151
|
Safford HR, Bischel HN. Flow cytometry applications in water treatment, distribution, and reuse: A review. WATER RESEARCH 2019; 151:110-133. [PMID: 30594081 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2018.12.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2018] [Revised: 11/30/2018] [Accepted: 12/01/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Ensuring safe and effective water treatment, distribution, and reuse requires robust methods for characterizing and monitoring waterborne microbes. Methods widely used today can be limited by low sensitivity, high labor and time requirements, susceptibility to interference from inhibitory compounds, and difficulties in distinguishing between viable and non-viable cells. Flow cytometry (FCM) has recently gained attention as an alternative approach that can overcome many of these challenges. This article critically and systematically reviews for the first time recent literature on applications of FCM in water treatment, distribution, and reuse. In the review, we identify and examine nearly 300 studies published from 2000 to 2018 that illustrate the benefits and challenges of using FCM for assessing source-water quality and impacts of treatment-plant discharge on receiving waters, wastewater treatment, drinking water treatment, and drinking water distribution. We then discuss options for combining FCM with other indicators of water quality and address several topics that cut across nearly all applications reviewed. Finally, we identify priority areas in which more work is needed to realize the full potential of this approach. These include optimizing protocols for FCM-based analysis of waterborne viruses, optimizing protocols for specifically detecting target pathogens, automating sample handling and preparation to enable real-time FCM, developing computational tools to assist data analysis, and improving standards for instrumentation, methods, and reporting requirements. We conclude that while more work is needed to realize the full potential of FCM in water treatment, distribution, and reuse, substantial progress has been made over the past two decades. There is now a sufficiently large body of research documenting successful applications of FCM that the approach could reasonably and realistically see widespread adoption as a routine method for water quality assessment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hannah R Safford
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California Davis, 2001 Ghausi Hall, 480 Bainer Hall Drive, 95616, Davis, CA, United States
| | - Heather N Bischel
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California Davis, 2001 Ghausi Hall, 480 Bainer Hall Drive, 95616, Davis, CA, United States.
| |
Collapse
|
152
|
Dunkin N, Coulter C, Weng S, Jacangelo JG, Schwab KJ. Effects of pH Variability on Peracetic Acid Reduction of Human Norovirus GI, GII RNA, and Infectivity Plus RNA Reduction of Selected Surrogates. FOOD AND ENVIRONMENTAL VIROLOGY 2019; 11:76-89. [PMID: 30430442 DOI: 10.1007/s12560-018-9359-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2018] [Accepted: 11/07/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
With increasing interest in peracetic acid (PAA) as a disinfectant in water treatment processes, this study determined PAA treatment effects on human noroviruses (hNoVs) genotype I (GI) and genotype II (GII) as well as effects on bacteriophage MS2 and murine norovirus (MNV) in relation to pH. Across all pH conditions, PAA achieved between 0.2 and 2.5 log10 reduction of hNoVs over 120 min contact time in buffer solution as measured by reverse transcription-qPCR (RT-qPCR). The PAA treatments produced similar RT-qPCR reductions of MS2 and MNV, in the range of 0.2-2.7 log10. Infectivity assays achieved > 4 log10 reduction of both MS2 and MNV in buffer solution after 120 min contact time. Comparing PAA activity across varying pH, disinfection at pH 8.5, in general, resulted in less reduction of infectivity and molecular signals compared to pH conditions of 6.5 and 7.5. This difference was most pronounced for reductions in infectivity of MNV and MS2, with as much as 2.7 log10 less reduction at pH 8.5 relative to lower pH conditions. This study revealed that PAA was an effective disinfectant for treatment of hNoV GI and GII, MS2 and MNV, with greatest virus reduction observed for MS2 and MNV infectivity. RT-qPCR reductions of MS2 and MNV were lower than concurrent MS2 and MNV infectivity reductions, suggesting that observed hNoV RT-qPCR reductions may underestimate reductions in hNoV infectivity achieved by PAA. Although virus disinfection by PAA occurred at all evaluated pH levels, PAA is most effective at pH 6.5-7.5.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nathan Dunkin
- Department of Environmental Health and Engineering, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Caroline Coulter
- Department of Environmental Health and Engineering, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - ShihChi Weng
- JHU/Stantec Alliance, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Joseph G Jacangelo
- Department of Environmental Health and Engineering, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
- JHU/Stantec Alliance, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
- MWH-Stantec, Pasadena, CA, USA
| | - Kellogg J Schwab
- Department of Environmental Health and Engineering, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA.
- JHU/Stantec Alliance, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
153
|
Qiu Y, Li Q, Lee BE, Ruecker NJ, Neumann NF, Ashbolt NJ, Pang X. UV inactivation of human infectious viruses at two full-scale wastewater treatment plants in Canada. WATER RESEARCH 2018; 147:73-81. [PMID: 30300783 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2018.09.057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2018] [Revised: 09/27/2018] [Accepted: 09/30/2018] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Ultraviolet (UV) disinfection is widely used to inactivate microorganisms prior to release of treated municipal wastewater. However, limited data are available for in situ inactivation of infectious enteric viruses by UV treatment at full-scale. In this study, a total of 51 pre-UV and 50 post-UV samples were collected over a two-year period from two wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) and analyzed for noroviruses, rotavirus, reovirus, sapovirus, astrovirus, enteroviruses, adenoviruses and JC virus. Both pre-UV and post-UV samples had relatively high concentrations of these viruses determined by qPCR. Infectious viruses were also observed in 98% of pre-UV samples and 76% of post-UV samples by cell culture, using either cytopathic effect (CPE) or integrated cell culture with qPCR (ICC-qPCR). Reovirus was the most common virus detected by ICC-qPCR, present in 92% of pre-UV and 48% of post-UV samples. Infectious enterovirus and adenovirus were detected by ICC-qPCR in 33% and 31% of pre-UV samples, 14% and 20% of post-UV samples, respectively. Mean log10 reduction estimates for infectious reovirus was 1.2 and 1.8 log for the two WWTPs as assessed by ICC-qPCR, which was similar to the reduction of total infectious viruses (1.5 and 1.7 log) as assessed by CPE in cells culture. Overall, quantification of infectious reovirus appears to provide a useful index of enteric virus inactivation during wastewater treatment at full-scale. To our knowledge, this is the first comprehensive study to assess UV inactivation of human enteric viruses at full-scale in WWTPs using both molecular and cell culture techniques, providing important information for quantitative microbial risk assessment of UV inactivation of human viruses in municipal wastewater.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yuanyuan Qiu
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Alberta, 116st & 85 Ave, Edmonton, AB, T6G. 2R3, Canada
| | - Qiaozhi Li
- School of Public Health, University of Alberta, 11405-87Ave, Edmonton, AB, T6G 1C9, Canada
| | - Bonita E Lee
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Alberta, 11405-87Ave, Edmonton, AB, T6G 1C9, Canada
| | - Norma J Ruecker
- City of Calgary, Water Resources, 625, 25 Avenue SE, Calgary, AB, T2G 4K8, Canada
| | - Norman F Neumann
- School of Public Health, University of Alberta, 11405-87Ave, Edmonton, AB, T6G 1C9, Canada
| | - Nicholas J Ashbolt
- School of Public Health, University of Alberta, 11405-87Ave, Edmonton, AB, T6G 1C9, Canada; Provincial Laboratory for Public Health, 8440-112st, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2J2, Canada
| | - Xiaoli Pang
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Alberta, 116st & 85 Ave, Edmonton, AB, T6G. 2R3, Canada; Provincial Laboratory for Public Health, 8440-112st, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2J2, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
154
|
Chandrasekaran S, Jiang SC. A dynamic transport model for quantification of norovirus internalization in lettuce from irrigation water and associated health risk. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2018; 643:751-761. [PMID: 30189580 PMCID: PMC6138827 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.06.158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2018] [Revised: 06/12/2018] [Accepted: 06/13/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Food production using recycled wastewater offers a sustainable way forward in light of limited freshwater resources. However, concerns of food safety should be addressed to protect public health. To this end, we developed a dynamic transport model to track norovirus from the irrigation water to the root and shoot of lettuce during the growth period. These processes were embodied in a system of ordinary differential equations that also incorporated plant growth, transpiration rate, viral attachment and detachment to culture media, viral decay, and plant barrier effects. Model parameters were either obtained from the literature or through fitting the model to experimental data from a study reporting human norovirus transport in hydroponically grown lettuce. The results showed that lettuce grown hydroponically resulted in a higher risk than lettuce grown in soil. In both cases, the risk predicted failed to meet the risk benchmarks established by the U.S. EPA and WHO. Viral attachment to growth media, such as the soil particles, was an important mechanism for risk reduction. A sensitivity analysis revealed that harvesting time and irrigation time are important factors influencing the viral loads in lettuce. Hence, this pathogen transport model provides a framework for investigating the effects of time and other factors on disease burdens from water reuse in agriculture, underscoring the utility of a dynamic model. In the absence of a routine monitoring of contaminants in the recycled irrigation water and food crops, a quantitative risk assessment based on objective scientific knowledge is the best approach to guide the policy decisions on water reuse practices.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Srikiran Chandrasekaran
- Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Irvine, United States of America
| | - Sunny C Jiang
- Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Irvine, United States of America.
