Molecular mechanisms of clathrin-independent endocytosis

Membrane domain formation-a key factor for targeted intracellular drug delivery

Protein molecules, toxins and viruses internalize into the cell via receptor-mediated endocytosis (RME) using specific proteins and lipids in the plasma membrane. The plasma membrane is a barrier for many pharmaceutical agents to enter into the cytoplasm of target cells. In the case of cancer cells, tissue-specific biomarkers in the plasma membrane, like cancer-specific growth factor receptors, could be excellent candidates for RME-dependent drug delivery. Recent data suggest that agent binding to these receptors at the cell surface, resulting in membrane domain formation by receptor clustering, can be used for the initiation of RME. As a result, these pharmaceutical agents are internalized into the cells and follow different routes until they reach their final intracellular targets like lysosomes or Golgi. We propose that clustering induced formation of plasma membrane microdomains enriched in receptors, sphingolipids, and inositol lipids, leads to membrane bending which functions as the onset of RME. In this review we will focus on the role of domain formation in RME and discuss potential applications for targeted intracellular drug delivery.

Sphingolipid metabolism and interorganellar transport: localization of sphingolipid enzymes and lipid transfer proteins

In recent decades, many sphingolipid enzymes, sphingolipid-metabolism regulators and sphingolipid transfer proteins have been isolated and characterized. This review will provide an overview of the intracellular localization and topology of sphingolipid enzymes in mammalian cells to highlight the locations where respective sphingolipid species are produced. Interestingly, three sphingolipids that reside or are synthesized in cytosolic leaflets of membranes (ceramide, glucosylceramide and ceramide-1-phosphate) all have cytosolic lipid transfer proteins (LTPs). These LTPs consist of ceramide transfer protein (CERT), four-phosphate adaptor protein 2 (FAPP2) and ceramide-1-phosphate transfer protein (CPTP), respectively. These LTPs execute functions that affect both the location and metabolism of the lipids they bind. Molecular details describing the mechanisms of regulation of LTPs continue to emerge and reveal a number of critical processes, including competing phosphorylation and dephosphorylation reactions and binding interactions with regulatory proteins and lipids that influence the transport, organelle distribution and metabolism of sphingolipids.

Vesicular transport of a ribonucleoprotein to mitochondria

Intracellular trafficking of viruses and proteins commonly occurs via the early endosome in a process involving Rab5. The RNA Import Complex (RIC)-RNA complex is taken up by mammalian cells and targeted to mitochondria. Through RNA interference, it was shown that mito-targeting of the ribonucleoprotein (RNP) was dependent on caveolin 1 (Cav1), dynamin 2, Filamin A and NSF. Although a minor fraction of the RNP was transported to endosomes in a Rab5-dependent manner, mito-targeting was independent of Rab5 or other endosomal proteins, suggesting that endosomal uptake and mito-targeting occur independently. Sequential immunoprecipitation of the cytosolic vesicles showed the sorting of the RNP away from Cav1 in a process that was independent of the endosomal effector EEA1 but sensitive to nocodazole. However, the RNP was in two types of vesicle with or without Cav1, with membrane-bound, asymmetrically orientated RIC and entrapped RNA, but no endosomal components, suggesting vesicular sorting rather than escape of free RNP from endosomes. In vitro, RNP was directly transferred from the Type 2 vesicles to mitochondria. Live-cell imaging captured spherical Cav1⁻ RNP vesicles emerging from the fission of large Cav⁺ particles. Thus, RNP appears to traffic by a different route than the classical Rab5-dependent pathway of viral transport.

Plant nutrition: root transporters on the move

Nutrient and water uptake from the soil is essential for plant growth and development. In the root, absorption and radial transport of nutrients and water toward the vascular tissues is achieved by a battery of specialized transporters and channels. Modulating the amount and the localization of these membrane transport proteins appears as a way to drive their activity and is essential to maintain nutrient homeostasis in plants. This control first involves the delivery of newly synthesized proteins to the plasma membrane by establishing check points along the secretory pathway, especially during the export from the endoplasmic reticulum. Plasma membrane-localized transport proteins are internalized through endocytosis followed by recycling to the cell surface or targeting to the vacuole for degradation, hence constituting another layer of control. These intricate mechanisms are often regulated by nutrient availability, stresses, and endogenous cues, allowing plants to rapidly adjust to their environment and adapt their development.

Cytomegalovirus immune evasion by perturbation of endosomal trafficking

Cytomegaloviruses (CMVs), members of the herpesvirus family, have evolved a variety of mechanisms to evade the immune response to survive in infected hosts and to establish latent infection. They effectively hide infected cells from the effector mechanisms of adaptive immunity by eliminating cellular proteins (major histocompatibility Class I and Class II molecules) from the cell surface that display viral antigens to CD8 and CD4 T lymphocytes. CMVs also successfully escape recognition and elimination of infected cells by natural killer (NK) cells, effector cells of innate immunity, either by mimicking NK cell inhibitory ligands or by downregulating NK cell-activating ligands. To accomplish these immunoevasion functions, CMVs encode several proteins that function in the biosynthetic pathway by inhibiting the assembly and trafficking of cellular proteins that participate in immune recognition and thereby, block their appearance at the cell surface. However, elimination of these proteins from the cell surface can also be achieved by perturbation of their endosomal route and subsequent relocation from the cell surface into intracellular compartments. Namely, the physiological route of every cellular protein, including immune recognition molecules, is characterized by specific features that determine its residence time at the cell surface. In this review, we summarize the current understanding of endocytic trafficking of immune recognition molecules and perturbations of the endosomal system during infection with CMVs and other members of the herpesvirus family that contribute to their immune evasion mechanisms.

Clathrin-independent pathways do not contribute significantly to endocytic flux

Several different endocytic pathways have been proposed to function in mammalian cells. Clathrin-coated pits are well defined, but the identity, mechanism and function of alternative pathways have been controversial. Here we apply universal chemical labelling of plasma membrane proteins to define all primary endocytic vesicles, and labelling of specific proteins with a reducible SNAP-tag substrate. These approaches provide high temporal resolution and stringent discrimination between surface-connected and intracellular membranes. We find that at least 95% of the earliest detectable endocytic vesicles arise from clathrin-coated pits. GPI-anchored proteins, candidate cargoes for alternate pathways, are also found to enter the cell predominantly via coated pits. Experiments employing a mutated clathrin adaptor reveal distinct mechanisms for sorting into coated pits, and thereby explain differential effects on the uptake of transferrin and GPI-anchored proteins. These data call for a revision of models for the activity and diversity of endocytic pathways in mammalian cells.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.03970.001

Cells are enclosed by a ‘plasma membrane’ that allows nutrients and certain small molecules to move in and out of cells. Larger molecules—such as proteins—are carried into cells through a process known as endocytosis, where part of the plasma membrane engulfs the molecule and transports it through the cell inside a bubble-like compartment called a vesicle.

There may be several different ways by which endocytosis can occur. The most common method involves a protein known as clathrin, which coats part of the plasma membrane on the side facing the inside of the cell. This causes the membrane to deform into a pit. The pit grows around, and eventually completely surrounds, the molecule to be transported, at which point the clathrin-coated membrane pinches off from the rest of the plasma membrane to form a vesicle.

