Early Administration of Azithromycin and Prevention of Severe Lower Respiratory Tract Illnesses in Preschool Children With a History of Such Illnesses: A Randomized Clinical Trial

Taming Asthma in School-Aged Children: A Comprehensive Review

Asthma is the most common chronic disease of childhood and the leading cause of childhood morbidity as measured by school absences, emergency department visits, and hospitalizations. Multiple factors play a role in the development, treatment and prevention of childhood asthma including racial/ethnic and socioeconomic disparities, both the home and school environments, and medication use. The goals of this review are to summarize these aspects of asthma in school-aged children and to present an updated review of medications as it relates to treatment strategies that will help in the care of these children. We conclude that phenotypic heterogeneity and appropriate environmental assessments and interventions are important considerations in the management of childhood asthma.

The pediatric asthma yardstick: Practical recommendations for a sustained step-up in asthma therapy for children with inadequately controlled asthma

Current asthma guidelines recommend a control-based approach to management involving assessment of impairment and risk followed by implementation of treatment strategies individualized according to the patient's needs and preferences. However, for children with asthma, achieving control can be elusive. Although tools are available to help children (and families) track and manage day-to-day symptoms, when and how to implement a longer-term step-up in care is less clear. Furthermore, treatment is challenged by the 3 age groups of childhood-adolescence (12-18 years old), school age (6-11 years old), and young children (≤5 years old)-and what works for 1 age group might not be the best approach for another. The Pediatric Asthma Yardstick provides an in-depth assessment of when and how to step-up therapy for the child with not well or poorly controlled asthma. Development of this tool follows others in the Yardstick series, presenting patient profiles and step-up strategies based on current guidance documents, but modified according to newer data and the authors' combined clinical experience. The objective is to provide clinicians who treat children with asthma practical and clinically relevant recommendations for each step-up and each intervention, with the intent of helping practitioners better treat their pediatric patients with asthma, particularly those who do not always respond to recommended therapies.

Fifteen-minute consultation: An evidence-based approach to the child with preschool wheeze

Preschool wheeze is very common and its prevalence is increasing. It consumes considerable healthcare resources and has a major impact on children and their families due to significant morbidity associated with acute episodes.History taking is the main diagnostic instrument in the assessment of preschool wheeze. Diagnosis and management is complicated by a broad differential and associations with many other diseases and conditions that give rise to noisy breathing, which could be misinterpreted as wheeze. Several clinical phenotypes have been described but they have limitations and do not clearly inform therapeutic decisions. New insights in aetiopathogenesis modify treatment options and lay foundation for further research. An understanding of the approach and available evidence to assess and manage wheeze informs best patient care and use of resources.Our objective is to demonstrate a focused history, examination and management options in a preschool child with wheeze.

The potential of anti-infectives and immunomodulators as therapies for asthma and asthma exacerbations

Asthma is responsible for approximately 25,000 deaths annually in Europe despite available medicines that maintain asthma control and reduce asthma exacerbations. Better treatments are urgently needed for the control of chronic asthma and reduction in asthma exacerbations, the major cause of asthma mortality. Much research spanning >20 years shows a strong association between microorganisms including pathogens in asthma onset, severity and exacerbation, yet with the exception of antibiotics, few treatments are available that specifically target the offending pathogens. Recent insights into the microbiome suggest that modulating commensal organisms within the gut or lung may also be a possible way to treat/prevent asthma. The European Academy of Allergy & Clinical Immunology Task Force on Anti-infectives in Asthma was initiated to investigate the potential of anti-infectives and immunomodulators in asthma. This review provides a concise summary of the current literature and aimed to identify and address key questions that concern the use of anti-infectives and both microbe- and host-based immunomodulators and their feasibility for use in asthma.

