c-Src is required for glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) family ligand-mediated neuronal survival via a phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase (PI-3K)-dependent pathway

Role of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase in neuronal survival and axonal outgrowth of adult mouse dorsal root ganglia explants

Adult ganglionic peripheral neurons have lost dependence on target-derived neurotrophin signaling for survival and regeneration after injury. To understand the mechanisms required to sustain such processes at maturity, we are studying neuronal survival and axonal outgrowth of adult mouse dorsal root ganglia (DRG) explants. We have here examined the role of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3-K) activity. Both neuronal survival and axonal outgrowth of spontaneously growing preparations were decreased significantly by the PI3-K inhibitor LY294002 as was the increased outgrowth caused by nerve growth factor or glial cell line-derived factor. Inhibition of PI3-K activity promoted neuronal cell death to the same extent in the presence as in the absence of a growth factor, whereas inhibition of mitogen-activated protein kinase, MAPK, lacked effect. Using a compartmentalized system, it could be shown that only axonal outgrowth was decreased when the outgrowth region only was exposed to LY294002. Already-formed growth cones showed morphological changes within 5-10 min after exposure to LY294002. Akt (PKB) is one downstream effector of PI3-K. Immunofluorescence revealed the presence of activated Akt in DRG cell bodies and in axonal growth cones. Immunoreactivity was decreased by PI3-K inhibition. The results suggest that Akt is constitutively active in adult DRG neurons, and that PI3-K mediated processes are involved in neuronal survival of one or more DRG neuronal subpopulations and also in axonal elongation. The possible significance of Akt signaling for these effects is discussed.

Mitogenic effect of glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor is dependent on the activation of p70S6 kinase, but independent of the activation of ERK and up-regulation of Ret in SH-SY5Y cells

Glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) activates c-Ret tyrosine kinase and several downstream intracellular pathways; the biological effects caused by the activation of each of these pathways, however, remain to be elucidated. Here we report the ability of GDNF to induce proliferation, rather than differentiation, of neuroblastoma cells (SH-SY5Y) by targeting the signaling pathway responsible for mediating this proliferative effect. GDNF induces the phosphorylation of Akt and p70S6 kinase (p70S6K) in SH-SY5Y cells in which Ret protein expression is relatively low. Interestingly, treating SH-SY5Y cells with retinoic acid greatly increases Ret protein levels and GDNF-induced Ret tyrosine phosphorylation, but does not affect the mitogenic action of GDNF and the activation of the Akt/p70S6K pathway. In contrast, the activation of the ERK pathway and the resulting induction of immediate-early genes parallel the increases in Ret protein levels. Rapamycin, a specific inhibitor of p70S6K activation by the mammalian target of rapamycin, completely prevents GDNF-induced proliferation and activation of p70S6K. These results suggest that GDNF promotes cell proliferation via the activation of p70S6K, independent of the ERK signaling pathway, and that GDNF activates the Akt/p70S6K pathway more efficiently than the ERK pathway in the cells in which Ret expression is low.

Evidence in support of signaling endosome-based retrograde survival of sympathetic neurons

The mechanism by which target-derived Nerve Growth Factor (NGF) signaling is propagated retrogradely, over extremely long distances, to cell bodies to support survival of neurons is unclear. Here we show that survival of sympathetic neurons supported by NGF on distal axons requires the kinase activity of the NGF receptor, TrkA, in both distal axons and cell bodies. In contrast, disruption of TrkA activity exclusively in proximal axonal segments affects neither retrograde NGF-TrkA signaling in cell bodies nor neuronal survival. Ligand-receptor internalization is necessary for survival of neurons supported by NGF on distal axons. Furthermore, antibody neutralization experiments indicate that retrogradely transported NGF, within cell bodies, is critical for neuronal survival but not for growth of distal axons. Taken together, our results indicate that retrogradely transported NGF-TrkA complexes promote sympathetic neuron survival.