Other forms of endocytosis do not need clathrin to form vesicles, and so are collectively known as clathrin-independent endocytosis. However, the details of how these other types of endocytosis work and how important they are for moving molecules into the cell remain unclear. This is partly because it is difficult to identify particular types of endocytosis. Previous attempts to do this have involved trying to identify molecules that are specifically and solely associated with that type of endocytosis, and using these to track the vesicle. However, few—if any—such molecules are known for clathrin-independent methods of endocytosis. Another approach is to inhibit the formation of clathrin-coated pits and study those molecules that are still taken into cells. The problem here is that incomplete inhibition can make interpreting the results difficult. Furthermore, complete inhibition of an important process like clathrin-dependent endocytosis is likely to have severe effects on many other aspects of cell function.

Bitsikas et al. have developed a new method that allows a vesicle to be identified—regardless of how it forms—in cells that have not been treated with inhibitors. This method involves labelling proteins in the plasma membrane with a chemical that allows them to be traced, and so shows when they are included in vesicle membranes. Importantly, this new method can provide very accurate information as to whether or not proteins have been included in vesicles, and this may provide advantages over previous approaches.

Bitsikas et al. selected a group of proteins that are thought to only enter cells in a clathrin-independent manner, but unexpectedly found that these proteins predominantly enter cells through clathrin-coated vesicles. Further analysis revealed that approximately 95% of all molecules that enter cells by endocytosis are taken up via clathrin-coated endocytosis. Therefore, clathrin-independent endocytosis does not make a significant contribution to the transport of large molecules into cells.

These results are at odds with current thinking in the field. Future work could reveal whether the techniques applied by Bitsikas et al. detect more active clathrin-independent endocytosis in special situations, for example during cell migration, or in specific cell types.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.03970.002

Identification of multiple cellular uptake pathways of polystyrene nanoparticles and factors affecting the uptake: relevance for drug delivery systems

Nanoparticles may address challenges by human diseases through improving diagnosis, vaccination and treatment. The uptake mechanism regulates the type of threat a particle poses on the host cells and how a cell responds to it. Hence, understanding the uptake mechanisms and cellular interactions of nanoparticles at the cellular and subcellular level is a prerequisite for their effective biomedical applications. The present study shows the uptake mechanisms of polystyrene nanoparticles and factors affecting their uptake in bone marrow-derived macrophages, 293T kidney epithelial cells and L929 fibroblasts. Labeling with the endocytic marker FM4-64 and transmission electron microscopy studies show that the nanoparticles were internalized rapidly via endocytosis and accumulated in intracellular vesicles. Soon after their internalizations, nanoparticles trafficked to organelles with acidic pH. Analysis of the ultrastructural morphology of the plasma membrane invaginations or extravasations provides clear evidence for the involvement of several uptake routes in parallel to internalize a given type of nanoparticles by mammalian cells, highlighting the complexity of the nanoparticle-cell interactions. Blocking the specific endocytic pathways by different pharmacological inhibitors shows similar outcomes. The potential to take up nanoparticles varies highly among different cell types in a particle sizes-, time- and energy-dependent manner. Furthermore, infection and the activation status of bone marrow-derived macrophages significantly affect the uptake potential of the cells, indicating the need to understand the diseases' pathogenesis to establish effective and rational drug-delivery systems. This study enhances our understanding of the application of nanotechnology in biomedical sciences.

Triad3A regulates synaptic strength by ubiquitination of Arc

Activity-dependent gene transcription and protein synthesis underlie many forms of learning-related synaptic plasticity. At excitatory glutamatergic synapses, the immediate early gene product Arc/Arg3.1 couples synaptic activity to postsynaptic endocytosis of AMPA-type glutamate receptors. Although the mechanisms for Arc induction have been described, little is known regarding the molecular machinery that terminates Arc function. Here, we demonstrate that the RING domain ubiquitin ligase Triad3A/RNF216 ubiquitinates Arc, resulting in its rapid proteasomal degradation. Triad3A associates with Arc, localizes to clathrin-coated pits, and is associated with endocytic sites in dendrites and spines. In the absence of Triad3A, Arc accumulates, leading to the loss of surface AMPA receptors. Furthermore, loss of Triad3A mimics and occludes Arc-dependent forms of synaptic plasticity. Thus, degradation of Arc by clathrin-localized Triad3A regulates the availability of synaptic AMPA receptors and temporally tunes Arc-mediated plasticity at glutamatergic synapses.

Coronaviruses induce entry-independent, continuous macropinocytosis

Macropinocytosis is exploited by many pathogens for entry into cells. Coronaviruses (CoVs) such as severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) CoV and Middle East respiratory syndrome CoV are important human pathogens; however, macropinocytosis during CoV infection has not been investigated. We demonstrate that the CoVs SARS CoV and murine hepatitis virus (MHV) induce macropinocytosis, which occurs late during infection, is continuous, and is not associated with virus entry. MHV-induced macropinocytosis results in vesicle internalization, as well as extended filopodia capable of fusing with distant cells. MHV-induced macropinocytosis requires fusogenic spike protein on the cell surface and is dependent on epidermal growth factor receptor activation. Inhibition of macropinocytosis reduces supernatant viral titers and syncytia but not intracellular virus titers. These results indicate that macropinocytosis likely facilitates CoV infection through enhanced cell-to-cell spreading. Our studies are the first to demonstrate virus use of macropinocytosis for a role other than entry and suggest a much broader potential exploitation of macropinocytosis in virus replication and host interactions. Importance: Coronaviruses (CoVs), including severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) CoV and Middle East respiratory syndrome CoV, are critical emerging human pathogens. Macropinocytosis is induced by many pathogens to enter host cells, but other functions for macropinocytosis in virus replication are unknown. In this work, we show that CoVs induce a macropinocytosis late in infection that is continuous, independent from cell entry, and associated with increased virus titers and cell fusion. Murine hepatitis virus macropinocytosis requires a fusogenic virus spike protein and signals through the epidermal growth factor receptor and the classical macropinocytosis pathway. These studies demonstrate CoV induction of macropinocytosis for a purpose other than entry and indicate that viruses likely exploit macropinocytosis at multiple steps in replication and pathogenesis.

Galectin-3 drives glycosphingolipid-dependent biogenesis of clathrin-independent carriers

Several cell surface molecules including signalling receptors are internalized by clathrin-independent endocytosis. How this process is initiated, how cargo proteins are sorted and membranes are bent remains unknown. Here, we found that a carbohydrate-binding protein, galectin-3 (Gal3), triggered the glycosphingolipid (GSL)-dependent biogenesis of a morphologically distinct class of endocytic structures, termed clathrin-independent carriers (CLICs). Super-resolution and reconstitution studies showed that Gal3 required GSLs for clustering and membrane bending. Gal3 interacted with a defined set of cargo proteins. Cellular uptake of the CLIC cargo CD44 was dependent on Gal3, GSLs and branched N-glycosylation. Endocytosis of β1-integrin was also reliant on Gal3. Analysis of different galectins revealed a distinct profile of cargoes and uptake structures, suggesting the existence of different CLIC populations. We conclude that Gal3 functionally integrates carbohydrate specificity on cargo proteins with the capacity of GSLs to drive clathrin-independent plasma membrane bending as a first step of CLIC biogenesis.

