Molecular mechanism underlying anti-inflammatory and anti-allergic activities of phytochemicals: an update

Antinociceptive activity of Tibouchina pereirae, an endemic plant from the Brazilian semiarid region

The anti-nociceptive activity of an extract of Tibouchina pereirae Aubl (AETP) was investigated using two models of chemically induced pain, viz. the acetic acid-induced writhing and the formalin test, respectively, with dipyrone and indomethacin as reference drugs, respectively. In the acetic acid-induced writhing test, AETP application (100 mg/kg) caused a significant reduction of writhing produced by acetic acid. In the formalin test, AETP reduced the formalin effects significantly only in the late phase. These findings thus indicate the involvement of AETP only in peripheral antinociceptive mechanisms. In addition, AETP exhibited good antioxidant activity (EC50 approx. 15 μg/mL) in the DPPH free radical scavenging assay.

Plant-Based Diets: A Physician's Guide

Because of the ever-increasing body of evidence in support of the health advantages of plant-based nutrition, there is a need for guidance on implementing its practice. This article provides physicians and other health care practitioners an overview of the myriad benefits of a plant-based diet as well as details on how best to achieve a well-balanced, nutrient-dense meal plan. It also defines notable nutrient sources, describes how to get started, and offers suggestions on how health care practitioners can encourage their patients to achieve goals, adhere to the plan, and experience success.

Tetrandrine has anti-adipogenic effect on 3T3-L1 preadipocytes through the reduced expression and/or phosphorylation levels of C/EBP-α, PPAR-γ, FAS, perilipin A, and STAT-3

Tetrandrine is a bisbenzylisoquinoline alkaloid isolated from the roots of Stephania tetrandra S. Moore and has been shown to possess anti-inflammatory and anti-cancerous activities. In this study, the effect of tetrandrine on adipogenesis in 3T3-L1 preadipocytes was investigated. Tetrandrine at 10 μM concentration strongly inhibited lipid accumulation and triglyceride (TG) synthesis during the differentiation of 3T3-L1 preadipocytes into adipocytes. On mechanistic levels, tetrandrine reduced not only the expressions of CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein-α (C/EBP-α), peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ (PPAR-γ), fatty acid synthase (FAS), and perilipin A but also the phosphorylation levels of signal transducer and activator of transcription-3 (STAT-3) during 3T3-L1 adipocyte differentiation. Tetrandrine also reduced the mRNA expression of leptin, but not adiponectin, during 3T3-L1 adipocyte differentiation. Collectively, these findings show that tetrandrine has strong anti-adipogenic effect on 3T3-L1 preadipocytes and the effect is largely attributable to the reduced expression and/or phosphorylation levels of C/EBP-α, PPAR-γ, FAS, perilipin A, and STAT-3.

Ethnopharmacological survey on medicinal plants used in herbal drinks among the traditional communities of Pakistan

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

There is very limited information regarding medicinal plants used by traditional healers in Pakistan, for treating wide-ranging diseases. Current study provides significant ethnopharmacological information, both qualitative and quantitative on medical plants in Pakistan and the pharmacological importance of herbal drinks, especially in the discovery of new drugs.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The current ethnomedicinal field study was conducted from various traditional communities of Pakistan to document usage of medicinal plants as herbal drinks. Data was collected through field interviews from local people and using semi-structured questionnaires. Data was analyzed using quantitative indices such as UV (use value), RFC (Relative frequency of citation), and FL (Fidelity level).

RESULTS

The present study recorded 217 plant species belonging to 174 genera and 69 families used in herbal drinks preparations. Major herbal preparations include decoctions, infusions and juice. According to use reports, significant species were Aloe vera, Artemisia fragrans, Allium cepa, Senegalia catechu, Alternanthera sessilis, Malva ludwigii, Arnebia benthamii, Cichorium intybus, Coccinia grandis, Dalbergia sissoo. Major ailment treated with herbal drinks include heartburn, fever, diarrhea, hypertension, and others. Use value (UV) varies from 0.23 to 0.02, with Mentha arvensis (0.23) having the highest value of UV followed by Mentha longifolia (0.22), Plantago lanceolate (0.19), Achillea millefolium (0.18), Coriandrum sativum (0.18), Justicia adhatoda and Malva sylvestris (0.17). Values of RFC varies from 0.28 to 0.09 while Fidelity level (FL) among plants varies from 37.5 to 100. Alternanthera sessilis, Oxytropis lapponica, Millettia pinnata and Salvia bucharica had the highest FL value (100).

CONCLUSION

The use of medicinal plants is prevalent in traditional communities of Pakistan. Different herbal preparations are in common practice including various herbal drinks a common tradition and much favoured herbal preparation in terms of its results and regarded as reciprocal to modern drugs. Therefore, suggesting further pharmacological, phytochemical evaluation for essential metabolites and chemical constituents.