New Drugs for Pediatric Asthma

Asthma is the most common chronic disease in children. As suggested by international guidelines, the main goals of asthma treatment are symptoms control and lung function preservation, through a stepwise and control-based approach. The first line therapy based on inhaled corticosteroids may fail to reach control in more than one third of patients, especially adolescents, and in these lung function and quality of life may progressively worsen. Treatment with omalizumab, the first anti-immunoglobulin E recombinant humanized monoclonal antibody, has been definitely approved in pediatric uncontrolled asthma. In this review, we discuss the mechanisms and potential roles of emerging therapies for pediatric severe asthma. Novel biologic drugs (i.e., dupilumab, mepolizumab, reslizumab, and benralizumab) seem to be promising in reducing annual exacerbation rates and steroid-use in glucocorticoid-dependent cases, but available data are few and limited to adolescents and adults. Evidences on the use of the muscarinic antagonist tiotropium as controller medication in pediatric settings are progressively growing, sustaining an application as asthma maintenance treatment in children aged >6 years and in preschool children with persistent asthmatic symptoms, but well powered trials are needed to confirm its safety and efficacy. New inhaled corticosteroids (i.e., ciclesonide and mometasone) are effective as once-daily controller therapy, but long-term studies in the different pediatric ages are needed to compare effectiveness and safety to usual treatments. At present, the role of macrolides in pediatric severe asthma is controversial and their administration is not recommended routinely, but may be considered in children with neutrophilic asthma for reducing daily oral steroids administration and improving lung function. Despite the availability of several novel therapeutic strategies for uncontrolled asthma, future trials targeted at specific pediatric age subgroups are needed to support evidences of safety and efficacy also in children.

Better understanding of childhood asthma, towards primary prevention - are we there yet? Consideration of pertinent literature

Asthma is a chronic disease, characterized by reversible airway obstruction, airway inflammation and hyper-reactivity. The prevalence of asthma has risen dramatically over the past decade, affecting around 300,000,000 people. The etiology is multifactorial, with genetic, epigenetic, developmental and environmental factors playing a role. A complex interaction between the intrauterine environment, the developing immune system, the infant's microbiome and infectious organisms may lead to the development of allergic sensitization and asthma. Thus, a large number of studies have investigated the risk factors for childhood asthma, with a meticulous search of modifiable factors that could aid in primary prevention.

We present a current literature review from 2014-2017, as well as older classic publications, on the pathogenesis and the potential modifiable factors for primary prevention of asthma. No ideal preventive measure has yet been found. Rather, creating favorable prenatal and postnatal environments, minimal exposure to hostile environmental factors, prevention of infections in early life, allergic desensitization and nutritional modifications could possibly reduce asthma inception. In the era of personalized medicine, identifying individual risk factors and tailoring specific preventive measures is warranted.

Benefits and Risks of Long-Term Asthma Management in Children: Where Are We Heading?

International guidelines provide recommendations for a stepwise approach to the management of asthma in children 0-4 years old, 5-11 years old, and adolescents who are treated as adults. Therapy is aimed at two domains of control: current impairment and future risk. The long-term controller medications, inhaled corticosteroids (ICSs), ICSs in combination with long-acting β₂ agonists, leukotriene receptor antagonists, and immunomodulators, exhibit different efficacies for these domains. The risk:benefit ratios of the available medications need to be carefully assessed. This review briefly presents the benefits and the potential risks of available asthma medications in children to assist the practitioner in the optimal use of asthma medications. Specifically, the systemic activity of the ICSs and how to minimize their effects on growth and adrenal activity are reviewed as well as other potential adverse effects. Dosing strategies such as intermittent therapy are also assessed.

Effectiveness of β-Lactam Monotherapy vs Macrolide Combination Therapy for Children Hospitalized With Pneumonia

IMPORTANCE

β-Lactam monotherapy and β-lactam plus macrolide combination therapy are both common empirical treatment strategies for children hospitalized with pneumonia, but few studies have evaluated the effectiveness of these 2 treatment approaches.