Oligodendrocytes promote neuronal survival and axonal length by distinct intracellular mechanisms: a novel role for oligodendrocyte-derived glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor

Interactions of CNS cells lead to the establishment of complex neural systems. Specifically, oligodendrocytes form myelin sheaths around axons that enable rapid electrical conduction of impulses. Recent evidence has emerged that oligodendrocytes may also release trophic factors promoting neuronal survival. We therefore studied the effects of factors released from cells of the oligodendrocyte lineage on neuronal survival and also on the morphology of neurons. Neurons derived from rat embryonic cortices were cultured and exposed to media conditioned by oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs) or differentiated oligodendrocytes. In line with previous studies, exposure of OPC and oligodendrocyte-conditioned media (OCM) increased survival, a phosphatidylinositol 3'-kinase (PI3kinase)/Akt-dependent phenomenon. In addition, exposure of neurons to OCM but not OPC conditioned media resulted in increased axonal length per neuron, as detected by antibodies to phosphorylated neurofilaments. OCM exposure resulted in activation of the MAPkinase/extracellular signal-regulated kinase pathway, inhibition of which significantly reduced oligodendrocyte-mediated enhancement of axonal length but, unlike PI3kinase inhibition, had no effect on neuronal survival. Furthermore, we identify glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) production by differentiated oligodendrocytes and provide evidence that implicates GDNF in OCM-mediated axonal effects, independent of its effect on neuronal survival. Therefore, we have shown that factors released by OPCs and oligodendrocytes induce the activation of distinct intracellular pathways within neurons, which have different functional effects on the cell.

Growth differentiation factor-15 prevents low potassium-induced cell death of cerebellar granule neurons by differential regulation of Akt and ERK pathways

Growth differentiation factor-15 (GDF-15) is a novel member of the transforming growth factor-beta superfamily and has been shown to be induced in neurons subsequent to lesions. We have therefore begun to study its putative role in the regulation of neuron survival and apoptosis. Cultured cerebellar granule neurons (CGN) survive when maintained in high K(+) (25 mm) but undergo apoptosis when switched to low K(+) (5 mm). GDF-15 prevented death of CGN in low K(+). This effect could be blocked by phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/Akt pathway inhibitors LY294002 or wortmannin. In contrast, mitogen-activated protein kinase (MEK)/extracellular-signal-regulated kinase (ERK) pathway inhibitors U0126 and PD98059 potentiated GDF-15 mediated survival and prevented cell death in low K(+) even without factor treatment. Immunoblots revealed GDF-15-induced phosphorylation of Akt and glycogen synthase kinase-3beta. This activation was suppressed by phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase inhibitors. Low K(+) induced delayed and persistent ERK activation, which was blocked by MEK inhibitors or GDF-15. ERK activation induced c-Jun, a member of the AP-1 transcription factor family. GDF-15 or U0126 prevented c-Jun activation. Furthermore, we show that GDF-15 prevented generation of reactive oxygen species, a known activator of ERK. Together, our data suggest that GDF-15 prevents apoptosis in CGN by activating Akt and inhibiting endogenously active ERK.

XIB4035, a novel nonpeptidyl small molecule agonist for GFRalpha-1

We investigated the agonistic activities of N(4)-(7-chloro-2-[(E)-2-(2-chloro-phenyl)-vinyl]-quinolin-4-yl)-N(1),N(1)-diethyl-pentane-1,4-diamine (XIB4035), at the glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) family receptoralpha-1(GFRalpha-1) in Neuro-2A cells, a mouse neuroblastoma cell line which is a suitable model for investigating functions mediated through GFRalpha-1. XIB4035 concentration-dependently inhibited [(125)I]GDNF binding in Neuro-2A cells with an IC(50) of 10.4 microM. GDNF induced autophosphorylation of Ret protein, and promoted neurite outgrowth in Neuro-2A cells. XIB4035, like GDNF, induced Ret autophosphorylation in the Neuro-2A cells. Moreover, XIB4035 promoted neurite outgrowth in a concentration-dependent manner. These results show that XIB4035 may act as an agonist at GFRalpha-1 receptor complex, and mimic neurotrophic effects of GDNF in Neuro-2A cells. This is an interesting finding showing that a nonpeptidyl small molecule is capable of inducing activation of a receptor that normally bind a relatively large protein ligand such as GDNF.

Glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor and target-dependent regulation of large-conductance KCa channels in developing chick lumbar motoneurons

The functional expression of large-conductance Ca2+-activated K+ (K(Ca)) channels in lumbar motoneurons (LMNs) of the developing chick embryo is regulated in part by interactions with striated muscle target tissues. Here we show that the functional expression of K(Ca) channels in LMNs developing in vitro can be stimulated by application of a skeletal muscle extract (MEX) or by coculture with hindlimb myotubes. A similar stimulation of K(Ca) channels in vitro can be produced by the trophic factors glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor but not by neurotrophin (NT)-3 or NT-4. The actions of MEX and hindlimb myotubes are blocked by a GDNF-neutralizing antiserum. Moreover, injection of this same antiserum into the embryonic hindlimb reduced the functional expression of K(Ca) channels in vivo to levels seen in LMNs deprived of interactions with the hindlimb. The effects of GDNF on K(Ca) channel expression in LMNs require 24 hr of continuous exposure to reach maximum and are blocked by the translation inhibitor anisomycin, indicating the need for synthesis of new proteins. GDNF actions are also blocked by the farnesyl transferase inhibitor manumycin, suggesting a role for Ras in the actions of GDNF. Finally, the actions of GDNF are inhibited by PP2, an inhibitor of Src family tyrosine kinases, and by LY29003, an inhibitor of phosphatidylinositol 3 kinases, but not by PD98059, an inhibitor of the Erk signaling cascade. None of these treatments alter expression of voltage-activated Ca2+ channels. Thus, the actions of GDNF on LMN K(Ca) channel expression appear to use a transduction pathway similar to that used for regulation of apoptosis.

Deciphering vascular endothelial cell growth factor/vascular permeability factor signaling to vascular permeability. Inhibition by atrial natriuretic peptide

Vascular endothelial cell growth factor (VEGF) was originally described as a potent vascular permeability factor (VPF) that importantly contributes to vascular pathobiology. The signaling pathways that underlie VEGF/VPF-induced permeability are not well defined. Furthermore, endogenous vascular peptides that regulate this important VPF function are currently unknown. We report here that VPF significantly enhances permeability in aortic endothelial cells via a linked signaling pathway, sequentially involving Src, ERK, JNK, and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/AKT. This leads to the serine/threonine phosphorylation and redistribution of actin and the tight junction (TJ) proteins, zona occludens-1 and occludin, and the loss of the endothelial cell barrier architecture. Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) inhibited VPF signaling, TJ protein phosphorylation and localization, and VPF-induced permeability. This involved both guanylate cyclase and natriuretic peptide clearance receptors. In vivo, transgenic mice that overexpress ANP showed significantly less VPF-induced kinase activation and vascular permeability compared with non-transgenic littermates. Thus, ANP acts as an anti-permeability factor by inhibiting the signaling functions of VPF that we define here and by preserving the endothelial cell TJ functional morphology.

MAP kinase signaling cascade dysfunction specific to Alzheimer's disease in fibroblasts

Mitogen-activated protein kinases (such as Erk1/2) regulate phosphorylation of the microtubule-associated protein tau and processing of the amyloid protein beta, both events critical to the pathophysiology of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Here we report that enhanced and prolonged Erk1/2 phosphorylation in response to bradykinin (BK) was detected in fibroblasts of both familial and sporadic AD, but not age-matched controls (AC). The AD-associated abnormality in Erk1/2 phosphorylation was not seen in fibroblasts from Huntington's disease patients with dementia. The elevation of Erk1/2 phosphorylation occurred immediately after BK stimulation and required an IP3-sensitive Ca(2+) release as well as activation of PKC and c-src as upstream events. Treatment of cells with the PI-3 kinase blocker LY924002 partially inhibited the BK-stimulated Erk1/2 phosphorylation in AC, but had no effect in AD cells, suggesting that the BK-induced Erk1/2 phosphorylation in AD cells is independent of PI-3 kinase. Activation of the cAMP-responsive element binding protein (CREB) monitored as an increase in phosphorylation at Ser-133 was also observed after BK stimulation. Unlike the AD-specific differences for Erk1/2, however, the BK-stimulated CREB phosphorylation was not different between AC and AD cells. Abnormal Erk1/2 activities may alter downstream cellular processes such as gene transcription, amyloid precursor protein processing, and tau protein phosphorylation, which contribute to the pathogenesis of AD. Moreover, detection of AD-specific differences in MAP kinase in peripheral tissues may provide an efficient means for early diagnosis of AD as well as help us to identify therapeutic targets for drug discovery.