Anti-inflammatory Effects of Novel Polysaccharide Sacran Extracted from Cyanobacterium Aphanothece sacrum in Various Inflammatory Animal Models

The goal of this study was to investigate the topical anti-inflammatory effects of the megamolecular polysaccharide sacran extracted from cyanobacterium Aphanothece sacrum using various inflammatory animal models. Sacran showed potent anti-inflammatory effects with optimum effective concentrations at 0.01 and 0.05% (w/v). Sacran markedly inhibited paw swelling and neutrophil infiltration in carrageenan-induced rat paw edema. Additionally, 6,7-dimethoxy-1-methyl-2(1H)-quinoxalinone-3-propionyl-carboxylic acid (DMEQ)-labeled sacran had the ability to penetrate carrageenan-induced rat paw skin rather than normal skin. Also, sacran significantly suppressed kaolin-induced and dextran-induced rat paw edema throughout the duration of the study. Furthermore, sacran significantly suppressed 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA)-induced mouse ear edema and mRNA expression levels of cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 as well as pro-inflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-1β, and IL-6. Safety of sacran solution was verified by negligible cytotoxicity in HaCaT cells. These results suggest that sacran may be useful as a therapeutic agent against inflammatory skin diseases with no life-threatening adverse effects.

Tetrandrine--A molecule of wide bioactivity

Stephania tetrandra and other related species of Menispermaceae form the major source of the bisbenzylisoquinoline alkaloid - tetrandrine. The plant is extensively referenced in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia for its use in the Chinese medicinal system as an analgesic and diuretic agent and also in the treatment of hypertension and various other ailments, including asthma, tuberculosis, dysentery, hyperglycemia, malaria, cancer and fever. Tetrandrine, well-known to act as a calcium channel blocker, has been tested in clinical trials and found effective against silicosis, hypertension, inflammation and lung cancer without any toxicity. Recently, the efficacy of tetrandrine was tested against Mycobaterium tuberculosis, Candida albicans, Plasmodium falciparum and Ebola virus. Tetrandrine's pharmacological property has been proved to be through its action on different signalling pathways like reactive oxygen species, enhanced autophagic flux, reversal of multi drug resistance, caspase pathway, cell cycle arrest and by modification of calcium channels. The present review summarises current knowledge on the synthesis, distribution, extraction, structural elucidation, pharmacological properties and the mechanism of action of tetrandrine. Future perspectives in the clinical use of tetrandrine as a drug are also considered.

Anti-inflammatory activity of bartogenic acid containing fraction of fruits of Barringtonia racemosa Roxb. in acute and chronic animal models of inflammation

The fruits of Barringtonia racemosa are traditionally used in Indian medicine for the treatment of pain and inflammatory conditions. In this study, a fraction of ethyl acetate extract of fruits of B. racemosa (BREAF) was investigated for anti-inflammatory activity in experimental models of acute and chronic inflammation. Activity against acute inflammation was evaluated in inflammogens induced rat paw edema models. Whereas, effect in chronic inflammation was evaluated in cotton pellet granuloma and oxazolone induced delayed type hypersensitivity (DTH) model in mice. The BREAF exhibited dose dependent anti-inflammatory activity in both acute and chronic models at oral doses of 5, 10 and 20 mg/kg. BREAF inhibited both phases of carrageenan induced rat paw inflammation. The reduction in paw inflammation by BREAF was also evident in histamine and serotonin induced inflammation in rats. Effect of BREAF on DTH indicates inhibition of immune mediated inflammation. The reduction in cotton pellet granuloma by BREAF treatment shows inhibition of proliferative changes associated with chronic inflammation. Analysis of BREAF after chromatographic separations showed presence of bartogenic acid as a major constituent. Hence, it is proposed that anti-inflammatory effects of BREAF can be partially attributed to its bartogenic acid content. The minute doses at which this fraction shows anti-inflammatory effects emphasizes the need for further investigations on its efficacy in the immuno-inflammatory conditions.

Tuberostemonine N, an active compound isolated from Stemona tuberosa, suppresses cigarette smoke-induced sub-acute lung inflammation in mice

OBJECTIVE

Our previous study demonstrated that a Stemona tuberosa extract had significant effects on cigarette smoking (CS)-induced lung inflammation in mice. The present study evaluated the potential of tuberostemonine N (T.N) to prevent airway inflammation and suppress airway responses in a CS-induced in vivo COPD model.

METHODS

T.N was isolated from the root of ST and analyzed using 1D and 2D NMR. The purity of T.N was accessed using HPLC-ELSD analysis. C57BL/6 mice in this study were whole-body exposed to mainstream CS or room air for 4 weeks, and T.N (1, 5 and 10 mg/kg body wt.) was administered to mice via intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection before CS exposure. The number of inflammatory cells, including neutrophils, macrophages and lymphocytes, and the amount of proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines were accessed from bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) to investigate the anti-inflammatory effects of T.N. Average alveoli size was also measured using histological analyses.

RESULTS

Cellular profiles and histopathological analyses revealed that the infiltration of peribronchial and perivascular inflammatory cells decreased significantly in the T.N-treated groups compared to the CS-exposed control group. T.N significantly inhibited the secretion of proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines in BALF and decreased alveoli size in lung tissue.

CONCLUSIONS

These data suggest that T.N exerts anti-inflammatory effects against airway inflammation, and T.N may be a novel therapeutic agent for lung diseases, such as COPD.

Ethnomedicinal uses of Edible Wild Fruits (EWFs) in Swat Valley, Northern Pakistan

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

This study documents the ethno-pharmacological importance of Edible Wild Fruits (EWFs) resource in the wild floral emporium of Swat, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Northern Pakistan. This is imitated in the great diversity of plants used for medicinal purposes as well as in their wide range of therapeutic applications.