OBJECTIVE

To compare the effectiveness of β-lactam monotherapy vs β-lactam plus macrolide combination therapy among a cohort of children hospitalized with pneumonia.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

We analyzed data from the Etiology of Pneumonia in the Community Study, a multicenter, prospective, population-based study of community-acquired pneumonia hospitalizations conducted from January 1, 2010, to June 30, 2012, in 3 children's hospitals in Nashville, Tennessee; Memphis, Tennessee; and Salt Lake City, Utah. The study included all children (up to 18 years of age) who were hospitalized with radiographically confirmed pneumonia and who received β-lactam monotherapy or β-lactam plus macrolide combination therapy. Data analysis was completed in April 2017.

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

We defined the referent as β-lactam monotherapy, including exclusive use of an oral or parenteral second- or third-generation cephalosporin, penicillin, ampicillin, ampicillin-sulbactam, amoxicillin, or amoxicillin-clavulanate. Use of a β-lactam plus an oral or parenteral macrolide (azithromycin or clarithromycin) served as the comparison group. We modeled the association between these groups and patients' length of stay using multivariable Cox proportional hazards regression. Covariates included demographic, clinical, and radiographic variables. We further evaluated length of stay in a cohort matched by propensity to receive combination therapy. Logistic regression was used to evaluate secondary outcomes in the unmatched cohort, including intensive care admission, rehospitalizations, and self-reported recovery at follow-up.

RESULTS

Our study included 1418 children (693 girls and 725 boys) with a median age of 27 months (interquartile range, 12-69 months). This cohort was 60.1% of the 2358 children enrolled in the Etiology of Pneumonia in the Community Study with radiographically confirmed pneumonia in the study period; 1019 (71.9%) received β-lactam monotherapy and 399 (28.1%) received β-lactam plus macrolide combination therapy. In the unmatched cohort, there was no statistically significant difference in length of hospital stay between children receiving β-lactam monotherapy and combination therapy (median, 55 vs 59 hours; adjusted hazard ratio, 0.87; 95% CI, 0.74-1.01). The propensity-matched cohort (n = 560, 39.5%) showed similar results. There were also no significant differences between treatment groups for the secondary outcomes.

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

Empirical macrolide combination therapy conferred no benefit over β-lactam monotherapy for children hospitalized with community-acquired pneumonia. The results of this study elicit questions about the routine empirical use of macrolide combination therapy in this population.

Microbes and the Role of Antibiotic Treatment for Wheezy Lower Respiratory Tract Illnesses in Preschool Children

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Antibiotics are commonly used to treat wheezy lower respiratory tract illnesses in preschoolers, although these infections have been traditionally thought to be predominantly of viral origin. Our purpose is to review recent research pertaining to the role of antibiotics in lower respiratory tract illnesses and on subsequent asthma development, as well as the possible mechanisms of their effects.

RECENT FINDINGS

Increasing evidence suggests that asthma pathogenesis is associated with events during infancy and early childhood, particularly respiratory tract infections. While viruses are frequently detected in children with lower respiratory tract infections, the presence of potentially pathogenic bacteria is also often detected and may play a role in asthma pathogenesis. Recent evidence suggests that use of macrolides, particularly azithromycin, may decrease the risk of and duration of lower respiratory tract illnesses and prevent future episodes in specific high-risk populations. Infants and preschoolers who have wheezy lower respiratory tract illnesses have a higher risk of asthma development. Alterations in the microbiome are thought to be influential. While several recent studies identify azithromycin as a therapeutic option in these illnesses, additional research is needed.

Promising approaches for the treatment and prevention of viral respiratory illnesses

Viral respiratory tract infections are the most common human ailments, leading to enormous health and economic burden. Hundreds of viral species and subtypes have been associated with these conditions, with influenza viruses, respiratory syncytial virus, and rhinoviruses being the most frequent and with the highest burden. When considering prevention or treatment of viral respiratory tract infections, potential targets include the causative pathogens themselves but also the immune response, disease transmission, or even just the symptoms. Strategies targeting all these aspects are developing concurrently, and several novel and promising approaches are emerging. In this perspective we overview the entire range of options and highlight some of the most promising approaches, including new antiviral agents, symptomatic or immunomodulatory drugs, the re-emergence of natural remedies, and vaccines and public health policies toward prevention. Wide-scale prevention through immunization appears to be within reach for respiratory syncytial virus and promising for influenza virus, whereas additional effort is needed in regard to rhinovirus, as well as other respiratory tract viruses.