Signal transduction pathways involved in rheumatoid arthritis synovial fibroblast interleukin-18-induced vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 expression

Vascular cell adhesion molecule (VCAM)-1 has been implicated in interactions between leukocytes and connective tissue, including rheumatoid arthritis (RA) synovial tissue fibroblasts. Such interactions within the synovium contribute to RA inflammation. Using phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3-kinase) inhibitor LY294002 and Src inhibitor PP2, we show that interleukin (IL)-18-induced ERK1/2 activation is Src kinase-dependent. Antisense (AS) c-Src oligonucleotide (ODN) treatment reduced IL-18-induced ERK1/2 expression by 32% compared with control, suggesting an upstream role of Src in ERK1/2 activation. AS c-Src ODN treatment also inhibited Akt expression by 74% compared with sense control. PI3-kinase inhibitor LY294002 or AS PI3-kinase ODN inhibited Akt expression. AS c-Src ODN inhibited Akt phosphorylation, confirming Src is upstream of PI3-kinase in IL-18-induced RA synovial fibroblast signaling. IL-18 induced a time-dependent activation of c-Src, Ras, and Raf-1, suggesting this signaling cascade plays a role in ERK activation. IL-18 directly activated Src kinase by more than 4-fold over basal levels by enzymatic assay. Electrophoretic mobility shift assay showed that activator protein-1 (AP-1) is activated by IL-18 through ERK and Src but not through PI3-kinase. In an alternate pathway, inhibition of IL-1 receptor-associated kinase-1 (IRAK) with AS ODN to IRAK reduced IL-18-induced expression of nuclear factor kappaB (NFkappaB). Finally, IL-18-induced cell surface VCAM-1 expression was inhibited by treatment with AS ODNs to c-Src, IRAK, PI3-kinase, and ERK1/2 by 57, 43, 41, and 32% compared with control sense ODN treatment, respectively. These data support a role for IL-18 activation of three distinct pathways during RA synovial fibroblast stimulation: two Src-dependent pathways and the IRAK/NFkappaB pathway. Targeting VCAM-1 signaling mechanisms may represent therapeutic approaches to inflammatory and angiogenic diseases characterized by adhesion molecule up-regulation.

Lipid rafts in neuronal signaling and function

Lipid rafts are plasma membrane microdomains rich in cholesterol and sphingolipids, which provide a particularly ordered lipid environment. Rafts are enriched in glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)-anchored proteins, as well as proteins involved in signal transduction and intracellular trafficking. In neurons, lipid rafts act as platforms for the signal transduction initiated by several classes of neurotrophic factors, including neurotrophins and glial-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF)-family ligands. Emerging evidence also indicates that such rafts are important for neuronal cell adhesion, axon guidance and synaptic transmission. Thus, lipid rafts are structurally unique components of plasma membranes, crucial for neural development and function.

Effects of cerebral ischemia in mice deficient in Persephin

Persephin (Pspn), a recently cloned member of the transforming growth factor-beta superfamily (TGF-beta) and glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) subfamily, is distributed throughout the nervous system at extremely low levels and is thought to function as a survival factor for midbrain dopaminergic and spinal motor neurons in vivo. Here, we report that mice lacking Pspn by homologous recombination show normal development and behavior, but are hypersensitive to cerebral ischemia. A 300% increase in infarction volume was observed after middle cerebral artery occlusion. We find that glutamate-induced Ca(2+) influx, thought to be a major component of ischemic neuronal cell death, can be regulated directly by the Persephin protein (PSP) and that PSP can reduce hypoxia/reperfusion cell death in vitro. Neuronal cell death can be prevented or markedly attenuated by administration of recombinant human PSP in vivo before ischemia in both mouse and rat models. Taken together, these data indicate that PSP is a potent modulator of excitotoxicity in the central nervous system with pronounced neuroprotective activity. Our findings support the view that PSP signaling can exert an important control function in the context of stroke and glutamate-mediated neurotoxicity, and also suggest that future therapeutic approaches may involve this novel trophic protein.