METHODS

Ethnomedicinal data was collected through semi-structured and open ended interviews, questionnaires, field surveys and local gatherings. Use value (UV), Relative importance (RI), Relative frequency of citation (RFC), Informant consensus factor (ICF) and Family importance value (FIV) was calculated to elaborate the EWFs, their families, disease treated and significant fruit species based on use reports by informants.

RESULTS

A total of 47 species of EWFs belonging to 32 genera and 23 families were reported to be used in traditional medicines. Family Rosaceae dominated with 26% species followed by Moraceae (12%) and Rhamnaceae (10%), with mostly tree type of growth form (55%). The most consumed part of plants was fruit (72%) followed by leaves (21%). Decoction (26%) and unprocessed fruit (24%) were the major modes of crude drug preparation. The Informant consensus factor (ICF) of Joint/body aches was the highest followed by digestive disorders. Use value index of Vitis vinifera (3.8), being the highest, followed by Malus pumila (2) and Vitis parvifolia (2).

CONCLUSION

The tradition of using EWFs in treating ailments is a common practice among the tribal communities, depending on the socio-economic conditions of the people. The multiple uses of these EWFs suggest further investigation regarding phytochemical analysis and pharmaceutical applications.

Digestive Gland from Aplysia depilans Gmelin: Leads for Inflammation Treatment

The exploitation of marine organisms for human nutritional and pharmaceutical purposes has revealed important chemical prototypes for the discovery of new drugs, stimulating compounds isolation and syntheses of new related compounds with biomedical application. Nowadays, it is well known that inflammatory processes are involved in many diseases and the interest in the search for marine natural products with anti-inflammatory potential has been increasing. The genus Aplysia belongs to the class Gastropoda, having a wide geographical distribution and including several species, commonly known as sea hares. Aplysia depilans Gmelin is usually found in the Mediterranean Sea and in the Atlantic Ocean, from West Africa to the French coast. In these marine organisms, most of the digestion and nutrient absorption occurs in the digestive gland. This work aimed to explore the chemical composition and bioactivity of the methanol extract from A. depilans digestive gland. Therefore, fatty acids and carotenoids were determined by GC-MS and HPLC-DAD, respectively. Twenty-two fatty acids and eight carotenoids were identified for the first time in this species. The A. depilans digestive gland revealed to be essentially composed by polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) and xanthophylls. Regarding the anti-inflammatory potential in RAW 264.7 cells stimulated with lipopolysaccharide, it was observed that this matrix has capacity to reduce nitric oxide (NO) and L-citrulline levels, which suggests that its compounds may act by interference with inducible nitric oxide synthase. Taking into account the results obtained, A. depilans digestive gland may be a good source of nutraceuticals, due to their richness in health beneficial nutrients, such as carotenoids and long-chain PUFA.

Qualitative phytochemical screening and evaluation of anti-inflammatory, analgesic and antipyretic activities of Microcos paniculata barks and fruits

OBJECTIVE

The main objectives of this study were to qualitatively evaluate the profile of phytochemical constituents present in methanolic extract of Microcos paniculata bark (BME) and fruit (FME), as well as to evaluate their anti-inflammatory, analgesic and antipyretic activities.

METHODS

Phytochemical constituents of BME and FME were determined by different qualitative tests such as Molisch's test, Fehling's test, alkaloid test, frothing test, FeCl3 test, alkali test, Salkowski's test and Baljet test. The anti-inflammatory, analgesic and antipyretic activities of the extracts were evaluated through proteinase-inhibitory assay, xylene-induced ear edema test, cotton pellet-induced granuloma formation in mice, formalin test, acetic acid-induced writhing test, tail immersion test and Brewer's yeast-induced pyrexia in mice.

RESULTS

M. paniculata extracts revealed the presence of carbohydrates, alkaloids, saponins, tannins, flavonoids and triterpenoids. All of the extracts showed significant (P<0.05, vs aspirin group) proteinase-inhibitory activity, whereas the highest effect elicited by plant extracts was exhibited by the BME (75.94% proteinase inhibition activity) with a half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) of 61.31 μg/mL. Each extract at the doses of 200 and 400 mg/kg body weight showed significant (P<0.05, vs control) percentage inhibition of ear edema and granuloma formation. These extracts significantly (P<0.05, vs control) reduced the paw licking and abdominal writhing of mice. In addition, BME 400 mg/kg, and FME at 200 and 400 mg/kg showed significant (P<0.05, vs control) analgesic activities at 60 min in the tail immersion test. Again, the significant (P<0.05, vs control) post-treatment antipyretic activities were found by BME 200 and 400 mg/kg and FME 400 mg/kg respectively.

CONCLUSION

Study results indicate that M. paniculata may provide a source of plant compounds with anti-inflammatory, analgesic and antipyretic activities.

Helicteres sacarolha A. St.- Hil. et al.: gastroprotective and possible mechanism of actions in experimental animals

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Helicteres sacarolha A. St.- Hil. et al. popularly known in Brazil as 'semente-de-macaco', is widely employed in the popular medicine in many of parts of Brazil in the alleviation of symptoms of ailments such as peptic ulcer and inflammation. Up to the present, there is no study addressing the gastroprotective activity of the hydroethanolic extract of H. sacarolha and its possible mechanism of actions.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The hydroethanolic (70%) extract of H. sacarolha (HEHs) was obtained by maceration. The gastroprotective activity was assessed using gastric ulcer models induced by acidified ethanol, piroxicam, and water restraint stress in mice and rats at doses of 20, 50 and 250mg/kg p.o. Mechanistic studies involved the antisecretory assay evaluated with pylorus ligation in rats and pre-treatments with appropriate antagonists/inhibitors such as yohimbine, glibenclamide, indomethacin and l-NAME, effect on catalase and myeloperoxidase activities and gastric mucus determination using acidified ethanol- induced ulcer in mice.