Management of preschool recurrent wheezing and asthma: a phenotype-based approach

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The purpose of this review is to summarize the recent evidence on the management of preschool children with wheezing and asthma, and to propose a phenotype-based approach to the management of these children.

RECENT FINDINGS

Recent studies have begun to identify populations of preschool children that are likely to benefit from inhaled corticosteroids (ICS) therapy and defined ICS regimens: daily ICS in preschool children with persistent asthma, and pre-emptive high-dose intermittent ICS among preschool children with intermittent disease reduce the risk of exacerbation. In addition, among preschool children with mild persistent asthma, the presence of aeroallergen sensitivity and/or blood eosinophil counts of 300/μL or greater are predictors of good response to daily ICS therapy. Other studies identified intermittent azithromycin as a therapy to prevent, and potentially to treat, acute exacerbations.The uncertainty of the role of oral corticosteroids (OCS) as a therapy for acute exacerbations continues, as a recent meta-analysis showed that OCS did not prevent hospitalizations or urgent visits, and did not reduce the need for additional courses of OCS. Whereas previous epidemiologic studies suggested acetaminophen may increase risk of exacerbations, a clinical trial clearly demonstrated acetaminophen use, compared to ibuprofen use,does not increase exacerbation risk among preschool children with mild-persistent asthma.

SUMMARY

Recent studies have shown potential for phenotypic-driven therapies for the management of preschool children with asthma. Targeting airway bacteria has emerged as a promising therapeutic approach, but its effect on antibiotic resistance still needs to be investigated. Finally, more studies are required to evaluate if oral corticosteroids provide any benefits for acute episodic wheeze.

Current and future management of the young child with early onset wheezing

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

In this review, we discuss current thinking in relation to available guidelines for the care of preschool-aged children with recurrent wheezing, while highlighting the gaps in our knowledge and discussing changes that could occur over the next 5 years.

RECENT FINDINGS

The Asthma Predictive Index as well as allergen-specific IgE, peripheral eosinophil count and exhaled nitric oxide are perhaps underutilized sources of information that can assist in predicting progression to asthma and response to therapies. Inhaled corticosteroids and leukotriene receptor antagonists decrease impairment and exacerbation frequency in wheezing children but are not disease modifying. Macrolides may be useful during acute wheezing episodes for preventing progression to more severe symptoms. Monoclonal antibodies targeting IgE and TH2 cytokines have been successful in trials of adults and older children with asthma, but trials in younger children are needed.

SUMMARY

Establishing the phenotype and endotype of young wheezing children can be useful for prognostication of future asthma risk as well as for selection of the most appropriate treatment. Primary asthma prevention strategies are needed during the critical developmental window in early life prior to the onset of irrecoverable loss of lung function.

The Potential for Emerging Microbiome-Mediated Therapeutics in Asthma

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

In terms of immune regulating functions, analysis of the microbiome has led the development of therapeutic strategies that may be applicable to asthma management. This review summarizes the current literature on the gut and lung microbiota in asthma pathogenesis with a focus on the roles of innate molecules and new microbiome-mediated therapeutics.

RECENT FINDINGS

Recent clinical and basic studies to date have identified several possible therapeutics that can target innate immunity and the microbiota in asthma. Some of these drugs have shown beneficial effects in the treatment of certain asthma phenotypes and for protection against asthma during early life. Current clinical evidence does not support the use of these therapies for effective treatment of asthma. The integration of the data regarding microbiota with technologic advances, such as next generation sequencing and omics offers promise. Combining comprehensive bioinformatics, new molecules and approaches may shape future asthma treatment.

Treatment of preschool children presenting to the emergency department with wheeze with azithromycin: A placebo-controlled randomized trial

Background

Antibiotics are frequently used to treat wheezing children. Macrolides may be effective in treating bronchiolitis and asthma.