Functions of PI 3-kinase in development of the nervous system

In the nervous system, receptor regulated phosphoinositide (PI) 3-kinases (PI 3-kinases) participate in fundamental cellular activities that underlie development. Activated by trophic factors, growth factors, neuregulins, cytokines, or neurotransmitters, PI 3-kinases have been implicated in neuronal and glial survival and differentiation. PI 3-kinases produce inositol lipid second messengers that bind to pleckstrin homology (PH) domains in diverse groups of signal transduction proteins, and control their enzymatic activities, subcellular membrane localization, or both. Downstream targets of the inositol lipid messengers include protein kinases and regulators of small GTPases. The kinase Akt/PKB functions as a key component of the PI 3-kinase dependent survival pathway through its phosphorylation and regulation of apoptotic proteins and transcription factors. Furthermore, since members of the Rho GTPase and Arf GTPase families have been implicated in regulation of the actin cytoskeleton, vesicular trafficking, and transcription, the downstream targets of PI 3-kinase that control these GTPases are excellent candidates to mediate aspects of PI 3-kinase dependent neuronal and glial differentiation.

Ureteric bud outgrowth in response to RET activation is mediated by phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase

The c-ret gene encodes a receptor tyrosine kinase (RET) essential for the development of the kidney and enteric nervous system. Activation of RET requires the secreted neurotrophin GDNF (glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor) and its high affinity receptor, a glycosyl phosphatidylinositol-linked cell surface protein GFRalpha1. In the developing kidney, RET, GDNF, and GFRalpha1 are all required for directed outgrowth and branching morphogenesis of the ureteric bud epithelium. Using MDCK renal epithelial cells as a model system, activation of RET induces cell migration, scattering, and formation of filopodia and lamellipodia. RET-expressing MDCK cells are able to migrate toward a localized source of GDNF. In this report, the intracellular signaling mechanisms regulating RET-dependent migration and chemotaxis are examined. Activation of RET resulted in increased levels of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) activity and Akt/PKB phosphorylation. This increase in PI3K activity is essential for regulating the GDNF response, since the specific inhibitor, LY294002, blocks migration and chemotaxis of MDCK cells. Using an in vitro organ culture assay, inhibition of PI3K completely blocks the GDNF-dependent outgrowth of ectopic ureter buds. PI3K is also essential for branching morphogenesis once the ureteric bud has invaded the kidney mesenchyme. The data suggest that activation of RET in the ureteric bud epithelium signals through PI3K to control outgrowth and branching morphogenesis.

Dose-dependent rescue of axotomized rat retinal ganglion cells by adenovirus-mediated expression of glial cell-line derived neurotrophic factor in vivo

Adult rat retinal ganglion cells undergo degeneration after optic nerve transection. Repeated intraocular injection of glial cell-line derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) has been shown to be efficient in enhancing retinal ganglion cell survival following optic nerve axotomy. In the present study we evaluated the potential survival-promoting effect of adenovirally administered GDNF on axotomized retinal ganglion cells. A single intravitreal injection [7 x 107 plaque-forming units (pfu) or 7 x 108 pfu] of an adenoviral vector expressing the rat GDNF gene from a cytomegalovirus promoter enhanced retinal ganglion cell survival 14 days after axotomy by 67 and 125%, respectively, when compared to control animals. Intraocular administration of the vector rescued 12.6 and 23%, respectively, of the retinal ganglion cells which would otherwise have died after axotomy. An increase in retinal GDNF protein and specific virally transduced GDNF mRNA expression was detected following intraocular vector application. Our data support previous findings showing that adenoviral delivery of neurotrophic factors to the vitreous body is a feasible approach for the prevention of axotomy-induced retinal ganglion cell death in vivo and may constitute a relevant strategy for future treatment in traumatic brain injury and ensuing neurodegeneration.

Expression of Ret receptor tyrosine kinase after transient forebrain ischemia is modulated by glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor in rat hippocampus

The Ret receptor tyrosine kinase is part of a functional receptor complex for the glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) family. We examined the expression of Ret mRNA after transient forebrain ischemia, and explored the effect of local GDNF-pretreatment in rat hippocampus on Ret mRNA expression. Transient forebrain ischemia induced Ret mRNA expression in the hippocampus, with a peak effect at 12 h. Whereas intrahippocampal microinjection of GDNF (1.0 microg) in sham-operated rats induced the expression of Ret mRNA (peak at 6 to 12 h), the expected increase of Ret mRNA induced by ischemia was blunted by local GDNF-pretreatment. Immunohistochemical investigation revealed that ischemia-induced Ret receptor expression in the hippocampal CA1 region was also reduced by local GDNF-pretreatment. These findings suggest that GDNF modulates the expression of Ret, and that GDNF signaling pathways that involve the Ret receptor tyrosine kinase might play an important role in brain injury induced by ischemia.