The effect of substrate elasticity and actomyosin contractility on different forms of endocytosis

Substrate mechanical properties have emerged as potent determinants of cell functions and fate. We here tested the hypothesis that different forms of endocytosis are regulated by the elasticity of the synthetic hydrogels cells are cultured on. Towards this objective, we quantified cell-associated fluorescence of the established endocytosis markers transferrin (Tf) and cholera toxin subunit B (CTb) using a flow-cytometry based protocol, and imaged marker internalization using microscopy techniques. Our results demonstrated that clathrin-mediated endocytosis of Tf following a 10-minute incubation with a fibroblast cell line was lower on the softer substrates studied (5 kPa) compared to those with elasticities of 40 and 85 kPa. This effect was cancelled after 1-hour incubation revealing that intracellular accumulation of Tf at this time point did not depend on substrate elasticity. Lipid-raft mediated endocytosis of CTb, on the other hand, was not affected by substrate elasticity in the studied range of time and substrate elasticity. The use of pharmacologic contractility inhibitors revealed inhibition of endocytosis for both Tf and CTb after a 10-minute incubation and a dissimilar effect after 1 hour depending on the inhibitor type. Further, the internalization of fluorescent NPs, used as model drug delivery systems, showed a dependence on substrate elasticity, while transfection efficiency was unaffected by it. Finally, an independence on substrate elasticity of Tf and CTb association with HeLa cells indicated that there are cell-type differences in this respect. Overall, our results suggest that clathrin-mediated but not lipid-raft mediated endocytosis is potentially influenced by substrate mechanics at the cellular level, while intracellular trafficking and accumulation show a more complex dependence. Our findings are discussed in the context of previous work on how substrate mechanics affect the fundamental process of endocytosis and highlight important considerations for future studies.

Macrophage endocytosis of high-mobility group box 1 triggers pyroptosis

Macrophages can be activated and regulated by high-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1), a highly conserved nuclear protein. Inflammatory functions of HMGB1 are mediated by binding to cell surface receptors, including the receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE), Toll-like receptor (TLR)2, TLR4, and TLR9. Pyroptosis is a caspase-1-dependent programmed cell death, which features rapid plasma membrane rupture, DNA fragmentation, and release of proinflammatory intracellular contents. Pyroptosis can be triggered by various stimuli, however, the mechanism underlying pyroptosis remains unclear. In this study, we identify a novel pathway of HMGB1-induced macrophage pyroptosis. We demonstrate that HMGB1, acting through RAGE and dynamin-dependent signaling, initiates HMGB1endocytosis, which in turn induces cell pyroptosis. The endocytosis of HMGB1 triggers a cascade of molecular events, including cathepsin B release from ruptured lysosomes followed by pyroptosome formation and caspase-1 activation. We further confirm that HMGB1-induced macrophage pyroptosis also occurs in vivo during endotoxemia, suggesting a pathophysiological significance for this form of pyroptosis in the development of inflammation. These findings shed light on the regulatory role of ligand-receptor internalization in directing cell fate, which may have an important role in the progress of inflammation following infection and injury.

Endocytic crosstalk: cavins, caveolins, and caveolae regulate clathrin-independent endocytosis

Caveolar proteins and caveolae negatively regulate a second clathrin-independent endocytic CLIC/GEEC pathway; caveolin-1 affects membrane diffusion properties of raft-associated CLIC cargo, and the scaffolding domain of caveolin-1 is required and sufficient for endocytic inhibition.

Several studies have suggested crosstalk between different clathrin-independent endocytic pathways. However, the molecular mechanisms and functional relevance of these interactions are unclear. Caveolins and cavins are crucial components of caveolae, specialized microdomains that also constitute an endocytic route. Here we show that specific caveolar proteins are independently acting negative regulators of clathrin-independent endocytosis. Cavin-1 and Cavin-3, but not Cavin-2 or Cavin-4, are potent inhibitors of the clathrin-independent carriers/GPI-AP enriched early endosomal compartment (CLIC/GEEC) endocytic pathway, in a process independent of caveola formation. Caveolin-1 (CAV1) and CAV3 also inhibit the CLIC/GEEC pathway upon over-expression. Expression of caveolar protein leads to reduction in formation of early CLIC/GEEC carriers, as detected by quantitative electron microscopy analysis. Furthermore, the CLIC/GEEC pathway is upregulated in cells lacking CAV1/Cavin-1 or with reduced expression of Cavin-1 and Cavin-3. Inhibition by caveolins can be mimicked by the isolated caveolin scaffolding domain and is associated with perturbed diffusion of lipid microdomain components, as revealed by fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) studies. In the absence of cavins (and caveolae) CAV1 is itself endocytosed preferentially through the CLIC/GEEC pathway, but the pathway loses polarization and sorting attributes with consequences for membrane dynamics and endocytic polarization in migrating cells and adult muscle tissue. We also found that noncaveolar Cavin-1 can act as a modulator for the activity of the key regulator of the CLIC/GEEC pathway, Cdc42. This work provides new insights into the regulation of noncaveolar clathrin-independent endocytosis by specific caveolar proteins, illustrating multiple levels of crosstalk between these pathways. We show for the first time a role for specific cavins in regulating the CLIC/GEEC pathway, provide a new tool to study this pathway, identify caveola-independent functions of the cavins and propose a novel mechanism for inhibition of the CLIC/GEEC pathway by caveolin.

Endocytosis is the process that allows cells to take up molecules from the environment. Several endocytic pathways exist in mammalian cells. While the best understood endocytic pathway uses clathrin, recent years have seen a great increase in our understanding of clathrin-independent endocytic pathways. Here we characterize the crosstalk between caveolae, flask-shaped specialized microdomains present at the plasma membrane, and a second clathrin-independent pathway, the CLIC/GEEC Cdc42-regulated endocytic pathway. These pathways are segregated in migrating cells with caveolae at the rear and CLIC/GEEC endocytosis at the leading edge. Here we find that specific caveolar proteins, caveolins and cavins, can also negatively regulate the CLIC/GEEC pathway. With the help of several techniques, including quantitative electron microscopy analysis and real-time live-cell imaging, we demonstrate that expression of caveolar proteins affects early carrier formation, causes cellular lipid changes, and changes the activity of the key regulator of the CLIC/GEEC pathway, Cdc42. The functional consequences of loss of caveolar proteins on the CLIC/GEEC pathway included inhibition of polarized cell migration and increased endocytosis in tissue explants.