Method

We completed a prospective, double-blinded, randomized placebo-control trial of azithromycin among pre-school children (12 to 60 months of age) presenting to the emergency department with wheeze. Patients were randomized to receive either five days of azithromycin or placebo. Primary outcome was time to resolution of respiratory symptoms after treatment initiation. Secondary outcomes included the number of days children used a Short-Acting Beta-Agonists during the 21 day follow-up and time to disease exacerbation during the following six months (unscheduled health care visit or treatment with an oral corticosteroid for acute respiratory symptoms).

Results

Of the 300 wheezing children recruited, 222 and 169 were analyzed for the primary and secondary outcomes, respectively. The treatment groups had similar demographics and clinical parameters at baseline. Median time to resolution of respiratory symptoms was four days for both treatment arms (interquartile range (IQR) 3,6; p = 0.28). Median number of days of Short-Acting Beta-Agonist use among those who received azithromycin was four and a half days (IQR 2, 7) and five days (IQR 2, 9; p = 0.22) among those who received placebo. Participants who received azithromycin had a 0.91 hazard ratio for time to six-month exacerbation compared to placebo (95% CI 0.61, 1.36, p = 0.65). A pre-determined subgroup analysis showed no differences in outcomes for children with their first or repeat episode of wheezing. There was no significant difference in the proportion of participants experiencing an adverse event.

Conclusion

Azithromycin neither reduced duration of respiratory symptoms nor time to respiratory exacerbation in the following six months after treatment among wheezing preschool children presenting to an emergency department. There was no significant effect among children with either first-time or prior wheezing.

Mycoplasma pneumoniae from the Respiratory Tract and Beyond

Mycoplasma pneumoniae is an important cause of respiratory tract infections in children as well as adults that can range in severity from mild to life-threatening. Over the past several years there has been much new information published concerning infections caused by this organism. New molecular-based tests for M. pneumoniae detection are now commercially available in the United States, and advances in molecular typing systems have enhanced understanding of the epidemiology of infections. More strains have had their entire genome sequences published, providing additional insights into pathogenic mechanisms. Clinically significant acquired macrolide resistance has emerged worldwide and is now complicating treatment. In vitro susceptibility testing methods have been standardized, and several new drugs that may be effective against this organism are undergoing development. This review focuses on the many new developments that have occurred over the past several years that enhance our understanding of this microbe, which is among the smallest bacterial pathogens but one of great clinical importance.

Anti-inflammatory effects of adjunctive macrolide treatment in adults hospitalized with influenza: A randomized controlled trial

INTRODUCTION

- Macrolides can ameliorate inflammation in respiratory diseases, providing clinical benefits. Data in influenza is lacking.

METHOD

- A randomized, open-label, multicenter trial among adults hospitalized for laboratory-confirmed influenza was conducted. Study treatments of oseltamivir and azithromycin (500 mg/day), or oseltamivir alone, both for 5 days, were allocated at 1:1 ratio. The primary outcome was plasma cytokine/chemokine concentration change over time (Day 0-10); secondary outcomes were viral load and symptom score changes. Generalized Estimating Equation (GEE) models were used to analyze longitudinal data.

RESULTS

- Fifty patients were randomized to the oseltamivir-azithromycin or oseltamivir groups, with comparable baseline characteristics (age, 57 ± 18 years; A/H3N2, 70%), complications (72%), and viral load. Pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-6 (GEE: β -0.037, 95%CI-0.067,-0.007, P = 0.016; reduction from baseline -83.4% vs -59.5%), CXCL8/IL-8 (β -0.018, 95%CI-0.037,0.000, P = 0.056; -80.5% vs -58.0%), IL-17 (β -0.064, 95%CI-0.117,-0.012, P = 0.015; -74.0% vs -34.3%), CXCL9/MIG (β -0.010, 95%CI-0.020,0.000, P = 0.043; -71.3% vs -56.0%), sTNFR-1, IL-18, and CRP declined faster in the oseltamivir-azithromycin group. There was a trend toward faster symptom resolution (β -0.463, 95%CI-1.297,0.371). Viral RNA decline (P = 0.777) and culture-negativity rates were unaffected. Additional ex vivo studies confirmed reduced induction of IL-6 (P = 0.017) and CXCL8/IL-8 (P = 0.005) with azithromycin.