| |
Collapse
|
155
|
Temperature-Dependent Nanomechanics and Topography of Bacteriophage T7. J Virol 2018; 92:JVI.01236-18. [PMID: 30089696 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01236-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2018] [Accepted: 07/30/2018] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Viruses are nanoscale infectious agents which may be inactivated by heat treatment. The global molecular mechanisms of virus inactivation and the thermally induced structural changes in viruses are not fully understood. In this study, we measured the heat-induced changes in the properties of T7 bacteriophage particles exposed to a two-stage (65°C and 80°C) thermal effect, by using atomic force microscopy (AFM)-based nanomechanical and topographical measurements. We found that exposure to 65°C led to the release of genomic DNA and to the loss of the capsid tail; hence, the T7 particles became destabilized. Further heating to 80°C surprisingly led to an increase in mechanical stability, due likely to partial denaturation of the capsomeric proteins kept within the global capsid arrangement.IMPORTANCE Even though the loss of DNA, caused by heat treatment, destabilizes the T7 phage, its capsid is remarkably able to withstand high temperatures with a more or less intact global topographical structure. Thus, partial denaturation within the global structural constraints of the viral capsid may have a stabilizing effect. Understanding the structural design of viruses may help in constructing artificial nanocapsules for the packaging and delivery of materials under harsh environmental conditions.
Collapse
|
156
|
Qiao Z, Ye Y, Chang PH, Thirunarayanan D, Wigginton KR. Nucleic Acid Photolysis by UV 254 and the Impact of Virus Encapsidation. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2018; 52:10408-10415. [PMID: 30106282 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.8b02308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Determining the influence of higher order structure on UVC photolysis will help inform predictions of nucleic acid fate and microorganism inactivation. We measured the direct UV254 photolysis kinetics of four model viral genomes composed of single-stranded and double-stranded RNA (ssRNA and dsRNA, respectively), as well as single-stranded and double-stranded DNA (ssDNA and dsDNA, respectively), in ultrapure water, in phosphate buffered saline (PBS), and encapsidated in their native virus particles. The photolysis rate constants of naked nucleic acids measured by qPCR (RT-qPCR for RNA) and normalized by the number of bases measured in a particular sequence exhibited the following trend: ssDNA > ssRNA ≈ dsDNA > dsRNA. In PBS, naked ssRNA bases reacted, on average, 24× faster than the dsRNA bases, whereas naked ssDNA bases reacted 4.3× faster than dsDNA bases. Endogenous indirect photolysis involving 1O2 and ·OH was ruled out as a major contributing factor in the reactions. A comparison of our measured rate constants with rate constants reported in the literature shows a general agreement among the nucleic acid UV254 direct photolysis kinetics. Our results underscore the high resistance of dsRNA to UVC photolysis and demonstrate the role that nucleic acid structure and solution chemistry play in photoreactivity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zhong Qiao
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering , University of Michigan , Ann Arbor , Michigan 48109 , United States
| | - Yinyin Ye
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering , University of Michigan , Ann Arbor , Michigan 48109 , United States
| | - Pin Hsuan Chang
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering , University of Michigan , Ann Arbor , Michigan 48109 , United States
| | - Devibaghya Thirunarayanan
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering , University of Michigan , Ann Arbor , Michigan 48109 , United States
| | - Krista R Wigginton
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering , University of Michigan , Ann Arbor , Michigan 48109 , United States
| |
Collapse
|
157
|
Guo X, Wang S, Zhao CL, Li JW, Zhong JY. An integrated cell absorption process and quantitative PCR assay for the detection of the infectious virus in water. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2018; 635:964-971. [PMID: 29710618 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.04.223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2017] [Revised: 04/16/2018] [Accepted: 04/16/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Here we developed an integrated cell absorption process and quantitative (reverse transcription) polymerase chain reaction (ICAP-q(RT)PCR) assay to detect infectious viruses, which based on the detection of the viral nucleic acid (RNA or DNA) in the early stage of viral attachment and entry towards cells. The results showed that the poliovirus or adenovirus whose concentration was as low as 0.2 TCID50/mL could be detected by ICAP-q(RT)PCR after 4 h incubation. The ICAP-q(RT)PCR exhibited much higher sensitivity than the plaque assay. In parallel, it took shorter time to detect the viruses towards field samples compared with the integrated cell culture (ICC)-qPCR, but could still get the consistent detecting results with ICC-qPCR. This method is verified by detecting four different kinds of viruses including poliovirus, adenovirus, rotavirus, and astrovirus, which existed in the actual water samples. Among all the 24 Jinhe river samples, 50% (12/24) of river water samples were positive for poliovirus when detected by ICAP-q(RT)PCR, which was in accordance with the results detected by ICC-qPCR. However, 21% (5/24) and 68% (18/24) of the samples were detected to be positive for poliovirus by the plaque counting and the direct qPCR method, respectively. Compared with ICAP-q(PT)PCR and ICC-qPCR, the detecting results of qPCR or plaque assay displayed a marked expansion or decline, respectively, which lead to the evident deviations in the accuracy. The results demonstrated that our developed ICAP-q(RT)PCR method could dramatically reduce the test duration and quite improve the sensitivity towards infectious viruses. Therefore, the ICAP-q(RT)PCR method could be an effective and quantitative tool for detecting infectious viruses in water environments.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xuan Guo
- Research Institute of Chemical Defense, No. 1 Huaiyin Road, Beijing 102205, China; State Key Lab of NBC Protection for Civilian, No. 1 Huaiyin Road, Beijing 102205, China.
| | - Shang Wang
- Institute of Environmental and Operational Medicine, Key Laboratory of Risk Assessment and Control for Environment & Food Safety, No. 1 Dali Road, Tianjin 300050, China
| | - Chong-Lin Zhao
- Research Institute of Chemical Defense, No. 1 Huaiyin Road, Beijing 102205, China; State Key Lab of NBC Protection for Civilian, No. 1 Huaiyin Road, Beijing 102205, China
| | - Jun-Wen Li
- Institute of Environmental and Operational Medicine, Key Laboratory of Risk Assessment and Control for Environment & Food Safety, No. 1 Dali Road, Tianjin 300050, China
| | - Jin-Yi Zhong
- Research Institute of Chemical Defense, No. 1 Huaiyin Road, Beijing 102205, China; State Key Lab of NBC Protection for Civilian, No. 1 Huaiyin Road, Beijing 102205, China.
