instead, fine and ultrafine particles (airborne transmission) can stay suspended for an extended period of time (≥2 h) and be transported further, e.g., up to 8 m through simple diffusion and convection mechanisms. Droplet and airborne transmission of SARS-CoV-2 can be limited indoors with adequate ventilation of rooms, by routine disinfection of toilets, using negative pressure rooms, using face masks, and maintaining social distancing. Other preventive measures recommended include increasing the number of screening tests of suspected carriers of SARS-CoV-2, reducing the number of persons in a room to minimize sharing indoor air, and monitoring people's temperature before accessing a building. The work reviews a body of literature supporting the transmission of SARS-CoV-2 through air, causing COVID-19 disease, which requires coordinated worldwide strategies.

Evaluation of Agricultural Ecosystem Service Value in Arid and Semiarid Regions of Northwest China Based on the Equivalent Factor Method

Abstract

A reasonable assessment of the value of ecosystem services is an effective measure to maintain the normal operation of the ecosystem and adjust the balance between economic development and the ecological environment. With the help of the related concepts of ecosystem services, this paper establishes an evaluation framework system and adopts the widely used and comprehensive evaluation method of equivalent factors, which is a rapid accounting tool used for the evaluation of ecosystem services. The value of agricultural ecosystem services was estimated from 2008 to 2017 in a typical arid-semiarid region, and nine ecosystem service functions were analyzed. Our research showed that from 2008 to 2017 the value of agricultural ecological services in Gansu Province increased annually, and the annual growth rate in 2012 was the highest (15%). The results showed that the selection of appropriate methods could quickly and effectively evaluate the value of agricultural ecosystem services. In-depth research on the function and value of agroecological services could better promote the sustainable development of agroecosystems and maintain the balance and integrity of ecological service functions. Evaluation of the balance and integrity of agricultural ecosystem ecological service functions in arid semi-arid regions will provide recommendations for land use and sustainable development and ecological environment protection in these regions.

Highlights

• Agricultural ecosystem services have changed in an arid and semiarid region of China in recent decades.

• We reflect the results of China's ecological progress.

• This study provides advice on agricultural development of other developing countries.

Nosocomial Coronavirus Disease Outbreak Containment, Hanoi, Vietnam, March-April 2020

We report on the public health response generated by an outbreak of coronavirus disease (COVID-19) that occurred during March 2020 at Bach Mai Hospital (BMH) in Hanoi, northern Vietnam's largest hospital complex. On March 18, a total of 3 distinct clusters of COVID-19 cases were identified at BMH. Diagnosis of the initial 3 COVID-19 cases led to contact tracing, symptom screening, and testing of 495 persons and limited quarantine of affected institutes or departments. When 27 staff members in the catering company tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the entire BMH staff (7,664 persons) was put under quarantine. Contact tracing in the community resulted in an additional 52,239 persons being quarantined. After 3 weeks, the hospital outbreak was contained; no further spread occurred in the hospital. Rapid screening of cases, extensive testing, prompt quarantine, contact tracing, and social distancing contributed to prevent community transmission in Hanoi and northern Vietnam.