CONCLUSION

- We found significant anti-inflammatory effects with adjunctive macrolide treatment in adults with severe influenza infections. Virus control was unimpaired. Clinical benefits of a macrolide-containing regimen deserve further study. [ClinicalTrials.gov NCT01779570].

Addressing unmet needs in understanding asthma mechanisms: From the European Asthma Research and Innovation Partnership (EARIP) Work Package (WP)2 collaborators

Asthma is a heterogeneous, complex disease with clinical phenotypes that incorporate persistent symptoms and acute exacerbations. It affects many millions of Europeans throughout their education and working lives and puts a heavy cost on European productivity. There is a wide spectrum of disease severity and control. Therapeutic advances have been slow despite greater understanding of basic mechanisms and the lack of satisfactory preventative and disease modifying management for asthma constitutes a significant unmet clinical need. Preventing, treating and ultimately curing asthma requires co-ordinated research and innovation across Europe. The European Asthma Research and Innovation Partnership (EARIP) is an FP7-funded programme which has taken a co-ordinated and integrated approach to analysing the future of asthma research and development. This report aims to identify the mechanistic areas in which investment is required to bring about significant improvements in asthma outcomes.

Neutrophilic Steroid-Refractory Recurrent Wheeze and Eosinophilic Steroid-Refractory Asthma in Children

BACKGROUND

Little is known about inflammatory pathways of severe recurrent wheeze in preschool children and severe asthma in children.

OBJECTIVES

The aim of the Severe Asthma Molecular Phenotype cohort was to characterize phenotypes of severe recurrent wheeze and severe asthma during childhood in terms of triggers (allergic or not), involved cells (eosinophil or neutrophil), and corticoid responsiveness.

METHODS

Children with moderate-to-severe asthma and preschool children with moderate-to-severe recurrent wheeze were enrolled prospectively. They underwent standardized clinical and blood workup, and bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) evaluation. Cluster analysis was applied to 350 children with 34 variables.

RESULTS

Three clusters were identified: cluster 1, Neutrophilic steroid-refractory recurrent wheeze phenotype, with 138 children uncontrolled despite high-dose inhaled corticosteroids (ICS) (92%, P < .001), with more history of pneumonia (31%, P < .001), more gastroesophageal reflux disease (37%, P < .001), and the highest blood neutrophil count (mean 4.524 cells/mm³, P = .05); cluster 2, Severe recurrent wheeze with sensitization to a single aeroallergen (12%, P = .002), with 104 children controlled with high-dose ICS (63%, P < .001); cluster 3, Eosinophilic steroid-refractory asthma phenotype, with 108 children uncontrolled despite high-dose ICS (76%, P < .001) with more allergic rhinitis, atopic dermatitis, and food allergies (82%, 40%, 31%, P < .001, respectively). They also had a higher blood eosinophil count and a higher percentage of BAL eosinophil (506/mm³, 2.6%, P < .001 respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

Inflammation pathway of asthma and recurrent wheeze are related to eosinophil cells in older children and neutrophil cells in younger children. These results could improve personalized treatments.

Viral bronchiolitis

Viral bronchiolitis is a common clinical syndrome affecting infants and young children. Concern about its associated morbidity and cost has led to a large body of research that has been summarised in systematic reviews and integrated into clinical practice guidelines in several countries. The evidence and guideline recommendations consistently support a clinical diagnosis with the limited role for diagnostic testing for children presenting with the typical clinical syndrome of viral upper respiratory infection progressing to the lower respiratory tract. Management is largely supportive, focusing on maintaining oxygenation and hydration of the patient. Evidence suggests no benefit from bronchodilator or corticosteroid use in infants with a first episode of bronchiolitis. Evidence for other treatments such as hypertonic saline is evolving but not clearly defined yet. For infants with severe disease, the insufficient available data suggest a role for high-flow nasal cannula and continuous positive airway pressure use in a monitored setting to prevent respiratory failure.