| |
Collapse
|
158
|
Shao L, Chen H, Hicks D, Wu C. Thermal inactivation of human norovirus surrogates in oyster homogenate. Int J Food Microbiol 2018; 281:47-53. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2018.05.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2017] [Revised: 05/10/2018] [Accepted: 05/15/2018] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
|
159
|
López-Gálvez F, Randazzo W, Vásquez A, Sánchez G, Decol LT, Aznar R, Gil MI, Allende A. Irrigating Lettuce with Wastewater Effluent: Does Disinfection with Chlorine Dioxide Inactivate Viruses? JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY 2018; 47:1139-1145. [PMID: 30272803 DOI: 10.2134/jeq2017.12.0485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Reclaimed water obtained from urban wastewater is currently being used as irrigation water in water-scarce regions in Spain. However, wastewater can contain enteric viruses that water reclamation treatment cannot remove or inactivate completely. In the present study, greenhouse-grown baby lettuce ( L.) was irrigated with secondary treatment effluent from a wastewater treatment plant untreated and treated using chlorine dioxide (ClO). The effect of ClO treatment on the physicochemical characteristics and the presence of enteric viruses in irrigation water and lettuce was assessed. The presence of human noroviruses genogroups I and II (NoV GI and NoV GII), and human astroviruses (HAstV), was analyzed by real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR). Additionally, to check for the loss of infectivity induced by the disinfection treatment, positive samples were re-analyzed after pretreatment with the intercalating dye PMAxx before RNA extraction and RT-qPCR. There were no significant differences in the proportion of positive samples and the concentration of enteric viruses between treated and untreated reclaimed water without PMAxx pretreatment ( > 0.05). A significantly lower concentration of NoV GI was detected in ClO-treated water when samples were pretreated with PMAxx ( < 0.05), indicating that inactivation was due to the disinfection treatment. Laboratory-scale validation tests indicated the suitability of PMAxx-RT-qPCR for discrimination between potentially infectious and ClO-damaged viruses. Although the applied ClO treatment was not able to significantly reduce the enteric virus load of the secondary effluent from the wastewater treatment plant, none of the lettuce samples analyzed ( = 36) was positive for the presence of NoV or HAstV.
Collapse
|
160
|
Nelson KL, Boehm AB, Davies-Colley RJ, Dodd MC, Kohn T, Linden KG, Liu Y, Maraccini PA, McNeill K, Mitch WA, Nguyen TH, Parker KM, Rodriguez RA, Sassoubre LM, Silverman AI, Wigginton KR, Zepp RG. Sunlight-mediated inactivation of health-relevant microorganisms in water: a review of mechanisms and modeling approaches. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE. PROCESSES & IMPACTS 2018; 20:1089-1122. [PMID: 30047962 PMCID: PMC7064263 DOI: 10.1039/c8em00047f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Health-relevant microorganisms present in natural surface waters and engineered treatment systems that are exposed to sunlight can be inactivated by a complex set of interacting mechanisms. The net impact of sunlight depends on the solar spectral irradiance, the susceptibility of the specific microorganism to each mechanism, and the water quality; inactivation rates can vary by orders of magnitude depending on the organism and environmental conditions. Natural organic matter (NOM) has a large influence, as it can attenuate radiation and thus decrease inactivation by endogenous mechanisms. Simultaneously NOM sensitizes the formation of reactive intermediates that can damage microorganisms via exogenous mechanisms. To accurately predict inactivation and design engineered systems that enhance solar inactivation, it is necessary to model these processes, although some details are not yet sufficiently well understood. In this critical review, we summarize the photo-physics, -chemistry, and -biology that underpin sunlight-mediated inactivation, as well as the targets of damage and cellular responses to sunlight exposure. Viruses that are not susceptible to exogenous inactivation are only inactivated if UVB wavelengths (280-320 nm) are present, such as in very clear, open waters or in containers that are transparent to UVB. Bacteria are susceptible to slightly longer wavelengths. Some viruses and bacteria (especially Gram-positive) are susceptible to exogenous inactivation, which can be initiated by visible as well as UV wavelengths. We review approaches to model sunlight-mediated inactivation and illustrate how the environmental conditions can dramatically shift the inactivation rate of organisms. The implications of this mechanistic understanding of solar inactivation are discussed for a range of applications, including recreational water quality, natural treatment systems, solar disinfection of drinking water (SODIS), and enhanced inactivation via the use of sensitizers and photocatalysts. Finally, priorities for future research are identified that will further our understanding of the key role that sunlight disinfection plays in natural systems and the potential to enhance this process in engineered systems.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kara L Nelson
- Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
161
|
Virus reduction through microfiltration membranes modified with a cationic polymer for drinking water applications. Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfa.2018.04.056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
|
162
|
Trajano Gomes da Silva D, Dias E, Ebdon J, Taylor H. Assessment of recommended approaches for containment and safe handling of human excreta in emergency settings. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0201344. [PMID: 30048542 PMCID: PMC6062132 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0201344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2017] [Accepted: 07/13/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Ebola and cholera treatment centres (ETC and CTC) generate considerable quantities of excreta that can further the transmission of disease amongst patients and health workers. Therefore, approaches for the safe handling, containment and removal of excreta within such settings are needed to minimise the likelihood of onward disease transmission. This study compared the performance and suitability of three chlorine-based approaches (0.5% HTH, NaDCC and NaOCl (domestic bleach)) and three lime-based approaches (10%, 20% and 30% Ca(OH)2). The experiments followed recent recommendations for Ebola Treatment Centres. Three excreta matrices containing either raw municipal wastewater, or raw municipal wastewater plus 10% or 20% (w/v) added faecal sludge, were treated in 14 litre buckets at a ratio of 1:10 (chlorine solutions or lime suspensions: excreta matrix). The effects of mixing versus non-mixing and increasing contact time (10 and 30 mins) were also investigated. Bacterial (faecal coliforms (FC) and intestinal enterococci (IE)) and viral (somatic coliphages (SOMPH), F+specific phages (F+PH) and Bacteroides fragilis phages (GB-124PH)) indicators were used to determine the efficacy of each approach. Lime-based approaches provided greater treatment efficacy than chlorine-based approaches, with lime (30% w/v) demonstrating the greatest efficacy (log reductions values, FC = 4.75, IE = 4.16, SOMPH = 2.85, F+PH = 5.13 and GB124PH = 5.41). There was no statistical difference in efficacy between any of the chlorine-based approaches, and the highest log reduction values were: FC = 2.90, IE = 2.36, SOMPH = 3.01, F+PH = 2.36 and GB124PH = 0.74. No statistical difference was observed with respect to contact time for any of the approaches, and no statistical differences were observed with respect to mixing for the chlorine-based approaches. However, statistically significant increases in the efficacy of some lime-based approaches were observed following mixing. These findings provide evidence and practical advice to inform safe handling and containment of excreta and ensure more effective health protection in future emergency settings.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Diogo Trajano Gomes da Silva
- Environment and Public Health Research Group, School of Environment and Technology, University of Brighton, Brighton, United Kingdom
| | - Edgard Dias
- Department of Sanitary and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Federal University of Juiz de Fora (UFJF), Juiz de Fora, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - James Ebdon
- Environment and Public Health Research Group, School of Environment and Technology, University of Brighton, Brighton, United Kingdom
| | - Huw Taylor
- Environment and Public Health Research Group, School of Environment and Technology, University of Brighton, Brighton, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
163
|
Ye Y, Chang PH, Hartert J, Wigginton KR. Reactivity of Enveloped Virus Genome, Proteins, and Lipids with Free Chlorine and UV 254. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2018; 52:7698-7708. [PMID: 29886734 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.8b00824] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
The survivability of viruses in natural and engineered systems impacts public health. Inactivation mechanisms in the environment have been described for nonenveloped viruses, but it remains unclear how the membrane layer of enveloped viruses influences inactivation. We applied molecular tools and high-resolution mass spectrometry to measure reactions in the genome, proteins, and lipids of enveloped Pseudomonas phage Phi6 during inactivation by free chlorine and UV254. Free chlorine readily penetrated the lipid membrane to react with proteins in the nucleocapsid and polymerase complex. The most reactive Phi6 peptides were approximately 150 times more reactive with free chlorine than the most reactive peptides reported in nonenveloped coliphage MS2. The inactivation kinetics of Phi6 by UV254 was comparable with those of nonenveloped adenovirus and coliphage MS2 and were driven by UV254 reactions with viral genomes. Our research identifies molecular features of an enveloped virus that are susceptible to chemical oxidants or UV radiation. Finally, the framework developed in the manuscript for studying molecular reactivities of Phi6 can be adopted to investigate enveloped virus survivability under various environmental conditions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yinyin Ye
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering , University of Michigan , Ann Arbor , Michigan 48109 , United States
| | - Pin Hsuan Chang
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering , University of Michigan , Ann Arbor , Michigan 48109 , United States
| | - John Hartert
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering , University of Michigan , Ann Arbor , Michigan 48109 , United States
| | - Krista R Wigginton