An RNAi screen identifies KIF15 as a novel regulator of the endocytic trafficking of integrin

α2β1 integrin is one of the most important collagen-binding receptors, and it has been implicated in numerous thrombotic and immune diseases. α2β1 integrin is a potent tumour suppressor, and its downregulation is associated with increased metastasis and poor prognosis in breast cancer. Currently, very little is known about the mechanism that regulates the cell-surface expression and trafficking of α2β1 integrin. Here, using a quantitative fluorescence-microscopy-based RNAi assay, we investigated the impact of 386 cytoskeleton-associated or -regulatory genes on α2 integrin endocytosis and found that 122 of these affected the intracellular accumulation of α2 integrin. Of these, 83 were found to be putative regulators of α2 integrin trafficking and/or expression, with no observed effect on the internalization of epidermal growth factor (EGF) or transferrin. Further interrogation and validation of the siRNA screen revealed a role for KIF15, a microtubule-based molecular motor, as a significant inhibitor of the endocytic trafficking of α2 integrin. Our data suggest a novel role for KIF15 in mediating plasma membrane localization of the alternative clathrin adaptor Dab2, thus impinging on pathways that regulate α2 integrin internalization.

Ephrin-B2 controls PDGFRβ internalization and signaling

Ephrin-B2 is essential for supporting mural cells; namely, pericytes and vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs). Nakayama et al. find that ephrin-B2 controls platelet-derived growth factor receptor β (PDGFRβ) distribution in the VSMC plasma membrane, endocytosis, and signaling. VSMCs lacking ephrin-B2 exhibited a redistribution of PDGFRβ from caveolin-positive to clathrin-associated membrane fractions and enhanced PDGF-B-induced PDGFRβ internalization. Mice lacking ephrin-B2 in vascular smooth muscle developed vessel wall defects and aortic aneurysms. These results suggest that ephrin-B2 is an important regulator of PDGFRβ endocytosis in mural cells.

B-class ephrins, ligands for EphB receptor tyrosine kinases, are critical regulators of growth and patterning processes in many organs and species. In the endothelium of the developing vasculature, ephrin-B2 controls endothelial sprouting and proliferation, which has been linked to vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) receptor endocytosis and signaling. Ephrin-B2 also has essential roles in supporting mural cells (namely, pericytes and vascular smooth muscle cells [VSMCs]), but the underlying mechanism is not understood. Here, we show that ephrin-B2 controls platelet-derived growth factor receptor β (PDGFRβ) distribution in the VSMC plasma membrane, endocytosis, and signaling in a fashion that is highly distinct from its role in the endothelium. Absence of ephrin-B2 in cultured VSMCs led to the redistribution of PDGFRβ from caveolin-positive to clathrin-associated membrane fractions, enhanced PDGF-B-induced PDGFRβ internalization, and augmented downstream mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) activation but impaired Tiam1–Rac1 signaling and proliferation. Accordingly, mutant mice lacking ephrin-B2 expression in vascular smooth muscle developed vessel wall defects and aortic aneurysms, which were associated with impaired Tiam1 expression and excessive activation of MAP kinase and JNK. Our results establish that ephrin-B2 is an important regulator of PDGFRβ endocytosis and thereby acts as a molecular switch controlling the downstream signaling activity of this receptor in mural cells.

Systematic analysis of endocytosis by cellular perturbations

Endocytosis is an essential process of eukaryotic cells that facilitates numerous cellular and organismal functions. The formation of vesicles from the plasma membrane serves the internalization of ligands and receptors and leads to their degradation or recycling. A number of distinct mechanisms have been described over the years, several of which are only partially characterized in terms of mechanism and function. These are often referred to as novel endocytic pathways. The pathways differ in their mode of uptake and in their intracellular destination. Here, an overview of the set of cellular proteins that facilitate the different pathways is provided. Further, the approaches to distinguish between the pathways by different modes of perturbation are critically discussed, emphasizing the use of genetic tools such as dominant negative mutant proteins.

Bending "on the rocks"--a cocktail of biophysical modules to build endocytic pathways

Numerous biological processes rely on endocytosis. The construction of endocytic pits is achieved by a bewildering complexity of biochemical factors that function in clathrin-dependent and -independent pathways. In this review, we argue that this complexity can be conceptualized by a deceptively small number of physical principles that fall into two broad categories: passive mechanisms, such as asymmetric transbilayer stress, scaffolding, line tension, and crowding, and active mechanisms driven by mechanochemical enzymes and/or cytoskeleton. We illustrate how the functional identity of biochemical modules depends on system parameters such as local protein density on membranes, thus explaining some of the controversy in the field. Different modules frequently operate in parallel in the same step and often are shared by apparently divergent uptake processes. The emergence of a novel endocytic classification system may thus be envisioned in which functional modules are the elementary bricks.

Moesin controls clathrin-mediated S1PR1 internalization in T cells

The lipid mediator sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P) regulates a wide range of cellular activities, including vascular maturation, angiogenesis, and immune-cell trafficking. Among the five known receptors for S1P (S1PR1-S1PR5), S1PR1 is a critical regulator of lymphocyte trafficking: its signaling is required for lymphocyte egress from lymphoid organs, while its down-modulation by agonist-induced internalization is a prerequisite for lymphocyte entry into lymphoid organs from the bloodstream. Despite the importance of S1PR1 down-regulation in determining lymphocyte behavior, the molecular mechanism of its internalization in lymphocytes has not been defined. Here we show that agonist-induced S1PR1 internalization in T cells occurs via clathrin-mediated endocytosis and is regulated by moesin, an ezrin-radixin-moesin (ERM) family member. In S1P-stimulated T cells, S1PR1 relocalized within clathrin-coated vesicles (CCVs) and early endosomes, and S1PR1 internalization was blocked when clathrin was pharmacologically inhibited. Stimulating moesin-deficient T cells with S1P failed to induce S1PR1 internalization and CCV formation. Furthermore, treating moesin-deficient mice with FTY720, an S1P receptor agonist known to internalize S1PR1, caused delayed lymphopenia, and lymphocytes isolated from FTY720-treated moesin-deficient mice still responded to S1P ex vivo in chemotaxis assays. These results reveal a novel role for moesin in regulating clathrin-dependent S1PR1 internalization through CCV formation.

The autophagosome: origins unknown, biogenesis complex

Healthy cells use autophagy as a general 'housekeeping' mechanism and to survive stress, including stress induced by nutrient deprivation. Autophagy is initiated at the isolation membrane (originally termed the phagophore), and the coordinated action of ATG (autophagy-related) proteins results in the expansion of this membrane to form the autophagosome. Although the biogenesis of the isolation membrane and the autophagosome is complex and incompletely understood, insight has been gained into the molecular processes involved in initiating the isolation membrane, the source from which this originates (for example, it was recently proposed that the isolation membrane forms from the mitochondria-associated endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membrane (MAM)) and the role of ATG proteins and the vesicular trafficking machinery in autophagosome formation.

Fluorogenic probe for constitutive cellular endocytosis

Endocytosis is a fundamental process of eukaryotic cells that is critical for nutrient uptake, signal transduction, and growth. We have developed a molecular probe to quantify endocytosis. The probe is a lipid conjugated to a fluorophore that is masked with an enzyme-activatable moiety known as the trimethyl lock. The probe is not fluorescent when incorporated into the plasma membrane of human cells but becomes fluorescent upon internalization into endosomes, where cellular esterases activate the trimethyl lock. Using this probe, we found that human breast cancer cells undergo constitutive endocytosis more rapidly than do matched noncancerous cells. These data reveal a possible phenotypic distinction of cancer cells that could be the basis for chemotherapeutic intervention.