A meta-analysis of montelukast for recurrent wheeze in preschool children

There is conflicting evidence of the effectiveness of montelukast in preschool wheeze. A recent Cochrane review focused on its use in viral-induced wheeze; however, such subgroups are unlikely to exist in real life and change with time, recently highlighted in an international consensus report. We have therefore sought to investigate the effectiveness of montelukast in all children with preschool wheeze (viral-induced and multiple-trigger wheeze). The PubMed, Cochrane Library, Ovid Medline and Ovid EMBASE were screened for randomised controlled trials (RCTs), examining the efficacy of montelukast compared with placebo in children with the recurrent preschool wheeze. The primary endpoint examined was frequency of wheezing episodes. Five trials containing 3960 patients with a preschool wheezing disorder were analysed. Meta-analyses of studies of intermittent montelukast showed no benefit in preventing episodes of wheeze (mean difference (MD) 0.07, 95% confidence interval (CI) -0.14 to 0.29; mean for montelukast 2.68 vs placebo 2.54 (p = 0.5)), reducing unscheduled medical attendances (MD -0.13, 95% CI -0.33 to 0.07; mean for montelukast 1.62 vs placebo 1.78 (p = 0.21)) and reducing oral corticosteroids (MD -0.06, 95% CI -0.16 to 0.02; mean for montelukast 0.35 vs placebo 0.36 (p = 0.25)). The pooled results of the continuous regimen showed no significant difference in the number of wheezing episodes between the montelukast and placebo groups (MD -0.40, 95% CI -1.00 to 0.19; mean for montelukast 2.05 vs placebo 2.37 (p = 0.18)).

CONCLUSIONS

This review highlights that the currently available evidence does not support the use of montelukast in preschool children with recurrent wheeze. We recommend further studies to investigate if a 'montelukast responder' phenotype exists, and how these can be easily identified in the clinical setting. What is Known: • Current guidelines recommend montelukast use in preschool children with recurrent wheeze. • A recent Cochrane review has found montelukast to be ineffective at reducing courses of oral corticosteroids for viral-induced wheeze. What is New: • This meta-analysis has examined all children with preschool wheeze and found that montelukast was not effective at preventing wheezing episodes or reducing unscheduled medical attendances. • A specific montelukast responder phenotype may exist, but such patients should be sought in larger multicentre RCTs.

Azithromycin for Acute Exacerbations of Asthma : The AZALEA Randomized Clinical Trial

IMPORTANCE

Guidelines recommend against antibiotic use to treat asthma attacks. A study with telithromycin reported benefit, but adverse reactions limit its use.

OBJECTIVE

To determine whether azithromycin added to standard care for asthma attacks in adults results in clinical benefit.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

The Azithromycin Against Placebo in Exacerbations of Asthma (AZALEA) randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial, a United Kingdom-based multicenter study in adults requesting emergency care for acute asthma exacerbations, ran from September 2011 to April 2014. Adults with a history of asthma for more than 6 months were recruited within 48 hours of presentation to medical care with an acute deterioration in asthma control requiring a course of oral and/or systemic corticosteroids.

INTERVENTIONS

Azithromycin 500 mg daily or matched placebo for 3 days.

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

The primary outcome was diary card symptom score 10 days after randomization, with a hypothesized treatment effect size of -0.3. Secondary outcomes were diary card symptom score, quality-of-life questionnaires, and lung function changes, all between exacerbation and day 10, and time to a 50% reduction in symptom score.