RESULTS

HEHs at all doses tested demonstrated potent gastroprotective activities in the acute ulcer models. The gastroprotective activity of HEHs was attenuated by pre-treatments with yohimbine, glibenclamide, indomethacin and l-NAME. HEHs effectively reduced basal gastric juice production without any effect on the free and total acidity. The gastroprotective action of HEHs involved increasing the antioxidant enzyme catalase and mucus secretion and inhibition of neutrophyl infiltration as reflected by the reduction in the myeloperoxidase activity.

CONCLUSION

The results of this study gave a scientific support for the popular use of the leaves of H. sacarolha in the treatment of gastric ulcers and that it has a multi-targeted action.

Evaluation of Antiradical and Anti-Inflammatory Activities of Ethyl Acetate and Butanolic Subfractions of Agelanthus dodoneifolius (DC.) Polhill & Wiens (Loranthaceae) Using Equine Myeloperoxidase and Both PMA-Activated Neutrophils and HL-60 Cells

The ethyl acetate and n-butanolic subfractions of Agelanthus dodoneifolius were investigated for their antioxidant and antimyeloperoxidase (MPO) activities. The reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation was assessed by lucigenin-enhanced chemiluminescence (CL) and dichlorofluorescein- (DCF-) induced fluorescence techniques from phorbol myristate acetate- (PMA-) stimulated equine neutrophils and human myeloid cell line HL-60, respectively. In parallel, the effects of the tested subfractions were evaluated on the total MPO release by stimulated neutrophils and on the specific MPO activity by means of immunological assays. The results showed the potent activity of the butanolic subfraction, at least in respect of the chemiluminescence test (IC50 = 0.3 ± 0.1 µg/mL) and the ELISA and SIEFED assays (IC50 = 2.8 ± 1.2 µg/mL and 1.3 ± 1.0 µg/mL), respectively. However, the ethyl acetate subfraction was found to be the most potent in the DCF assay as at the highest concentration, DCF fluorescence intensity decreases of about 50%. Moreover, we demonstrated that the ethyl acetate subfraction was rich in catechin (16.51%) while it was not easy to identify the main compounds in the butanolic subfraction using the UPLC-MS/MS technique. Nevertheless, taken together, our results provide evidence that Agelanthus dodoneifolius subfractions may represent potential sources of natural antioxidants and of antimyeloperoxidase compounds.

Inhibitory effects of kaempferol-3-O-rhamnoside on ovalbumin-induced lung inflammation in a mouse model of allergic asthma

The modification of natural flavonoid by glycosylation alters their physicochemical and pharmacokinetic properties, such as increased water solubility and stability, reduced toxicity, and sometimes enhanced or even new pharmacological activities. Kaempferol (KF), a plant flavonoid, and its glycosylated derivative, kaempferol-3-O-rhamnoside (K-3-rh), were evaluated and compared for their anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, and anti-asthmatic effects in an asthma model mouse. The results showed that K-3-rh fully maintained its anti-inflammatory and anti-asthmatic effects compared with KF in an asthma model mouse. Both KF and K-3-rh significantly reduced the elevated inflammatory cell numbers in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF). KF and K-3-rh also significantly inhibited the increase in Th2 cytokines (IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13) and TNF-α protein levels through inhibition of the phosphorylation Akt and effectively suppressed eosinophilia in a mouse model of allergic asthma. The total immunoglobulin (Ig) E levels in the serum and BALF were also blocked by KF and K-3-rh to similar extents. K-3-rh exerts similar or even slightly higher inhibitory effects on Th2 cytokines and IgE production compared with KF, whereas K-3-rh was less effective at DPPH radical scavenging and the inhibition of ROS generation in inflammatory cells compared with KF. These results suggested that the K-3-rh, as well as KF, may also be a promising candidate for the development of health beneficial foods or therapeutic agents that can prevent or treat allergic asthma.

Morusin induces cell death through inactivating STAT3 signaling in prostate cancer cells

STAT3 has been recognized as an efficacious drug target for prostate cancer because of its constitutive activation in this fatal disease. We recently identified the root bark of Morus alba Linn. as a potential STAT3 inhibitor among 33 phytomedicines traditionally used in Korea. Morusin, an active compound isolated from the root bark of Morus alba, has shown anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory effects. In the present study, we examined whether morusin has a potential as an anti-cancer agent in prostate cancer. We found that morusin suppressed viability of prostate cancer cells, but little effect in normal human prostate epithelial cells. Morusin also reduced STAT3 activity by inhibiting its phosphorylation, nuclear accumulation, and DNA binding activity. In addition, morusin down-regulated expression of STAT3 target genes encoding Bcl-xL, Bcl-2, Survivin, c-Myc and Cyclin D1, which are involved in regulation of apoptosis and cell cycle. Furthermore, morusin induced apoptosis in human prostate cancer cells by reducing STAT3 activity. Taken together, these results suggest that morusin could be a potentially therapeutic agent for prostate cancer by reducing STAT3 activity and inducing apoptosis.