Inhibition of the c-Jun N-terminal kinase signaling pathway by the mixed lineage kinase inhibitor CEP-1347 (KT7515) preserves metabolism and growth of trophic factor-deprived neurons

Nerve growth factor (NGF) deprivation triggers metabolic changes in sympathetic neurons that precede cell death. Here, we investigate the role of the c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) pathway in downregulating neuronal metabolism. We show that, in the presence of CEP-1347 (KT7515), a small molecule known to block cell death upstream of JNK, cellular metabolism is preserved in neurons deprived of NGF. Biochemical data that are presented are consistent with the mechanism of action of CEP-1347 being the inhibition of the mixed lineage kinases (MLKs), known activators of JNK signaling. We demonstrate that CEP-1347-saved neurons continue to grow even in the absence of NGF, indicating that inhibition of the JNK pathway is permissive for neuronal growth in the absence of trophic support. These trophic effects are seen despite the fact that CEP-1347 does not stimulate several known survival kinase pathways. In addition to blocking Bax-dependent cytochrome c release, the inhibition of the JNK signaling pathway with CEP-1347 also blocks the development of competence-to-die in response to cytosolic cytochrome c. Therefore, inhibition of the JNK signaling pathway with the MLK inhibitor CEP-1347 inhibits both limbs of the apoptotic pathway. Finally, we demonstrate that neurons that have been NGF-deprived long-term but that have been kept alive by caspase inhibitors can be rescued metabolically by CEP-1347 as assessed by soma size, cytochrome c localization, and protein synthesis rates. Therefore, we conclude that, in addition to converting extracellular signals into decisions of life and death, the JNK pathway can modulate cellular metabolism directly and thereby maintain not only survival but the "quality of life" of neurons.

RET signaling is essential for migration, axonal growth and axon guidance of developing sympathetic neurons

Sympathetic axons use blood vessels as an intermediate path to reach their final target tissues. The initial contact between differentiating sympathetic neurons and blood vessels occurs following the primary sympathetic chain formation, where precursors of sympathetic neurons migrate and project axons along or toward blood vessels. We demonstrate that, in Ret-deficient mice, neuronal precursors throughout the entire sympathetic nervous system fail to migrate and project axons properly. These primary deficits lead to mis-routing of sympathetic nerve trunks and accelerated cell death of sympathetic neurons later in development. Artemin is expressed in blood vessels during periods of early sympathetic differentiation, and can promote and attract axonal growth of the sympathetic ganglion in vitro. This analysis identifies RET and artemin as central regulators of early sympathetic innervation.

The RET receptor: function in development and dysfunction in congenital malformation

Germline mutations in the RET proto-oncogene are responsible for two unrelated neural crest disorders: Hirschsprung disease, a congenital absence of the enteric nervous system in the hindgut, and multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2, a dominantly inherited cancer syndrome. Moreover, somatic rearrangements of RET are causally involved in the genesis of papillary thyroid carcinoma. The receptor tyrosine kinase encoded by the RET gene acts as the subunit of a multimolecular complex that binds four distinct ligands and activates a signalling network crucial for neural and kidney development. Over the past few years, a clearer picture of the mode of RET activation and of its multifaceted role during development has started to emerge. These findings, which provide new clues to the molecular mechanisms underlying RET signalling dysfunction in Hirschsprung disease, are summarized in this review.

GDNF recruits the signaling crew into lipid rafts

Glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) family ligands (GFL) are potent survival factors and regulators for central and peripheral neurons. GFLs bind to specific glycosyl phosphatidylinositol (GPI)-anchored co-receptors (GFRalpha1-alpha4), but signal through a common c-Ret receptor. Both GPI-anchored and soluble GFRalpha1 recruit c-Ret to lipid rafts following GDNF stimulation, where c-Ret interacts with different proteins than outside the rafts. Soluble GFRalpha1 mobilizes c-Ret to rafts by a different mechanism compared with GPI-anchored GFRalpha1.