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering , University of Michigan , Ann Arbor , Michigan 48109 , United States
| |
Collapse
|
164
|
Tanaka T, Nogariya O, Shionoiri N, Maeda Y, Arakaki A. Integrated molecular analysis of the inactivation of a non-enveloped virus, feline calicivirus, by UV-C radiation. J Biosci Bioeng 2018; 126:63-68. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiosc.2018.01.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2017] [Revised: 01/05/2018] [Accepted: 01/25/2018] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
|
165
|
Free-Chlorine Disinfection as a Selection Pressure on Norovirus. Appl Environ Microbiol 2018; 84:AEM.00244-18. [PMID: 29703740 PMCID: PMC6007107 DOI: 10.1128/aem.00244-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2018] [Accepted: 04/20/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Human noroviruses are excreted in feces from infected individuals and included in wastewater. It is critical to remove/inactivate them in wastewater treatment processes, particularly in the disinfection step, before release to aquatic environments. However, the high mutation rates of human noroviruses raise concerns about the emergence of strains that are less susceptible to disinfectants and can survive even after wastewater treatment. This study aimed to demonstrate the strain-dependent susceptibility of norovirus to free chlorine. A population originated from the murine norovirus strain S7-PP3, a surrogate for human noroviruses in environmental testing, was exposed to free chlorine and then propagated in a host cell. This cycle of free chlorine exposure followed by propagation in cells was repeated 10 times, and populations with lower susceptibility to free chlorine were obtained from two independent trials of chlorine exposure cycles. Open reading frame 2 (ORF2) and ORF3 of the murine norovirus genome were analyzed by next-generation sequencing, and a unique nonsynonymous mutation (corresponding to a change from phenylalanine to serine) at nucleotide (nt) 7280 in ORF3, which encodes the minor capsid protein VP2, was found in chlorine-exposed populations from both trials. It was confirmed that all of the clones from the chlorine-treated population had lower susceptibility to free chlorine than those from the control population. These results indicate that exposure to free chlorine and dilution exert different driving forces to form murine norovirus (MNV) quasispecies, and that there is a selective force to form MNV quasispecies under free chlorine exposure.IMPORTANCE This study showed that free chlorine disinfection exerted a selection pressure for murine norovirus (MNV). The strain-dependent viral susceptibility to the disinfectant elucidated in this study highlights the importance of employing less susceptible strains as representative viruses in disinfection tests, because the disinfection rate values obtained from more susceptible strains would be less useful in predicting the virus inactivation efficiency of circulating strains under practical disinfection conditions.
Collapse
|
166
|
Langlet J, Kaas L, Croucher D, Hewitt J. Effect of the Shellfish Proteinase K Digestion Method on Norovirus Capsid Integrity. FOOD AND ENVIRONMENTAL VIROLOGY 2018; 10:151-158. [PMID: 29417429 DOI: 10.1007/s12560-018-9336-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2017] [Accepted: 01/19/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Norovirus outbreaks are associated with the consumption of contaminated shellfish, and so efficient methods to recover and detect infectious norovirus in shellfish are important. The Proteinase K digestion method used to recover norovirus from shellfish, as described in the ISO 15216, would be a good candidate but its impact on the virus capsid integrity and thus infectivity was never examined. The aim of this study was to assess the impact of the Proteinase K digestion method, and of the heat treatment component of the method alone, on norovirus (genogroups I and II) and MS2 bacteriophage capsid integrity. A slightly modified version of the ISO method was used. RT-qPCR was used for virus detection following digestion of accessible viral RNA using RNases. MS2 phage infectivity was measured using a plaque assay. The effect of shellfish digestive glands (DG) on recovery was evaluated. In the presence of shellfish DG, a reduction in MS2 phage infectivity of about 1 log10 was observed after the Proteinase K digestion method and after heat treatment component alone. For norovirus GII and MS2 phage, there was no significant loss of genome following the Proteinase K digestion method but there was a significant 0.24 log10 loss of norovirus GI. In the absence of shellfish DG, the reduction in MS2 phage infectivity was about 2 log10, with the addition of RNases resulting in a significant loss of genome for all tested viruses following complete Proteinase K digestion method and the heat treatment alone. While some protective effect from the shellfish DG on viruses was observed, the impact on capsid integrity and infectivity suggests that this method, while suitable for norovirus genome detection, may not completely preserve virus infectivity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jérémie Langlet
- Enteric, Environmental and Food Virology Laboratory, Institute of Environmental Science and Research Ltd (ESR), Kenepuru Science Centre, PO BOX 50-348, Porirua, 5240, New Zealand.
| | - Laetitia Kaas
- Enteric, Environmental and Food Virology Laboratory, Institute of Environmental Science and Research Ltd (ESR), Kenepuru Science Centre, PO BOX 50-348, Porirua, 5240, New Zealand
| | - Dawn Croucher
- Enteric, Environmental and Food Virology Laboratory, Institute of Environmental Science and Research Ltd (ESR), Kenepuru Science Centre, PO BOX 50-348, Porirua, 5240, New Zealand
| | - Joanne Hewitt
- Enteric, Environmental and Food Virology Laboratory, Institute of Environmental Science and Research Ltd (ESR), Kenepuru Science Centre, PO BOX 50-348, Porirua, 5240, New Zealand
| |
Collapse
|
167
|
Sanchis AG, Shahid M, Pashley R. Improved virus inactivation using a hot bubble column evaporator (HBCE). Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2018; 165:293-302. [DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2018.02.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2017] [Revised: 02/12/2018] [Accepted: 02/13/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
|
168
|
Aboubakr HA, Mor SK, Higgins L, Armien A, Youssef MM, Bruggeman PJ, Goyal SM. Cold argon-oxygen plasma species oxidize and disintegrate capsid protein of feline calicivirus. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0194618. [PMID: 29566061 PMCID: PMC5864060 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0194618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2018] [Accepted: 03/06/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Possible mechanisms that lead to inactivation of feline calicivirus (FCV) by cold atmospheric-pressure plasma (CAP) generated in 99% argon-1% O2 admixture were studied. We evaluated the impact of CAP exposure on the FCV viral capsid protein and RNA employing several cultural, molecular, proteomic and morphologic characteristics techniques. In the case of long exposure (2 min) to CAP, the reactive species of CAP strongly oxidized the major domains of the viral capsid protein (VP1) leading to disintegration of a majority of viral capsids. In the case of short exposure (15 s), some of the virus particles retained their capsid structure undamaged but failed to infect the host cells in vitro. In the latter virus particles, CAP exposure led to the oxidation of specific amino acids located in functional peptide residues in the P2 subdomain of the protrusion (P) domain, the dimeric interface region of VP1 dimers, and the movable hinge region linking the S and P domains. These regions of the capsid are known to play an essential role in the attachment and entry of the virus to the host cell. These observations suggest that the oxidative effect of CAP species inactivates the virus by hindering virus attachment and entry into the host cell. Furthermore, we found that the oxidative impact of plasma species led to oxidation and damage of viral RNA once it becomes unpacked due to capsid destruction. The latter effect most likely plays a secondary role in virus inactivation since the intact FCV genome is infectious even after damage to the capsid.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hamada A. Aboubakr
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine and Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, United States of America
- Food Science and Technology Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Alexandria University, Aflaton St, El-Shatby, Alexandria, Egypt
| | - Sunil K. Mor
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine and Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, United States of America
| | - LeeAnn Higgins
- Department of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, and Biophysics & Proteomics Center for Mass Spectrometry, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, United States of America
| | - Anibal Armien
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine and Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, United States of America
| | - Mohammed M. Youssef
- Food Science and Technology Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Alexandria University, Aflaton St, El-Shatby, Alexandria, Egypt
| | - Peter J. Bruggeman
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Science and Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, United States of America
| | - Sagar M. Goyal
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine and Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
169
|
Leem JW, Kim SR, Choi KH, Kim YL. Plasmonic photocatalyst-like fluorescent proteins for generating reactive oxygen species. NANO CONVERGENCE 2018; 5:8. [PMID: 29607289 PMCID: PMC5862923 DOI: 10.1186/s40580-018-0140-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2018] [Accepted: 03/06/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The recent advances in photocatalysis have opened a variety of new possibilities for energy and biomedical applications. In particular, plasmonic photocatalysis using hybridization of semiconductor materials and metal nanoparticles has recently facilitated the rapid progress in enhancing photocatalytic efficiency under visible or solar light. One critical underlying aspect of photocatalysis is that it generates and releases reactive oxygen species (ROS) as intermediate or final products upon light excitation or activation. Although plasmonic photocatalysis overcomes the limitation of UV irradiation, synthesized metal/semiconductor nanomaterial photocatalysts often bring up biohazardous and environmental issues. In this respect, this review article is centered in identifying natural photosensitizing organic materials that can generate similar types of ROS as those of plasmonic photocatalysis. In particular, we propose the idea of plasmonic photocatalyst-like fluorescent proteins for ROS generation under visible light irradiation. We recapitulate fluorescent proteins that have Type I and Type II photosensitization properties in a comparable manner to plasmonic photocatalysis. Plasmonic photocatalysis and protein photosensitization have not yet been compared systemically in terms of ROS photogeneration under visible light, although the phototoxicity and cytotoxicity of some fluorescent proteins are well recognized. A comprehensive understanding of plasmonic photocatalyst-like fluorescent proteins and their potential advantages will lead us to explore new environmental, biomedical, and defense applications.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jung Woo Leem
- Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907 USA
| | - Seong-Ryul Kim
- Department of Agricultural Biology, National Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Rural Development Administration, Wanju, Jeollabuk-do 55365 Republic of Korea
| | - Kwang-Ho Choi
- Department of Agricultural Biology, National Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Rural Development Administration, Wanju, Jeollabuk-do 55365 Republic of Korea
| | - Young L. Kim
- Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907 USA
- Regenstrief Center for Healthcare Engineering, West Lafayette, IN 47907 USA
- Purdue Quantum Center, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907 USA
| |
Collapse
|
170
|
Li XF, Mitch WA. Drinking Water Disinfection Byproducts (DBPs) and Human Health Effects: Multidisciplinary Challenges and Opportunities. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2018; 52:1681-1689. [PMID: 29283253 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.7b05440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 389] [Impact Index Per Article: 64.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
While drinking water disinfection has effectively prevented waterborne diseases, an unintended consequence is the generation of disinfection byproducts (DBPs). Epidemiological studies have consistently observed an association between consumption of chlorinated drinking water with an increased risk of bladder cancer. Out of the >600 DBPs identified, regulations focus on a few classes, such as trihalomethanes (THMs), whose concentrations were hypothesized to correlate with the DBPs driving the toxicity of disinfected waters. However, the DBPs responsible for the bladder cancer association remain unclear. Utilities are switching away from a reliance on chlorination of pristine drinking water supplies to the application of new disinfectant combinations to waters impaired by wastewater effluents and algal blooms. In light of these changes in disinfection practice, this article discusses new approaches being taken by analytical chemists, engineers, toxicologists and epidemiologists to characterize the DBP classes driving disinfected water toxicity, and suggests that DBP exposure should be measured using other DBP classes in addition to THMs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xing-Fang Li
- Division of Analytical and Environmental Toxicology, Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Alberta , Edmonton, AB T6G 2G3 Canada
| | - William A Mitch
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Stanford University , 473 Via Ortega, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| |
Collapse
|
171
|
Oishi W, Sano D, Decrey L, Kadoya S, Kohn T, Funamizu N. Identification of the inactivating factors and mechanisms exerted on MS2 coliphage in concentrated synthetic urine. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2017; 598:213-219. [PMID: 28445822 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.04.088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2016] [Revised: 04/08/2017] [Accepted: 04/09/2017] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Volume reduction (condensation) is a key for the practical usage of human urine as a fertilizer because it enables the saving of storage space and the reduction of transportation cost. However, concentrated urine may carry infectious disease risks resulting from human pathogens frequently present in excreta, though the survival of pathogens in concentrated urine is not well understood. In this study, the inactivation of MS2 coliphage, a surrogate for single-stranded RNA human enteric viruses, in concentrated synthetic urine was investigated. The infectious titer reduction of MS2 coliphage in synthetic urine samples was measured by plaque assay, and the reduction of genome copy number was monitored by reverse transcription-quantitative PCR (RTqPCR). Among chemical-physical conditions such as pH and osmotic pressure, uncharged ammonia was shown to be the predominant factor responsible for MS2 inactivation, independently of urine concentration level. The reduction rate of the viral genome number varied among genome regions, but the comprehensive reduction rate of six genome regions was well correlated with that of the infectious titer of MS2 coliphage. This indicates that genome degradation is the main mechanism driving loss of infectivity, and that RT-qPCR targeting the six genome regions can be used as a culture-independent assay for monitoring infectivity loss of the coliphage in urine. MS2 inactivation rate constants were well predicted by a model using ion composition and speciation in synthetic urine samples, which suggests that MS2 infectivity loss can be estimated solely based on the solution composition, temperature and pH, without explicitly accounting for effects of osmotic pressure.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wakana Oishi
- Division of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University, North 13, West 8, Kita-ku, Sapporo, Hokkaido 060-8628, Japan
| | - Daisuke Sano
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Tohoku University, Aoba 6-6-06, Aramaki, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi 980-8579, Japan.
| | - Loic Decrey
- Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry, School of Architecture, Civil and Environmental Engineering (ENAC), École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Syunsuke Kadoya
- Division of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University, North 13, West 8, Kita-ku, Sapporo, Hokkaido 060-8628, Japan
| | - Tamar Kohn
- Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry, School of Architecture, Civil and Environmental Engineering (ENAC), École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Naoyuki Funamizu
- Division of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University, North 13, West 8, Kita-ku, Sapporo, Hokkaido 060-8628, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
172
|
Dunkin N, Weng S, Coulter CG, Jacangelo JG, Schwab KJ. Reduction of Human Norovirus GI, GII, and Surrogates by Peracetic Acid and Monochloramine in Municipal Secondary Wastewater Effluent. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2017; 51:11918-11927. [PMID: 28910089 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.7b02954] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
The objective of this study was to characterize human norovirus (hNoV) GI and GII reductions during disinfection by peracetic acid (PAA) and monochloramine in secondary wastewater (WW) and phosphate buffer (PB) as assessed by reverse transcription-qPCR (RT-qPCR). Infectivity and RT-qPCR reductions are also presented for surrogate viruses murine norovirus (MNV) and bacteriophage MS2 under identical experimental conditions to aid in interpretation of hNoV molecular data. In WW, RT-qPCR reductions were less than 0.5 log10 for all viruses at concentration-time (CT) values up to 450 mg-min/L except for hNoV GI, where 1 log10 reduction was observed at CT values of less than 50 mg-min/L for monochloramine and 200 mg-min/L for PAA. In PB, hNoV GI and MNV exhibited comparable resistance to PAA and monochloramine with CT values for 2 log10 RT-qPCR reduction between 300 and 360 mg-min/L. Less than 1 log10 reduction was observed for MS2 and hNoV GII in PB at CT values for both disinfectants up to 450 mg-min/L. Our results indicate that hNoVs exhibit genogroup dependent resistance and that disinfection practices targeting hNoV GII will result in equivalent or greater reductions for hNoV GI. These data provide valuable comparisons between hNoV and surrogate molecular signals that can begin the process of informing regulators and engineers on WW treatment plant design and operational practices necessary to inactivate hNoVs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nathan Dunkin
- Department of Environmental Health and Engineering, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University , Baltimore, Maryland 21205, United States
| | - ShihChi Weng
- JHU/MWH-Stantec Alliance, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland 21205, United States
| | - Caroline G Coulter
- Department of Environmental Health and Engineering, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University , Baltimore, Maryland 21205, United States
| | - Joseph G Jacangelo
- Department of Environmental Health and Engineering, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University , Baltimore, Maryland 21205, United States
- JHU/MWH-Stantec Alliance, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland 21205, United States
- MWH-Stantec , Pasadena, California 91101, United States
| | - Kellogg J Schwab
- Department of Environmental Health and Engineering, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University , Baltimore, Maryland 21205, United States
- JHU/MWH-Stantec Alliance, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland 21205, United States
| |
Collapse
|
173
|
Climate change-induced increases in precipitation are reducing the potential for solar ultraviolet radiation to inactivate pathogens in surface waters. Sci Rep 2017; 7:13033. [PMID: 29026153 PMCID: PMC5638896 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-13392-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2017] [Accepted: 09/22/2017] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Climate change is accelerating the release of dissolved organic matter (DOM) to inland and coastal waters through increases in precipitation, thawing of permafrost, and changes in vegetation. Our modeling approach suggests that the selective absorption of ultraviolet radiation (UV) by DOM decreases the valuable ecosystem service wherein sunlight inactivates waterborne pathogens. Here we highlight the sensitivity of waterborne pathogens of humans and wildlife to solar UV, and use the DNA action spectrum to model how differences in water transparency and incident sunlight alter the ability of UV to inactivate waterborne pathogens. A case study demonstrates how heavy precipitation events can reduce the solar inactivation potential in Lake Michigan, which provides drinking water to over 10 million people. These data suggest that widespread increases in DOM and consequent browning of surface waters reduce the potential for solar UV inactivation of pathogens, and increase exposure to infectious diseases in humans and wildlife.