RESULTS

Of 4582 patients screened at 31 centers, 199 of a planned 380 were randomized within 48 hours of presentation. The major reason for nonrecruitment was receipt of antibiotics (2044 [44.6%] screened patients). Median time from presentation to drug administration was 22 hours (interquartile range, 14-28 hours). Exacerbation characteristics were well balanced across treatment arms and centers. The primary outcome asthma symptom scores were mean (SD), 4.14 (1.38) at exacerbation and 2.09 (1.71) at 10 days for the azithromycin group and 4.18 (1.48) and 2.20 (1.51) for the placebo group, respectively. Using multilevel modeling, there was no significant difference in symptom scores between azithromycin and placebo at day 10 (difference, -0.166; 95% CI, -0.670 to 0.337), nor on any day between exacerbation and day 10. No significant between-group differences were observed in quality-of-life questionnaires or lung function between exacerbation and day 10, or in time to 50% reduction in symptom score.

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

In this randomized population, azithromycin treatment resulted in no statistically or clinically significant benefit. For each patient randomized, more than 10 were excluded because they had already received antibiotics.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

clinicaltrials.gov Identifier: NCT01444469.

The contributions of allergic sensitization and respiratory pathogens to asthma inception

Of the chronic diseases affecting grade-school children, asthma is the most common and accounts for the greatest number of school days missed. Moreover, it can influence family dynamics and function in other ways, and unfortunately, it can also be associated with mortality, particularly in the inner-city environments of the United States. Thus understanding factors that lead to its development in early life is essential in developing strategies aimed at primary prevention. Two risk factors that have been identified by a number of investigators include the development of allergic sensitization and wheezing respiratory tract illnesses caused by viruses and bacteria, either alone or in combination. Both of these factors appear to exert their influences within the first few years of life, such that asthma becomes established before the child enters grade school at age 5 to 6 years. Therefore, because both allergic sensitization and viral and bacterial illnesses can occur in children who do not have asthma, it is paramount to identify genetic and environmental factors that activate, interact with, and/or direct the immune system and components of the respiratory tract along pathways that allow asthma to become established and expressed clinically.

Pediatric Pulmonology year in review 2015: Part 1

Our journal covers a broad range of research and scholarly topics related to children's respiratory disorders. For updated perspectives on the rapidly expanding knowledge in our field, we will summarize the past year's publications in our major topic areas, as well as selected publications in these areas from the core clinical journal literature outside our own pages. The current review covers articles on neonatal lung disease, pulmonary physiology, and respiratory infection. Pediatr Pulmonol. 2016;51:733-739. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Macrolides for Acute Wheezing Episodes in Preschool Children

The National Asthma Education and Prevention Program's Expert Panel Report 3, Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Asthma does not recommend antibiotics for the management of acute episodes of asthma exacerbation. Macrolides seem to have some potential effect beyond or in addition to their antibacterial effect. It has been reported that macrolides may potentially benefit patients with chronic inflammatory airway diseases due to their antibacterial, antiviral, and/or anti-inflammatory effects. This review presents recent data on use of azithromycin in prevention and management of acute exacerbation of respiratory symptoms in infants and young children.

Moving towards precision care for childhood asthma

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Asthma guidelines recognize the presence of different asthma endotypes and phenotypes but treatment recommendations are limited to age groups rather than phenotypes, as the phenotype literature is regarded as emerging evidence. This review will examine the current evidence regarding the management of asthma in school age children (5-18 years old) by endotype and phenotype.

RECENT FINDINGS

A number of studies have examined the effect of endotypes and phenotypes on response to conventional asthma therapy, omalizumab and specific allergen immunotherapy, and response in children with severe asthma. Emerging therapies, namely biologics and immunomodulators, have attracted considerable attention and appear to have favorable effects in adults with asthma, but additional pediatric studies are needed.

SUMMARY

The optimal treatment strategy for children with asthma is not yet defined and likely dependent on many patient and disease characteristics. Much of the phenotypic response literature presented in this review was constrained by a limited number of pediatric and adult studies available and as such should be regarded as preliminary. Better definition of asthma phenotypes and better targeting of therapy based on individual patient phenotypes are likely to improve asthma treatment in the future.