Polyphenolic Profile, Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Activity of Eastern Teaberry (Gaultheria procumbens L.) Leaf Extracts

Dry leaf extracts of eastern teaberry (Gaultheria procumbens L.) were evaluated as a source of bioactive phytocompounds through systematic activity testing and phytochemical profiling. The antioxidant efficiency was tested using five complementary in vitro models (DPPH; FRAP; linoleic acid (LA) peroxidation assay; O₂^•− and H₂O₂ scavenging tests) in parallel with standard antioxidants. The 75% methanol extract and its diethyl ether, ethyl acetate (EAF), n-butanol and water fractions exhibited the dose-dependent responses in all assays, with the highest capacities found for EAF (DPPH EC₅₀ = 2.9 μg/mL; FRAP = 12.8 mmol Fe²⁺/g; IC₅₀ for LA-peroxidation = 123.9 μg/mL; O₂^•− SC₅₀ = 3.9 μg/mL; H₂O₂ SC₅₀ = 7.2 μg/mL). The EAF had also the highest anti-inflammatory activity in the inhibition tests of lipoxygenase and hyaluronidase (60.14% and 21.83% effects, respectively, at the concentration of 100 μg/mL). Activity parameters of the extracts correlated strongly with the levels of total phenolics (72.4–270.7 mg GAE/g), procyanidins, and phenolic acids, whereas for flavonoids only moderate effects were observed. Comprehensive UHPLC-PDA-ESI-MS³ and HPLC-PDA studies led to the identification of 35 polyphenols with a procyanidin A-type trimer, quercetin 3-O-glucuronide, isomers of caffeoylquinic acids, and (‒)-epicatechin being the dominant components. Significant activity levels, high phenolic contents and high extraction yields (39.4%–42.5% DW for defatted and crude methanol extracts, respectively) indicate the value of eastern teaberry leaves as bioactive products.

Mushrooms: a potential natural source of anti-inflammatory compounds for medical applications

For centuries, macrofungi have been used as food and medicine in different parts of the world. This is mainly attributed to their nutritional value as a potential source of carbohydrates, proteins, amino acids, and minerals. In addition, they also include many bioactive metabolites which make mushrooms and truffles common components in folk medicine, especially in Africa, the Middle East, China, and Japan. The reported medicinal effects of mushrooms include anti-inflammatory effects, with anti-inflammatory compounds of mushrooms comprising a highly diversified group in terms of their chemical structure. They include polysaccharides, terpenoids, phenolic compounds, and many other low molecular weight molecules. The aims of this review are to report the different types of bioactive metabolites and their relevant producers, as well as the different mechanisms of action of mushroom compounds as potent anti-inflammatory agents.

Toxicological evaluation of hydroethanolic extract of Helicteres sacarolha A. St.- Hil. et al

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Helicteres sacarolha, popularly known in Brazil as 'rosquinha', 'sacarolhas', 'semente-de-macaco', is widely distributed in different phytogeographic zones in Brazil. Preparations from its roots and leaves are employed in popular Brazilian medicine in the treatments of ailments such as peptic ulcer, hypertension among others. Cytotoxicity, acute oral and subchronic toxicity of the hydroethanolic extract of Helicteres sacrolha was investigated as well as the classes of phytochemical present in the extract.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Hydroethanolic (70%) extract of Helicteres sacarolha (HEHs) was prepared by maceration. Potential cytotoxicity was evaluated in CHO-k1 cells. Acute administration of HEHs was done in mice as a single dose up to 5000mg/kg and subchronic oral toxicity study for 30 days in Wistar rats at daily oral doses of 0, 250 and 750mg/kg b.w. Clinical observations and toxicological related parameters were determined every 6 days. Blood was collected for biochemical and hematological analyses, while histological examinations were performed on selected organs. Selected secondary metabolites detected were quantified by UV-spectrophotometry and high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC).

RESULTS

The extract was non-cytotoxic to CHO-k1 cells. In acute oral toxicity, there was no mortality or clinical alterations in the female mice, at all doses, except for the transient diarrhea observed at 5000mg/kg acute. Doses up to 2000mg/kg caused no mortality or treatment-related clinical manifestations in the male mice, but treatment-related alterations were however observed at 4000mg/kg, with mortalities recorded at 5000mg/kg. During the subchronic oral toxicity study, no mortality or treatment-related clinical signs were observed. Differences in relative organ weight, hematological parameters and histopathology observations between the treated and the control groups were considered not to be treatment-related. Spectrophotometric analysis revealed the presence of relatively high content of phenolics and flavonoids in HEHs. HPLC analysis confirmed the presence of the quantified compounds and demonstrated the presence of ellagic acid, morin and naringin.

CONCLUSION

Our results confirmed that HEHs have a broad safety margin for therapeutic use.