Collapse
|
174
|
Monteiro S, Santos R. Enzymatic and viability RT-qPCR assays for evaluation of enterovirus, hepatitis A virus and norovirus inactivation: Implications for public health risk assessment. J Appl Microbiol 2017; 124:965-976. [PMID: 28833965 DOI: 10.1111/jam.13568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2017] [Revised: 08/08/2017] [Accepted: 08/12/2017] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
AIM To assess the potential of a viability dye and an enzymatic reverse transcription quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) pretreatment to discriminate between infectious and noninfectious enteric viruses. METHODS AND RESULTS Enterovirus (EntV), norovirus (NoV) GII.4 and hepatitis A virus (HAV) were inactivated at 95°C for 10 min, and four methods were used to compare the efficiency of inactivation: (i) cell culture plaque assay for HAV and EntV, (ii) RT-qPCR alone, (iii) RT-qPCR assay preceded by RNase treatment, and (iv) pretreatment with a viability dye (reagent D (RD)) followed by RT-qPCR. In addition, heat-inactivated NoV was treated with RD coupled with surfactants to increase the efficiency of the viability dye. No treatment was able to completely discriminate infectious from noninfectious viruses. RD-RT-qPCR reduced more efficiently the detection of noninfectious viruses with little to no removal observed with RNase. RD-RT-qPCR method was the closest to cell culture assay. The combination of surfactants and RD did not show relevant improvements on the removal of inactivated viruses signal compared with viability RT-qPCR, with the exception of Triton X-100. CONCLUSION The use of surfactant/RD-RT-qPCR, although not being able to completely remove the signal from noninfectious viral particles, yielded a better estimation of viral infectivity. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY Surfactant/RD-RT-qPCR may be an advantageous tool for a better detection of infectious viruses with potential significant impact in the risk assessment of the presence of enteric viruses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- S Monteiro
- Laboratorio Analises, Instituto Superior Tecnico, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - R Santos
- Laboratorio Analises, Instituto Superior Tecnico, Lisbon, Portugal
| |
Collapse
|
175
|
Giannakis S, Liu S, Carratalà A, Rtimi S, Talebi Amiri M, Bensimon M, Pulgarin C. Iron oxide-mediated semiconductor photocatalysis vs. heterogeneous photo-Fenton treatment of viruses in wastewater. Impact of the oxide particle size. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2017; 339:223-231. [PMID: 28662403 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2017.06.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2017] [Revised: 06/16/2017] [Accepted: 06/17/2017] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
The photo-Fenton process is recognized as a promising technique towards microorganism disinfection in wastewater, but its efficiency is hampered at near-neutral pH operating values. In this work, we overcome these obstacles by using the heterogeneous photo-Fenton process as the default disinfecting technique, targeting MS2 coliphage in wastewater. The use of low concentrations of iron oxides in wastewater without H2O2 (wüstite, maghemite, magnetite) has demonstrated limited semiconductor-mediated MS2 inactivation. Changing the operational pH and the size of the oxide particles indicated that the isoelectric point of the iron oxides and the active surface area are crucial in the success of the process, and the possible underlying mechanisms are investigated. Furthermore, the addition of low amounts of Fe-oxides (1mgL-1) and H2O2 in the system (1, 5 and 10mgL-1) greatly enhanced the inactivation process, leading to heterogeneous photo-Fenton processes on the surface of the magnetically separable oxides used. Additionally, photo-dissolution of iron in the bulk, lead to homogeneous photo-Fenton, further aided by the complexation by the dissolved organic matter in the solution. Finally, we assess the impact of the presence of the bacterial host and the difference caused by the different iron sources (salts, oxides) and the Fe-oxide size (normal, nano-sized).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stefanos Giannakis
- SB, ISIC, Group of Advanced Oxidation Processes (GPAO), École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Station 6, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland.
| | - Siting Liu
- SB, ISIC, Group of Advanced Oxidation Processes (GPAO), École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Station 6, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Anna Carratalà
- ENAC, IIE, Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry (LCE), École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Station 2, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Sami Rtimi
- SB, ISIC, Group of Advanced Oxidation Processes (GPAO), École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Station 6, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Masoud Talebi Amiri
- SB, ISIC, Laboratory of Sustainable and Catalytic Processing (LPDC), École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Station 6, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Michaël Bensimon
- ENAC, IIE, Central Environmental Laboratory (CEL), Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Station 18, 1015, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - César Pulgarin
- SB, ISIC, Group of Advanced Oxidation Processes (GPAO), École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Station 6, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland.