Dynamics and regulation of epithelial adherens junctions: recent discoveries and controversies

Adherens junctions (AJs) are evolutionarily conserved plasma-membrane structures that mediate cell-cell adhesions in multicellular organisms. They are organized by several types of adhesive integral membrane proteins, most notably cadherins and nectins that are clustered and stabilized by a number of cytoplasmic scaffolds. AJs are key regulators of tissue architecture and dynamics via control of cell proliferation, polarity, shape, motility, and survival. They are absolutely critical for normal tissue morphogenesis and their disruption results in pathological abnormalities in different tissues. Although the field of adherens-junction research dramatically progressed in recent years, a number of important questions remain controversial and poorly understood. This review outlines basic principles that regulate organization of AJs in mammalian epithelia and discusses recent advances and standing controversies in the field. A special attention is paid to the regulation of AJs by vesicle trafficking and the intracellular cytoskeleton as well as roles and mechanisms of adherens-junction disruption during tumor progression and tissue inflammation.

Caveolae internalization repairs wounded cells and muscle fibers

Rapid repair of plasma membrane wounds is critical for cellular survival. Muscle fibers are particularly susceptible to injury, and defective sarcolemma resealing causes muscular dystrophy. Caveolae accumulate in dystrophic muscle fibers and caveolin and cavin mutations cause muscle pathology, but the underlying mechanism is unknown. Here we show that muscle fibers and other cell types repair membrane wounds by a mechanism involving Ca²⁺-triggered exocytosis of lysosomes, release of acid sphingomyelinase, and rapid lesion removal by caveolar endocytosis. Wounding or exposure to sphingomyelinase triggered endocytosis and intracellular accumulation of caveolar vesicles, which gradually merged into larger compartments. The pore-forming toxin SLO was directly visualized entering cells within caveolar vesicles, and depletion of caveolin inhibited plasma membrane resealing. Our findings directly link lesion removal by caveolar endocytosis to the maintenance of plasma membrane and muscle fiber integrity, providing a mechanistic explanation for the muscle pathology associated with mutations in caveolae proteins.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.00926.001

Cells must be able to rapidly repair damage to their outer membranes. This is particularly important in the case of muscle cells, which are vulnerable to damage, and the failure of these cells to repair their outer membranes leads to the muscle wastage seen in muscular dystrophy. Researchers do not fully understand how cells repair membrane, but one popular theory is that they use the membranes of specialized vesicles to ‘patch’ areas that have been damaged.

A group of proteins called caveolins have also been implicated in membrane repair but, again, the details have not been worked out. These proteins are best known for their role in the formation of caveolae — small pouches formed by invaginated sections of the plasma membrane. Now, Corrotte et al. have obtained evidence that membrane repair relies not on patching, but on endocytosis (the process by which substances are taken into the cell in small vesicles that ‘pinch’ from the plasma membrane) of these caveolae pouches.

Corrotte et al. treated cells with streptolysin O, a toxin that forms pores in the membrane that cannot be repaired using patches, and found that this led to the formation of small membrane-derived vesicles that looked just like caveolae. Further tests confirmed that these vesicles contained caveolar proteins, and that they removed the toxin from the plasma membrane by endocytosis. Similar effects were seen in response to mechanical damage caused by tiny glass beads. Moreover, blocking the expression of caveolar genes prevented cells from repairing membrane damage.

Based on their findings, Corrotte et al. propose an alternative model for the repair process; namely that cellular damage triggers an influx of calcium ions, which causes vesicles called lysosomes to release chemicals that promote the formation of caveolae. These then remove the damaged area through endocytosis, restoring the integrity of the membrane. The results offer new insights into why mutations in caveolar proteins are associated with muscle disorders, including muscular dystrophy and cardiac dysfunction.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.00926.002

Interferon gamma receptor: the beginning of the journey

Our view of endocytosis and membrane trafficking of transmembrane receptors has dramatically changed over the last 20 years. Several new endocytic routes have been discovered and mechanistically characterized in mammalian cells. Long considered as a passive means to terminate signaling through down-regulation of the number of activated receptors at the plasma membrane, it is now established that receptor endocytosis and endosomal sorting can be directly linked to the regulation of intracellular signaling pathways. The functional links between membrane trafficking of interferon receptors and JAK/STAT signaling have recently begun to be unraveled. These studies raise the exciting possibility that a certain level of signal specificity can be achieved through endocytosis and selective localization of the activated complexes within cellular membranes. The ongoing development of high-resolution cell imaging techniques with better spatial and temporal resolution gives new means of deciphering the inherent complexity of membrane trafficking and signaling. This should help to better comprehend the molecular mechanisms by which endocytosis and endosomal sorting of interferon receptors can orchestrate signaling selectivity within the JAK/STAT pathway that can be activated by as many as 60 different cytokines, growth factors, and hormones.

Hook1, microtubules, and Rab22: mediators of selective sorting of clathrin-independent endocytic cargo proteins on endosomes

Clathrin-independent endocytosis (CIE) mediates the internalization of many plasma membrane (PM) proteins involved in homeostasis, immune response, and signaling. CIE cargo molecules are internalized independent of clathrin, and dynamin, and modulated by the small G protein Arf6. After internalization the CIE cargo proteins either follow a default pathway of trafficking to lysosomes for degradation or follow a pathway where they are routed directly to the recycling endosomes for return to the PM. The selective endosomal sorting of molecules like CD44, CD98, and CD147, which are involved in cell-cell and cell-extracellular interactions, indicates that sorting mechanisms dictate the post-endocytic fate of CIE cargo proteins. In a recent study, we identified sorting signals that specify the endosomal trafficking of CIE cargo proteins and uncover a role for Hook1 as an endosomal cargo adaptor that routes CIE cargo to the recycling endosomes. Furthermore, we found that Hook1, microtubules, and Rab22a work in coordination to directly recycle the cargo and facilitate cell spreading. Here, we discuss our current view on the endosomal sorting of CIE cargo proteins and their molecular regulators.

A local, periactive zone endocytic machinery at photoreceptor synapses in close vicinity to synaptic ribbons

Photoreceptor ribbon synapses are continuously active synapses with large active zones that contain synaptic ribbons. Synaptic ribbons are anchored to the active zones and are associated with large numbers of synaptic vesicles. The base of the ribbon that is located close to L-type voltage-gated Ca(2+) channels is a hotspot of exocytosis. The continuous exocytosis at the ribbon synapse needs to be balanced by compensatory endocytosis. Recent analyses indicated that vesicle recycling at the synaptic ribbon is also an important determinant of synaptic signaling at the photoreceptor synapse. To get insights into mechanisms of vesicle recycling at the photoreceptor ribbon synapse, we performed super-resolution structured illumination microscopy and immunogold electron microscopy to localize major components of the endocytotic membrane retrieval machinery in the photoreceptor synapse of the mouse retina. We found dynamin, syndapin, amphiphysin, and calcineurin, a regulator of activity-dependent endocytosis, to be highly enriched around the active zone and the synaptic ribbon. We present evidence for two clathrin heavy chain variants in the photoreceptor terminal; one is enriched around the synaptic ribbon, whereas the other is localized in the entry region of the terminal. The focal enrichment of endocytic proteins around the synaptic ribbon is consistent with a focal uptake of endocytic markers at that site. This endocytic activity functionally depends on dynamin. These data propose that the presynaptic periactive zone surrounding the synaptic ribbon complex is a hotspot of endocytosis in photoreceptor ribbon synapses.