Evaluation of anti-inflammatory activity of hydroethanolic extract of Dilodendron bipinnatum Radlk

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Dilodendron bipinnatum Radlk. (Sapindaceae), popularly known as "mulher-pobre", is a native tree of the Pantanal of Mato Grosso, Brazil. The stem bark of Dilodendron bipinnatum is used by the population, in the forms of decoction and maceration in the treatment of inflammatory conditions. There is no information in the literature demonstrating the anti-inflammatory activity of Dilodendron bipinnatum and its respective mechanism of action. This study aimed to evaluate the anti-inflammatory activity and mechanism of action of the hydroethanolic extract of the stem bark of Dilodendron bipinnatum (HEDb) using in vivo and in vitro experimental models.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The stem bark of Dilodendron bipinnatum was macerated in 70% hydroethanolic solution (1:3, w/v) for 7 days, filtered, concentrated on a rotary evaporator and the residual solvent removed in oven at 40°C, thus obtaining HEDb. Cytotoxicity of HEDb in RAW 264.7 was assessed by the Alamar blue assay. in vivo anti-inflammatory activity of HEDb was evaluated with carrageenan and dextran-induced paw edemas and lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced peritonitis in mice. Effects of HEDb on the inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-10) concentrations in the peritoneal fluid were evaluated using commercial ELISA kits. The in vitro anti-inflammatory activity was evaluated using RAW 264.7 cells stimulated with LPS and/or INF-γ, while a Griess method was employed to determine nitric oxide (NO) concentrations in the peritoneal lavage and in the supernatants of RAW 264.7 cells. Preliminary phytochemical analysis was carried out using classical methods and secondary metabolites detected on HEDb were analyzed and confirmed by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC).

RESULTS

HEDb showed very low cytotoxicity with IC50>200±0.38 μg/mL. HEDb effectively inhibited paw edema by carrageenan in the 2nd hour at 20 mg/kg (36%, p<0.001), and by dextran in the 1st hour at 100 mg/kg (46%, p<0.01), after induction with the phlogistic agents. Furthermore, HEDb reduced total leukocytes and neutrophils migration at all doses tested producing maximum effect at 20 mg/kg (45% and 64%, p<0.001 respectively). HEDb also attenuated increases in the concentrations of the pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β and TNF-α) and increased the level of the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 in the peritonitis model. However, it had no effect on NO production in activated RAW 264.7 cells. Preliminary phytochemical analysis revealed the presence of phenolic compounds, chalcones, flavones, flavonones, flavonoids, saponins and coumarins. HPLC analyses identified some tannins, with epigallocatechin gallate being the major compound.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings provide evidence for the popular use of the stem bark of Dilodendrum bipinnatum in inflammation. Its anti-inflammatory action was due, at least in part, to the inhibition of cell migration, of the inflammatory mediators and Th1 cytokines and an increase in Th2 cytokines, without affecting NO pathway. It can be suggested that tannins account at least in part for the anti-inflammatory activity of HEDb.

Effect of plant extracts on H2O2-induced inflammatory gene expression in macrophages

Background

Arctium lappa (AL), Camellia sinensis (CS), Echinacea angustifolia, Eleutherococcus senticosus, Panax ginseng (PG), and Vaccinium myrtillus (VM) are plants traditionally used in many herbal formulations for the treatment of various conditions. Although they are well known and already studied for their anti-inflammatory properties, their effects on H₂O₂-stimulated macrophages are a novel area of study.

Materials and methods

Cell viability was tested after treatment with increasing doses of H₂O₂ and/or plant extracts at different times of incubation to identify the optimal experimental conditions. The messenger (m)RNA expression of TNFα, COX2, IL1β, NFκB1, NFκB2, NOS2, NFE2L2, and PPARγ was analyzed in macrophages under H₂O₂ stimulation. The same genes were also quantified after plant extract treatment on cells pre-stimulated with H₂O₂.

Results

A noncytotoxic dose (200 μM) of H₂O₂ induced active mRNA expression of COX2, IL1β, NFE2L2, NFκB1, NFκB2, NOS2, and TNFα, while PPARγ was depressed. The expression of all genes tested was significantly (P<0.001) regulated by plant extracts after pre-stimulation with H₂O₂. COX2 was downregulated by AL, PG, and VM. All extracts depressed IL1β expression, but upregulated NFE2L2. NFκB1, NFκB2, and TNFα were downregulated by AL, CS, PG, and VM. NOS2 was inhibited by CS, PG, and VM. PPARγ was decreased only after treatment with E. angustifolia and E. senticosus.

Conclusion

The results of the present study indicate that the stimulation of H₂O₂ on RAW267.4 cells induced the transcription of proinflammatory mediators, showing that this could be an applicable system by which to activate macrophages. Plant extracts from AL, CS, PG, and VM possess in vitro anti-inflammatory activity on H₂O₂-stimulated macrophages by modulating key inflammation mediators. Further in vitro and in vivo investigation into molecular mechanisms modulated by herbal extracts should be undertaken to shed light on the development of novel modulating therapeutic strategies.

Evaluation of anti-inflammatory and mechanism of action of extract of Macrosiphonia longiflora (Desf.) Müll. Arg

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Macrosiphonia longiflora (Desf.) Müll. Arg (Apocynaceae), popularly known as 'velame' and 'velame branco', is a native subshrub that grows in the Brazilian Cerrado. This plant is widely used in traditional medicine in the form of decoction and infusion, particularly as anti-inflammatory, depurative, anti-rheumatic, antisyphilitic and antiulcer remedy. There is no available information in the literature that has addressed its pharmacological activity and phytochemical analysis.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study aimed to evaluate the anti-inflammatory pharmacological profile of the hydroethanolic extract of Macrosiphonia longiflora, using in vivo and in vitro acute inflammation experimental models, as well as investigate the roles of cytokines and nitric oxide in its mechanism of action, and including phytochemical analysis constitution of its hydroethanolic extract.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Hydroethanolic (70%) extract of Macrosiphonia longiflora (HEMl) was prepared by maceration. The preliminary phytochemical analysis was performed according to procedures described in the literature. Selected secondary metabolites detected were quantified by spectrophotometry and high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Its cytotoxic potential in Chinese hamster ovary (CHO-k1) epithelial cell lines was evaluated using Alamar Blue. in vivo anti-inflammatory activity was evaluated with carrageenan- and dextran-induced paw edemas, carrageenan-induced pleurisy in rats and lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced peritonitis in mice. The in vitro anti-inflammatory activity was evaluated using RAW 264.7 cells stimulated with LPS and interferon (INF)-γ. Effects of HEMl on the inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-10, IL-17, INF-γ and TNF-α) concentrations in the peritoneal lavage were evaluated using commercial ELISA kits, while the Griess method was employed to determine nitric oxide (NO) concentrations in the peritoneal lavage, as well as in the supernatants of RAW 264.7 cells.