| |
Collapse
|
176
|
Zhong Q, Carratalà A, Ossola R, Bachmann V, Kohn T. Cross-Resistance of UV- or Chlorine Dioxide-Resistant Echovirus 11 to Other Disinfectants. Front Microbiol 2017; 8:1928. [PMID: 29046672 PMCID: PMC5632658 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2017.01928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2017] [Accepted: 09/21/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The emergence of waterborne viruses with resistance to disinfection has been demonstrated in the laboratory and in the environment. Yet, the implications of such resistance for virus control remain obscure. In this study we investigate if viruses with resistance to a given disinfection method exhibit cross-resistance to other disinfectants. Chlorine dioxide (ClO2)- or UV-resistant populations of echovirus 11 were exposed to five inactivating treatments (free chlorine, ClO2, UV radiation, sunlight, and heat), and the extent of cross-resistance was determined. The ClO2-resistant population exhibited cross-resistance to free chlorine, but to none of the other inactivating treatments tested. We furthermore demonstrated that ClO2 and free chlorine act by a similar mechanism, in that they mainly inhibit the binding of echovirus 11 to its host cell. As such, viruses with host binding mechanisms that can withstand ClO2 treatment were also better able to withstand oxidation by free chlorine. Conversely, the UV-resistant population was not significantly cross-resistant to any other disinfection treatment. Overall, our results indicate that viruses with resistance to multiple disinfectants exist, but that they can be controlled by inactivating methods that operate by a distinctly different mechanism. We therefore suggest to utilize two disinfection barriers that act by different mechanisms in order to control disinfection-resistant viruses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Qingxia Zhong
- Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry, School of Architecture, Civil and Environmental Engineering, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Anna Carratalà
- Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry, School of Architecture, Civil and Environmental Engineering, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Rachele Ossola
- Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry, School of Architecture, Civil and Environmental Engineering, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Virginie Bachmann
- Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry, School of Architecture, Civil and Environmental Engineering, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Tamar Kohn
- Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry, School of Architecture, Civil and Environmental Engineering, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
177
|
Zhong Q, Carratalà A, Shim H, Bachmann V, Jensen JD, Kohn T. Resistance of Echovirus 11 to ClO 2 Is Associated with Enhanced Host Receptor Use, Altered Entry Routes, and High Fitness. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2017; 51:10746-10755. [PMID: 28837336 PMCID: PMC5607461 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.7b03288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2017] [Revised: 08/17/2017] [Accepted: 08/24/2017] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Waterborne viruses can exhibit resistance to common water disinfectants, yet the mechanisms that allow them to tolerate disinfection are poorly understood. Here, we generated echovirus 11 (E11) with resistance to chlorine dioxide (ClO2) by experimental evolution, and we assessed the associated genotypic and phenotypic traits. ClO2 resistance emerged after E11 populations were repeatedly reduced (either by ClO2-exposure or by dilution) and then regrown in cell culture. The resistance was linked to an improved capacity of E11 to bind to its host cells, which was further attributed to two potential causes: first, the resistant E11 populations possessed mutations that caused amino acid substitutions from ClO2-labile to ClO2-stable residues in the viral proteins, which likely increased the chemical stability of the capsid toward ClO2. Second, resistant E11 mutants exhibited the capacity to utilize alternative cell receptors for host binding. Interestingly, the emergence of ClO2 resistance resulted in an enhanced replicative fitness compared to the less resistant starting population. Overall this study contributes to a better understanding of the mechanism underlying disinfection resistance in waterborne viruses, and processes that drive resistance development.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Qingxia Zhong
- Laboratory
of Environmental Chemistry, School of Architecture, Civil and Environmental
Engineering, École Polytechnique
Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Anna Carratalà
- Laboratory
of Environmental Chemistry, School of Architecture, Civil and Environmental
Engineering, École Polytechnique
Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Hyunjin Shim
- Jensen Lab, School
of Life Sciences, EPFL, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Virginie Bachmann
- Laboratory
of Environmental Chemistry, School of Architecture, Civil and Environmental
Engineering, École Polytechnique
Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Jeffrey D. Jensen
- Jensen Lab, School
of Life Sciences, EPFL, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Tamar Kohn
- Laboratory
of Environmental Chemistry, School of Architecture, Civil and Environmental
Engineering, École Polytechnique
Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
178
|
Hanigan D, Truong L, Simonich M, Tanguay R, Westerhoff P. Zebrafish embryo toxicity of 15 chlorinated, brominated, and iodinated disinfection by-products. J Environ Sci (China) 2017; 58:302-310. [PMID: 28774621 DOI: 10.1016/j.jes.2017.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2017] [Revised: 05/02/2017] [Accepted: 05/03/2017] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Disinfection to protect human health occurs at drinking water and wastewater facilities through application of non-selective oxidants including chlorine. Oxidants also transform organic material and form disinfection by-products (DBPs), many of which are halogenated and cyto- and genotoxic. Only a handful of assays have been used to compare DBP toxicity, and researchers are unsure which DBP(s) drive the increased cancer risk associated with drinking chlorinated water. The most extensive data set employs an in vitro model cell, Chinese hamster ovary cells. Traditionally, most DBP research focuses on the threat to human health, but the effects on aquatic species exposed to DBPs in wastewater effluents remain ill defined. We present the developmental toxicity for 15 DBPs and a chlorinated wastewater to a model aquatic vertebrate, zebrafish. Mono-halogenated DBPs followed the in vivo toxicity rank order: acetamides>acetic acids>acetonitriles~nitrosamines, which agrees well with previously published mammalian in vitro data. Di- and tri-halogenated acetonitriles were more toxic than their mono-halogenated analogues, and bromine- and iodine-substituted DBPs tended to be more toxic than chlorinated analogues. No zebrafish development effects were observed after exposure to undiluted or non-concentrated, chlorinated wastewater. We find zebrafish development to be a viable in vivo alternative or confirmatory assay to mammalian in vitro cell assays.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- David Hanigan
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Nevada, Reno, NV 89557-0258, United States; School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, 85287-3005, United States.
| | - Lisa Truong
- Department of Environmental and Molecular Toxicology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, 97333, United States
| | - Michael Simonich
- Department of Environmental and Molecular Toxicology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, 97333, United States
| | - Robert Tanguay
- Department of Environmental and Molecular Toxicology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, 97333, United States
| | - Paul Westerhoff
- School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, 85287-3005, United States
| |
Collapse
|
179
|
Brié A, Razafimahefa R, Loutreul J, Robert A, Gantzer C, Boudaud N, Bertrand I. The Effect of Heat and Free Chlorine Treatments on the Surface Properties of Murine Norovirus. FOOD AND ENVIRONMENTAL VIROLOGY 2017; 9:149-158. [PMID: 27888443 DOI: 10.1007/s12560-016-9271-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2016] [Accepted: 11/18/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Heat and free chlorine are among the most efficient and commonly used treatments to inactivate enteric viruses, but their global inactivation mechanisms have not been elucidated yet. These treatments have been shown to affect at least the capsid proteins of viruses and thus may affect the surface properties (i.e. electrostatic charge and hydrophobicity) of such particles. Our aim was to study the effects of heat and free chlorine on surface properties for a murine norovirus chosen as surrogate for human norovirus. No changes in the surface properties were observed with our methods for murine norovirus exposed to free chlorine. Only the heat treatment led to major changes in the surface properties of the virus with the expression of hydrophobic domains at the surface of the particles after exposure to a temperature of 55 °C. No modification of the expression of hydrophobic domains occurred after exposure to 60 °C, and the low hydrophobic state exhibited by infectious and inactivated particles after exposure to 60 °C appeared to be irreversible for inactivated particles only, which may provide a means to discriminate infectious from inactivated murine noroviruses. When exposed to a temperature of 72 °C or to free chlorine at a concentration of 50 mg/L, the genome became available for RNases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Adrien Brié
- Laboratoire de Chimie Physique et Microbiologie pour l'Environnement (LCPME), UMR 7564, Faculté de Pharmacie, CNRS-Université de Lorraine, 5 Rue Albert Lebrun, 54000, Nancy, France
- CNRS, LCPME, UMR 7564, Institut Jean Barriol, Nancy, France
- Food Safety Department, ACTALIA, Saint Lô, France
| | | | | | - Aurélie Robert
- Laboratoire de Chimie Physique et Microbiologie pour l'Environnement (LCPME), UMR 7564, Faculté de Pharmacie, CNRS-Université de Lorraine, 5 Rue Albert Lebrun, 54000, Nancy, France
- CNRS, LCPME, UMR 7564, Institut Jean Barriol, Nancy, France
- Food Safety Department, ACTALIA, Saint Lô, France
| | - Christophe Gantzer
- Laboratoire de Chimie Physique et Microbiologie pour l'Environnement (LCPME), UMR 7564, Faculté de Pharmacie, CNRS-Université de Lorraine, 5 Rue Albert Lebrun, 54000, Nancy, France
- CNRS, LCPME, UMR 7564, Institut Jean Barriol, Nancy, France
| | | | - Isabelle Bertrand
- Laboratoire de Chimie Physique et Microbiologie pour l'Environnement (LCPME), UMR 7564, Faculté de Pharmacie, CNRS-Université de Lorraine, 5 Rue Albert Lebrun, 54000, Nancy, France.