Signals from the lysosome: a control centre for cellular clearance and energy metabolism

For a long time, lysosomes were considered merely to be cellular 'incinerators' involved in the degradation and recycling of cellular waste. However, now there is compelling evidence indicating that lysosomes have a much broader function and that they are involved in fundamental processes such as secretion, plasma membrane repair, signalling and energy metabolism. Furthermore, the essential role of lysosomes in autophagic pathways puts these organelles at the crossroads of several cellular processes, with significant implications for health and disease. The identification of a master regulator, transcription factor EB (TFEB), that regulates lysosomal biogenesis and autophagy has revealed how the lysosome adapts to environmental cues, such as starvation, and targeting TFEB may provide a novel therapeutic strategy for modulating lysosomal function in human disease.

Microtubule-dependent endosomal sorting of clathrin-independent cargo by Hook1

Hook1, a microtubule and cargo tethering protein, is important for the sorting of clathrin-independent cargoes away from EEA1+ endosomes and promotes their recycling.

Many plasma membrane (PM) proteins enter cells nonselectively through clathrin-independent endocytosis (CIE). Here, we present evidence that cytoplasmic sequences in three CIE cargo proteins—CD44, CD98, and CD147—were responsible for the rapid sorting of these proteins into endosomal tubules away from endosomes associated with early endosomal antigen 1 (EEA1). We found that Hook1, a microtubule- and cargo-tethering protein, recognized the cytoplasmic tail of CD147 to help sort it and CD98 into Rab22a-dependent tubules associated with recycling. Depletion of Hook1 from cells altered trafficking of CD44, CD98, and CD147 toward EEA1 compartments and impaired the recycling of CD98 back to the PM. In contrast, another CIE cargo protein, major histocompatibility complex class I, which normally traffics to EEA1 compartments, was not affected by depletion of Hook1. Loss of Hook1 also led to an inhibition of cell spreading, implicating a role for Hook1 sorting of specific CIE cargo proteins away from bulk membrane and back to the PM.

Flotillins functionally organize the bacterial membrane

Proteins and lipids are heterogeneously distributed in biological membranes. The correct function of membrane proteins depends on spatiotemporal organization into defined membrane areas, called lipid domains or rafts. Lipid microdomains are therefore thought to assist compartmentalization of membranes. However, how lipid and protein assemblies are organized and whether proteins are actively involved in these processes remains poorly understood. We now have identified flotillins to be responsible for lateral segregation of defined membrane domains in the model organism Bacillus subtilis. We show that flotillins form large, dynamic assemblies that are able to influence membrane fluidity and prevent condensation of Laurdan stained membrane regions. Absence of flotillins in vivo leads to coalescence of distinct domains of high membrane order and, hence, loss of flotillins in the bacterial plasma-membrane reduces membrane heterogeneity. We show that flotillins interact with various proteins involved in protein secretion, cell wall metabolism, transport and membrane-related signalling processes. Importantly, maintenance of membrane heterogeneity is critical for vital cellular processes such as protein secretion.

Flotillin-1 mediates PrPc endocytosis in the cultured cells during Cu²⁺ stimulation through molecular interaction

Flotillins are membrane association proteins consisting of two homologous members, flotillin-1 (Flot-1) and flotillin-2 (Flot-2). They define a clathrin-independent endocytic pathway in mammal cells, which are also distinct from some other endocytosis mechanisms. The implicated cargoes of the flotillin-dependent pathway are mainly some GPI-anchored proteins, such as CD59 and Thy-1, which positionally colocalize with flotillins at the plasma membrane microdomains. To see whether flotillins are involved in the endocytosis of PrP(C), the potential molecular interaction between PrP(C) and flotillins in a neuroblastoma cell line SK-N-SH was analyzed. Co-immunoprecipitation assays did not reveal a detectable complex in the cell lysates of a normal feeding situation. After stimulation of Cu(2+), PrP(C) formed a clear complex with Flot-1, but not with Flot-2. Immunofluorescent assays illustrated that PrP(C) colocalized well with Flot-1, and the complexes of PrP(C)-Flot-1 shifted from the cell membrane to the cytoplasm along with the treatment of Cu(2+). Down-regulating the expression of Flot-1 in SK-N-SH cells by Flot-1-specific RNAi obviously abolished the Cu(2+)-stimulated endocytosis process of PrP(C). Moreover, we also found that in the cell line human embryonic kidney 293 (HEK293) without detectable PrP(C) expression, the distribution of cellular Flot-1 maintained almost unchanged during Cu(2+) treatment. Cu(2+)-induced PrP(C)-Flot-1 molecular interaction and endocytosis in HEK293 cells were obtained when expressing wild-type human PrP (PrP(PG5)), but not in the preparation expressing octarepeat-deleted PrP (PrP(PG0)). Our data here provide direct evidences for the molecular interaction and endocytosis of PrP(C) with Flot-1 in the presence of copper ions, and the octarepeat region of PrP(C) is critical for this process, which strongly indicates that the Flot-1-dependent endocytic pathway seems to mediate the endocytosis process of PrP(C) in the special situation.

Trafficking of the Menkes copper transporter ATP7A is regulated by clathrin-, AP-2-, AP-1-, and Rab22-dependent steps

ATP7A mediates copper absorption and feeds cuproenzymes in the trans-Golgi network. To regulate copper homeostasis, ATP7A cycles between the TGN and plasma membrane. The roles of clathrin, adaptor complexes, lipid rafts, and Rab22a are assessed in an attempt to decipher the regulatory proteins involved in ATP7A cycling.

The transporter ATP7A mediates systemic copper absorption and provides cuproenzymes in the trans-Golgi network (TGN) with copper. To regulate metal homeostasis, ATP7A constitutively cycles between the TGN and plasma membrane (PM). ATP7A trafficking to the PM is elevated in response to increased copper load and is reversed when copper concentrations are lowered. Molecular mechanisms underlying this trafficking are poorly understood. We assess the role of clathrin, adaptor complexes, lipid rafts, and Rab22a in an attempt to decipher the regulatory proteins involved in ATP7A cycling. While RNA interference (RNAi)–mediated depletion of caveolin 1/2 or flotillin had no effect on ATP7A localization, clathrin heavy chain depletion or expression of AP180 dominant-negative mutant not only disrupted clathrin-regulated pathways, but also blocked PM-to-TGN internalization of ATP7A. Depletion of the μ subunits of either adaptor protein-2 (AP-2) or AP-1 using RNAi further provides evidence that both clathrin adaptors are important for trafficking of ATP7A from the PM to the TGN. Expression of the GTP-locked Rab22a_Q64L mutant caused fragmentation of TGN membrane domains enriched for ATP7A. These appear to be a subdomain of the mammalian TGN, showing only partial overlap with the TGN marker golgin-97. Of importance, ATP7A remained in the Rab22a_Q64L-generated structures after copper treatment and washout, suggesting that forward trafficking out of this compartment was blocked. This study provides evidence that multiple membrane-associated factors, including clathrin, AP-2, AP-1, and Rab22, are regulators of ATP7A trafficking.