RESULTS

Preliminary phytochemical analysis, revealed the presence of phenolics compounds, terpenoids, alkaloids and flavonoids. Spectrophotometric analysis revealed the presence of relatively high content of phenolics and flavonoids in HEMl. HPLC analysis confirmed the presence of the quantified compounds and demonstrated the presence of ellagic acid in the detected matrix of compounds. HEMl appeared to be non-cytotoxic. It effectively inhibited (p<0.05) paw edema induced by carrageenan and dextran. Furthermore, HEMl also significantly reduced exudates volume and leukocyte migration in the carrageenan-induced pleurisy and LPS-induced peritonitis, neutrophils counts in LPS-induced peritonitis. HEMl also acts by effectively inhibiting the following inflammatory cytokines: IL-1β and IL-10 levels in the peritoneal lavage, but had no effect on IL-17 level in the peritonitis model. In addition, HEMl had no effect on the levels of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) present in the peritoneal lavage and cells supernatants. The concentration of NO, as assessed by measurement of nitrite (NO2(-)), showed that pretreatment with HEMl reduced NO significantly in the peritoneal lavage and in RAW 264.7 cells co-stimulated with LPS and INF-γ.

CONCLUSION

The results obtained in this study indicate that HEMl possesses very low cytotoxic potential. In addition, it demonstrated a potent anti-inflammatory activity in both the in vivo and in vitro models of acute inflammation. The anti-inflammatory effect is partly related to the inhibition of IL-1β, IL-10, and nitric oxide releases, but independent of TNF-α and IL-17 modulation. Phytochemical analysis revealed the predominant presence of the flavonoids (naringin, rutin, myricetin, morin, quercetin, (±)-naringenin, and luteolin) and phenols (ellagic acid), which are possibly involved in the anti-inflammatory effect of HEMl. The current study provided supportive evidence for the popular use of HEMl in the treatment of inflammatory conditions, and shed more light on the possible roles of the inflammatory cytokines in its mechanisms of action as anti-inflammatory agent.

Plant-derived anti-inflammatory compounds: hopes and disappointments regarding the translation of preclinical knowledge into clinical progress

Many diseases have been described to be associated with inflammatory processes. The currently available anti-inflammatory drug therapy is often not successful or causes intolerable side effects. Thus, new anti-inflammatory substances are still urgently needed. Plants were the first source of remedies in the history of mankind. Since their chemical characterization in the 19th century, herbal bioactive compounds have fueled drug development. Also, nowadays, new plant-derived agents continuously enrich our drug arsenal (e.g., vincristine, galantamine, and artemisinin). The number of new, pharmacologically active herbal ingredients, in particular that of anti-inflammatory compounds, rises continuously. The major obstacle in this field is the translation of preclinical knowledge into evidence-based clinical progress. Human trials of good quality are often missing or, when available, are frequently not suitable to really prove a therapeutical value. This minireview will summarize the current situation of 6 very prominent plant-derived anti-inflammatory compounds: curcumin, colchicine, resveratrol, capsaicin, epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG), and quercetin. We will highlight their clinical potential and/or pinpoint an overestimation. Moreover, we will sum up the planned trials in order to provide insights into the inflammatory disorders that are hypothesized to be beneficially influenced by the compound.

Inhibitory effect of litchi (Litchi chinensis Sonn.) flower on lipopolysaccharide-induced expression of proinflammatory mediators in RAW264.7 cells through NF-κB, ERK, and JAK2/STAT3 inactivation

Litchi (Litchi chinensis Sonn.) flower ethanolic extract (LFEE) was found to contain five flavanoids [total amount, 102.73 ± 5.50 mg/g of dried extract (gDE)], nine phenolic acids (total amount, 60.31 ± 4.52 mg/gDE), and proanthocyanidin A2 (79.31 ± 2.95 mg/gDE). LFEE was used to evaluate the inhibitory effects on lipopolysaccharide- (LPS-) induced pro-inflammatory mediators in RAW264.7 cells. The results showed that LFEE treatment could suppress the expressions of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), the productions of nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), and the secretions of pro-inflammatory cytokines [interleukin-1β (IL-1β), IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α)] in the LPS-mediated RAW264.7 cells. The attenuation of LPS-induced inflammatory responses by LFEE was found to be closely related to the inhibition of the translocation of nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) p50/p65 subunits correlated with suppression of the activation of the inhibitor of κB kinase (IKK) α/β and downregulation of activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) and Janus kinase 2 (JAK2)/signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3).

Anti-Inflammatory Effects and Mechanisms of Fatsia polycarpa Hayata and Its Constituents

Fatsia polycarpa, a plant endemic to Taiwan, is an herbal medicine known for treating several inflammation-related diseases, but its biological function needs scientific support. Thus, the anti-inflammatory effects and mechanisms of the methanolic crude extract (MCE) of F. polycarpa and its feature constituents, that is, brassicasterol (a phytosterol), triterpenoids 3α-hydroxyolean-11,13(18)-dien-28-oic acid (HODA), 3α-hydroxyolean-11-en-28,13β-olide (HOEO), fatsicarpain D, and fatsicarpain F, were investigated. MCE and HOEO, but not brassicasterol, dose-dependently inhibited lipopolysaccharide- (LPS-)induced expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase and cyclooxygenase-2 in RAW 264.7 macrophage line, whereas HODA, fatsicarpain D and fatsicarpain F were toxic to RAW cells. Additionally, MCE and HOEO suppressed LPS-induced production of nitric oxide, prostaglandin E₂, and interleukin-1β and interfered with LPS-promoted activation of the inhibitor kappa B kinase (IKK)/nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) pathway, and that of the mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) extracellular signal regulated kinase (ERK), c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), and p38. In animal tests, MCE and HOEO effectively ameliorated 12-O-tetradecanoylphorobol-13 acetate- (TPA-)induced ear edema of mice. Thus, MCE of F. polycarpa exhibited an obvious anti-inflammatory activity in vivo and in vitro that likely involved the inhibition of the IKK/NF-κB pathway and the MAPKs, which may be attributed by triterpenoids such as HOEO.

The Ethanol Extract of Osmanthus fragrans Flowers Reduces Oxidative Stress and Allergic Airway Inflammation in an Animal Model

The Osmanthus fragrans flower, a popular herb in Eastern countries, contains several antioxidant compounds. Ben Cao Gang Mu, traditional Chinese medical literature, describes the usefulness of these flowers for phlegm and stasis reduction, arrest of dysentery with blood in the bowel, and stomachache and diarrhea treatment. However, modern evidence regarding the therapeutic efficacy of these flowers is limited. This study was aimed at assessing the antioxidative effects of the ethanol extract of O. fragrans flowers (OFE) in vivo and evaluating its antioxidant maintenance and therapeutic effect on an allergic airway inflammation in mice. After OFE's oral administration to mice, the values obtained in the oxygen radical absorbance capacity assay as well as the glutathione concentration in the lungs and spleens of mice increased while thiobarbituric acid reactive substances decreased significantly, indicating OFE's significant in vivo antioxidant activity. OFE was also therapeutically efficacious in a mouse model of ovalbumin-induced allergic airway inflammation. Orally administered OFE suppressed ovalbumin-specific IgE production and inflammatory cell infiltration in the lung. Moreover, the antioxidative state of the mice improved. Thus, our findings confirm the ability of the O. fragrans flowers to reduce phlegm and suggest that OFE may be useful as an antiallergic agent.

Rice brans, rice bran oils, and rice hulls: composition, food and industrial uses, and bioactivities in humans, animals, and cells

Rice plants produce bioactive rice brans and hulls that have been reported to have numerous health-promoting effects in cells, animals, and humans. The main objective of this review is to consolidate and integrate the widely scattered information on the composition and the antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, and immunostimulating effects of rice brans from different rice cultivars, rice bran oils derived from rice brans, rice hulls, liquid rice hull smoke derived from rice hulls, and some of their bioactive compounds. As part of this effort, this paper also presents brief summaries on the preparation of health-promoting foods including bread, corn flakes, frankfurters, ice cream, noodles, pasta, tortillas, and zero-trans-fat shortening as well as industrial products such bioethanol and biodiesel fuels. Also covered are antibiotic, antiallergic, anticarcinogenic, antidiabetic, cardiovascular, allelochemical, and other beneficial effects and the mechanisms of the bioactivities. The results show that food-compatible and safe formulations with desirable nutritional and biological properties can be used to develop new multifunctional foods as well as bioethanol and biodiesel fuel. The overlapping aspects are expected to contribute to a better understanding of the potential impact of the described health-promoting potential of the rice-derived brans, oils, and hulls in food and medicine. Such an understanding will enhance nutrition and health and benefit the agricultural and industrial economies.

Synthesis, spectral characterization, self-assembly and biological studies of N-acyl-2-pyrazolines bearing long alkoxy side chains

A series of new pyrazoline derivatives (1b-4c) bearing N-acyl arms and nine to twelve carbon long alkoxy side chains was synthesized and characterized on the basis of spectroscopic data and microanalysis. The nature of self-assembly to understand the interplay of alkoxy chain crystallization and various supramolecular interactions was investigated using single crystal X-ray diffraction studies. Interesting self-assembled supramolecular structures of 1b and 4c were observed in the crystal lattice owing to various CH⋯O, H⋯H, CH⋯π, lonepair⋯π and π⋯π interactions. Further, all the synthesized compounds (1b-4c) were screened for their in vitro antifungal and anti-inflammatory activities. Compounds 2b, 3b, 2c and 3c showed significant to moderate antifungal activity against Microsporum canis whereas most of the other compounds were found inactive against all the five tested fungal strains. Good anti-inflammatory activity was observed for compounds 1b with IC50 value 331 μM compared to 273 μM for Indomethacine, a standard reference drug. The bio-activity data demonstrates the relationship between lipophilicity, solubility and bioavailability.