Endocytosis of gene delivery vectors: from clathrin-dependent to lipid raft-mediated endocytosis

The ideal nonviral vector delivers its nucleic acid cargo to a specific intracellular target. Vectors enter cells mainly through endocytosis and are distributed to various intracellular organelles. Recent advances in microscopy, lipidomics, and proteomics confirm that the cell membrane is composed of clusters of lipids, organized in the form of lipid raft domains, together with non-raft domains that comprise a generally disordered lipid milieu. The binding of a nonviral vector to either region can determine the pathway for its endocytic uptake and subsequent intracellular itinerary. Given this model of the cell membrane structure, endocytic pathways should be reclassified in relation to lipid rafts. In this review, we attempt to assess the currently recognized endocytic pathways in mammalian cells. The endocytic pathways are classified in relation to the membrane regions that make up the primary endocytic vesicles. This review covers the well-recognized clathrin-mediated endocytosis (CME), phagocytosis, and macropinocytosis in addition to the less addressed pathways that take place in lipid rafts. These include caveolae-mediated, flotillin-dependent, GTPase regulator associated with focal adhesion kinase-1 (GRAF1)-dependent, adenosine diphosphate-ribosylation factor 6 (Arf6)-dependent, and RhoA-dependent endocytic pathways. We summarize the regulators associated with each uptake pathway and methods for interfering with these regulators are discussed. The fate of endocytic vesicles resulting from each endocytic uptake pathway is highlighted.

The role of ubiquitylation in receptor endocytosis and endosomal sorting

Ligand-induced activation of transmembrane receptors activates intracellular signaling cascades that control vital cellular processes, such as cell proliferation, differentiation, migration and survival. Receptor signaling is modulated by several mechanisms to ensure that the correct biological outcome is achieved. One such mechanism, which negatively regulates receptor signaling, involves the modification of receptors with ubiquitin. This post-translational modification can promote receptor endocytosis and targets receptors for lysosomal degradation, thereby ensuring termination of receptor signaling. In this Commentary, we review the roles of ubiquitylation in receptor endocytosis and degradative endosomal sorting by drawing on the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) as a well-studied example. Furthermore, we elaborate on the molecular basis of ubiquitin recognition along the endocytic pathway through compartment-specific ubiquitin-binding proteins and highlight how endocytic sorting machineries control these processes. In addition, we discuss the importance of ubiquitin-dependent receptor endocytosis for the maintenance of cellular homeostasis and in the prevention of diseases such as cancer.

Integrin-mediated signaling induced by simian virus 40 leads to transient uncoupling of cortical actin and the plasma membrane

Simian Virus 40 (SV40) is a paradigm pathogen with multivalent binding sites for the sphingolipid GM1, via which it induces its endocytosis for infection. Here we report that SV40 also utilizes cell surface integrins to activate signaling networks required for infection, even in the absence of the previously implicated glycosphingolipids. We identify ILK, PDK1, the RhoGAP GRAF1 and RhoA as core nodes of the signaling network activated upon SV40 engagement of integrins. We show that integrin-mediated signaling through host SV40 engagement induces the de-phosphorylation of Ezrin leading to uncoupling of the plasma membrane and cortical actin. Our results provide functional evidence for a mechanism by which SV40 activates signal transduction in human epithelial cells via integrins in the context of clathrin-independent endocytosis.

Proteomic analysis of clathrin interactions in trypanosomes reveals dynamic evolution of endocytosis

Endocytosis is a vital cellular process maintaining the cell surface, modulating signal transduction and facilitating nutrient acquisition. In metazoa, multiple endocytic modes are recognized, but for many unicellular organisms the process is likely dominated by the ancient clathrin-mediated pathway. The endocytic system of the highly divergent trypanosomatid Trypanosoma brucei exhibits many unusual features, including a restricted site of internalization, dominance of the plasma membrane by GPI-anchored proteins, absence of the AP2 complex and an exceptionally high rate. Here we asked if the proteins subtending clathrin trafficking in trypanosomes are exclusively related to those of higher eukaryotes or if novel, potentially taxon-specific proteins operate. Co-immunoprecipitation identified twelve T. brucei clathrin-associating proteins (TbCAPs), which partially colocalized with clathrin. Critically, eight TbCAPs are restricted to trypanosomatid genomes and all of these are required for robust cell proliferation. A subset, TbCAP100, TbCAP116, TbCAP161 and TbCAP334, were implicated in distinct endocytic steps by detailed analysis of knockdown cells. Coupled with the absence of orthologs for many metazoan and fungal endocytic factors, these data suggest that clathrin interactions in trypanosomes are highly lineage-specific, and indicate substantial evolutionary diversity within clathrin-mediated endocytosis mechanisms across the eukaryotes.

IDOL stimulates clathrin-independent endocytosis and multivesicular body-mediated lysosomal degradation of the low-density lipoprotein receptor

The low-density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR) is a critical determinant of plasma cholesterol levels that internalizes lipoprotein cargo via clathrin-mediated endocytosis. Here, we show that the E3 ubiquitin ligase IDOL stimulates a previously unrecognized, clathrin-independent pathway for LDLR internalization. Real-time single-particle tracking and electron microscopy reveal that IDOL is recruited to the plasma membrane by LDLR, promotes LDLR internalization in the absence of clathrin or caveolae, and facilitates LDLR degradation by shuttling it into the multivesicular body (MVB) protein-sorting pathway. The IDOL-dependent degradation pathway is distinct from that mediated by PCSK9 as only IDOL employs ESCRT (endosomal-sorting complex required for transport) complexes to recognize and traffic LDLR to lysosomes. Small interfering RNA (siRNA)-mediated knockdown of ESCRT-0 (HGS) or ESCRT-I (TSG101) components prevents IDOL-mediated LDLR degradation. We further show that USP8 acts downstream of IDOL to deubiquitinate LDLR and that USP8 is required for LDLR entry into the MVB pathway. These results provide key mechanistic insights into an evolutionarily conserved pathway for the control of lipoprotein receptor expression and cellular lipid uptake.

Facing glycosphingolipid-Shiga toxin interaction: dire straits for endothelial cells of the human vasculature

The two major Shiga toxin (Stx) types, Stx1 and Stx2, produced by enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC) in particular injure renal and cerebral microvascular endothelial cells after transfer from the human intestine into the circulation. Stxs are AB(5) toxins composed of an enzymatically active A subunit and the pentameric B subunit, which preferentially binds to the glycosphingolipid globotriaosylceramide (Gb3Cer/CD77). This review summarizes the current knowledge on Stx-caused cellular injury and the structural diversity of Stx receptors as well as the initial molecular interaction of Stxs with the human endothelium of different vascular beds. The varying lipoforms of Stx receptors and their spatial organization in lipid rafts suggest a central role in different modes of receptor-mediated endocytosis and intracellular destiny of the toxins. The design and development of tailored Stx neutralizers targeting the oligosaccharide-toxin recognition event has become a very real prospect to ameliorate or prevent life-threatening renal and neurological complications.

The non-peptidic part determines the internalization mechanism and intracellular trafficking of peptide amphiphiles

Background

Peptide amphiphiles (PAs) are a class of amphiphilic molecules able to self-assemble into nanomaterials that have shown efficient in vivo targeted delivery. Understanding the interactions of PAs with cells and the mechanisms of their internalization and intracellular trafficking is critical in their further development for therapeutic delivery applications.

Methodology/Principal Findings

PAs of a novel, cell- and tissue-penetrating peptide were synthesized possessing two different lipophilic tail architectures and their interactions with prostate cancer cells were studied in vitro. Cell uptake of peptides was greatly enhanced post-modification. Internalization occurred via lipid-raft mediated endocytosis and was common for the two analogs studied. On the contrary, we identified the non-peptidic part as the determining factor of differences between intracellular trafficking and retention of PAs. PAs composed of di-stearyl lipid tails linked through poly(ethylene glycol) to the peptide exhibited higher exocytosis rates and employed different recycling pathways compared to ones consisting of di-palmitic-coupled peptides. As a result, cell association of the former PAs decreased with time.

Conclusions/Significance

Control over peptide intracellular localization and retention is possible by appropriate modification with synthetic hydrophobic tails. We propose this as a strategy to design improved peptide-based delivery systems.

Endocytosis and autophagy: Shared machinery for degradation

Two key questions in the autophagy field are the mechanisms that underlie the signals for autophagy initiation and the source of membrane for expansion of the nascent membrane, the phagophore. In this review, we discuss recent findings highlighting the role of the classical endosomal pathway, from plasma membrane to lysosome, in the formation and expansion of the phagophore and subsequent degradation of the autophagosome contents. We also highlight the striking conservation of regulatory factors between the two pathways, including those regulating membrane budding and fusion, and the role of the lysosome in sensing the nutrient status of the cell, regulating mTORC1 activity, and ultimately the initiation of autophagy. Editor's suggested further reading in BioEssays The evolution of dynamin to regulate clathrin-mediated endocytosis Abstract.

Targeting receptor-mediated endocytotic pathways with nanoparticles: rationale and advances

Targeting of drugs and their carrier systems by using receptor-mediated endocytotic pathways was in its nascent stages 25 years ago. In the intervening years, an explosion of knowledge focused on design and synthesis of nanoparticulate delivery systems as well as elucidation of the cellular complexity of what was previously-termed receptor-mediated endocytosis has now created a situation when it has become possible to design and test the feasibility of delivery of highly specific nanoparticle drug carriers to specific cells and tissue. This review outlines the mechanisms governing the major modes of receptor-mediated endocytosis used in drug delivery and highlights recent approaches using these as targets for in vivo drug delivery of nanoparticles. The review also discusses some of the inherent complexity associated with the simple shift from a ligand-drug conjugate versus a ligand-nanoparticle conjugate, in terms of ligand valency and its relationship to the mode of receptor-mediated internalization.

Non-26S proteasome proteolytic role of ubiquitin in plant endocytosis and endosomal trafficking(F)

The 76 amino acid protein ubiquitin (Ub) is highly conserved in all eukaryotic species. It plays important roles in many cellular processes by covalently attaching to the target proteins. The best known function of Ub is marking substrate proteins for degradation by the 26S proteasome. In fact, other consequences of ubiquitination have been discovered in yeast and mammals, such as membrane trafficking, DNA repair, chromatin modification, and protein kinase activation. The common mechanism underlying these processes is that Ub serves as a signal to sort proteins to the vacuoles or lysosomes for degradation as opposed to 26S proteasome-dependent degradation. To date, several reports have indicated that a similar function of Ub also exists in plants. This review focuses on a summary and analysis of the recent research progress on Ub acting as a signal to mediate endocytosis and endosomal trafficking in plants.

Seg1 controls eisosome assembly and shape

Seg1 establishes a platform for the assembly of eisosomes and is important for determining their length.

Eisosomes are stable domains at the plasma membrane of the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae and have been proposed to function in endocytosis. Eisosomes are composed of two main cytoplasmic proteins, Pil1 and Lsp1, that form a scaffold around furrow-like plasma membrane invaginations. We show here that the poorly characterized eisosome protein Seg1/Ymr086w is important for eisosome biogenesis and architecture. Seg1 was required for efficient incorporation of Pil1 into eisosomes and the generation of normal plasma membrane furrows. Seg1 preceded Pil1 during eisosome formation and established a platform for the assembly of other eisosome components. This platform was further shaped and stabilized upon the arrival of Pil1 and Lsp1. Moreover, Seg1 abundance controlled the shape of eisosomes by determining their length. Similarly, the Schizosaccharomyces pombe Seg1-like protein Sle1 was necessary to generate the filamentous eisosomes present in fission yeast. The function of Seg1 in the stepwise biogenesis of eisosomes reveals striking architectural similarities between eisosomes in yeast and caveolae in mammals.

Cytoskeleton keratin regulation of FasR signaling through modulation of actin/ezrin interplay at lipid rafts in hepatocytes

FasR stimulation by Fas ligand leads to rapid formation of FasR microaggregates, which become signaling protein oligomerization transduction structures (SPOTS), through interactions with actin and ezrin, a structural step that triggers death-inducing signaling complex formation, in association with procaspase-8 activation. In some cells, designated as type I, caspase 8 directly activates effector caspases, whereas in others, known as type II, the caspase-mediated death signaling is amplified through mitochondria. Keratins are the intermediate filament (IF) proteins of epithelial cells, expressed as pairs in a lineage/differentiation manner. Hepatocyte IFs are made solely of keratins 8/18 (K8/K18), the hallmark of all simple epithelia. We have shown recently that in comparison to type II wild-type (WT) mouse hepatocytes, the absence of K8/K18 IFs in K8-null hepatocytes leads to more efficient FasR-mediated apoptosis, in link with a type II/type I-like switch in FasR-death signaling. Here, we demonstrate that the apoptotic process occurring in type I-like K8-null hepatocytes is associated with accelerated SPOTS elaboration at surface membrane, along with manifestation of FasR cap formation and internalization. In addition, the lipid raft organization is altered in K8-null hepatocytes. While lipid raft inhibition impairs SPOTS formation in both WT and K8-null hepatocytes, the absence of K8/K18 IFs in the latter sensitizes SPOTS to actin de-polymerization, and perturbs ezrin compartmentalization. Overall, the results indicate that the K8/K18 IF loss in hepatocytes alters the initial FasR activation steps through perturbation of ezrin/actin interplay and lipid raft organization, which leads to a type II/type I switch in FasR-death signaling.