- CNRS, LCPME, UMR 7564, Institut Jean Barriol, Nancy, France.
| |
Collapse
|
180
|
Gallandat K, Lantagne D. Selection of a Biosafety Level 1 (BSL-1) surrogate to evaluate surface disinfection efficacy in Ebola outbreaks: Comparison of four bacteriophages. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0177943. [PMID: 28531182 PMCID: PMC5439676 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0177943] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2017] [Accepted: 05/05/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The 2014 West African Ebola virus disease outbreak was the largest to date, and conflicting, chlorine-based surface disinfection protocols to interrupt disease transmission were recommended. We identified only one study documenting surface disinfection efficacy against the Ebola virus, showing a >6.6 log reduction after 5-minute exposure to 0.5% sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) based on small-scale tests (Cook et al. (2015)). In preparation for future extensive, large-scale disinfection efficacy experiments, we replicated the Cook et al. experiment using four potential BSL-1 surrogates selected based on similarities to the Ebola virus: bacteriophages MS2, M13, Phi6, and PR772. Each bacteriophage was exposed to 0.1% and 0.5% NaOCl for 1, 5, and 10 minutes on stainless steel. MS2 and M13 were only reduced by 3.4 log and 3.5 log after a 10-minute exposure to 0.5% NaOCl, and would be overly conservative surrogates. Conversely, PR772 was too easily inactivated for surrogate use, as it was reduced by >4.8 log after only 1-minute exposure to 0.5% NaOCl. Phi6 was slightly more resistant than the Ebola virus, with 4.1 log reduction after a 5-minute exposure and not detected after a 10-minute exposure to 0.5% NaOCl. We therefore recommend Phi6 as a surrogate for evaluating the efficacy of chlorine-based surface disinfectants against the Ebola virus.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Karin Gallandat
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Daniele Lantagne
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts, United States of America
| |
Collapse
|
181
|
Artika IM, Ma'roef CN. Laboratory biosafety for handling emerging viruses. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed 2017; 7:483-491. [PMID: 32289025 PMCID: PMC7103938 DOI: 10.1016/j.apjtb.2017.01.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2016] [Revised: 10/24/2016] [Accepted: 12/13/2016] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Emerging viruses are viruses whose occurrence has risen within the past twenty years, or whose presence is likely to increase in the near future. Diseases caused by emerging viruses are a major threat to global public health. In spite of greater awareness of safety and containment procedures, the handling of pathogenic viruses remains a likely source of infection, and mortality, among laboratory workers. There is a steady increase in both the number of laboratories and scientist handling emerging viruses for diagnostics and research. The potential for harm associated to work with these infectious agents can be minimized through the application of sound biosafety concepts and practices. The main factors to the prevention of laboratory-acquired infection are well-trained personnel who are knowledgable and biohazard aware, who are perceptive of the various ways of transmission, and who are professional in safe laboratory practice management. In addition, we should emphasize that appropriate facilities, practices and procedures are to be used by the laboratory workers for the handling of emerging viruses in a safe and secure manner. This review is aimed at providing researchers and laboratory personnel with basic biosafety principles to protect themselves from exposure to emerging viruses while working in the laboratory. This paper focuses on what emerging viruses are, why emerging viruses can cause laboratory-acquired infection, how to assess the risk of working with emerging viruses, and how laboratory-acquired infection can be prevented. Control measures used in the laboratory designed as such that they protect workers from emerging viruses and safeguard the public through the safe disposal of infectious wastes are also addressed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- I. Made Artika
- Biosafety Level 3 Unit, Eijkman Institute for Molecular Biology, Jalan Diponegoro 69, Jakarta 10430, Indonesia
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Bogor Agricultural University, Darmaga Campus, Bogor 16680, Indonesia
| | - Chairin Nisa Ma'roef
- Emerging Virus Research Unit, Eijkman Institute for Molecular Biology, Jalan Diponegoro 69, Jakarta 10430, Indonesia
| |
Collapse
|
182
|
Madiyar FR, Haller SL, Farooq O, Rothenburg S, Culbertson C, Li J. AC dielectrophoretic manipulation and electroporation of vaccinia virus using carbon nanoelectrode arrays. Electrophoresis 2017; 38:1515-1525. [DOI: 10.1002/elps.201600436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2016] [Revised: 02/12/2017] [Accepted: 02/13/2017] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Foram Ranjeet Madiyar
- Department of Physical Sciences; Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University; Daytona Beach FL USA
- Department of Chemistry; Kansas State University; Manhattan KS USA
| | - Sherry L. Haller
- Department of Pathology; University of Texas Medical Branch; Galveston TX USA
| | - Omer Farooq
- Department of Physical Sciences; Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University; Daytona Beach FL USA
| | - Stefan Rothenburg
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine; the University of California at Davis; Davis CA USA
| | | | - Jun Li
- Department of Chemistry; Kansas State University; Manhattan KS USA
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering; Hubei Normal University; Huangshi P. R. China
| |
Collapse
|
183
|
Dunkin N, Weng S, Schwab KJ, McQuarrie J, Bell K, Jacangelo JG. Comparative Inactivation of Murine Norovirus and MS2 Bacteriophage by Peracetic Acid and Monochloramine in Municipal Secondary Wastewater Effluent. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2017; 51:2972-2981. [PMID: 28165216 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6b05529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Chlorination has long been used for disinfection of municipal wastewater (MWW) effluent while the use peracetic acid (PAA) has been proposed more recently in the United States. Previous work has demonstrated the bactericidal effectiveness of PAA and monochloramine in wastewater, but limited information is available for viruses, especially ones of mammalian origin (e.g., norovirus). Therefore, a comparative assessment was performed of the virucidal efficacy of PAA and monochloramine against murine norovirus (MNV) and MS2 bacteriophage in secondary effluent MWW and phosphate buffer (PB). A suite of inactivation kinetic models was fit to the viral inactivation data. Predicted concentration-time (CT) values for 1-log10 MS2 reduction by PAA and monochloramine in MWW were 1254 and 1228 mg-min/L, respectively. The 1-, 2-, and 3-log10 model predicted CT values for MNV viral reduction in MWW were 32, 47, and 69 mg-min/L for PAA and 6, 13, and 28 mg-min/L for monochloramine, respectively. Wastewater treatment plant disinfection practices informed by MS2 inactivation data will likely be protective for public health but may overestimate CT values for reduction of MNV. Additionally, equivalent CT values in PB resulted in greater viral reduction which indicate that viral inactivation data in laboratory grade water may not be generalizable to MWW applications.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nathan Dunkin
- Department of Environmental Health and Engineering, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University , Baltimore, Maryland 21205, United States
| | - ShihChi Weng
- JHU/MWH-Stantec Alliance, Johns Hopkins University , Baltimore, Maryland 21205, United States
| | - Kellogg J Schwab
- Department of Environmental Health and Engineering, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University , Baltimore, Maryland 21205, United States
- JHU/MWH-Stantec Alliance, Johns Hopkins University , Baltimore, Maryland 21205, United States
| | - James McQuarrie
- Metro Wastewater Reclamation District, Denver Colorado 80229, United States
| | - Kati Bell
- MWH (now part of Stantec), Pasadena, California 91101, United States
| | - Joseph G Jacangelo
- Department of Environmental Health and Engineering, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University , Baltimore, Maryland 21205, United States
- JHU/MWH-Stantec Alliance, Johns Hopkins University , Baltimore, Maryland 21205, United States
- MWH (now part of Stantec), Pasadena, California 91101, United States
| |
Collapse
|
184
|
Low temperature MS2 (ATCC15597-B1) virus inactivation using a hot bubble column evaporator (HBCE). Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2017; 151:1-10. [DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2016.11.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2016] [Revised: 10/22/2016] [Accepted: 11/21/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
|
185
|
Virus Reduction of Human Plasma-Derived Biological Medicines. Jundishapur J Nat Pharm Prod 2017. [DOI: 10.5812/jjnpp.13943] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
|
186
|
Wolfe MK, Gallandat K, Daniels K, Desmarais AM, Scheinman P, Lantagne D. Handwashing and Ebola virus disease outbreaks: A randomized comparison of soap, hand sanitizer, and 0.05% chlorine solutions on the inactivation and removal of model organisms Phi6 and E. coli from hands and persistence in rinse water. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0172734. [PMID: 28231311 PMCID: PMC5322913 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0172734] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2016] [Accepted: 02/07/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
To prevent Ebola transmission, frequent handwashing is recommended in Ebola Treatment Units and communities. However, little is known about which handwashing protocol is most efficacious. We evaluated six handwashing protocols (soap and water, alcohol-based hand sanitizer (ABHS), and 0.05% sodium dichloroisocyanurate, high-test hypochlorite, and stabilized and non-stabilized sodium hypochlorite solutions) for 1) efficacy of handwashing on the removal and inactivation of non-pathogenic model organisms and, 2) persistence of organisms in rinse water. Model organisms E. coli and bacteriophage Phi6 were used to evaluate handwashing with and without organic load added to simulate bodily fluids. Hands were inoculated with test organisms, washed, and rinsed using a glove juice method to retrieve remaining organisms. Impact was estimated by comparing the log reduction in organisms after handwashing to the log reduction without handwashing. Rinse water was collected to test for persistence of organisms. Handwashing resulted in a 1.94-3.01 log reduction in E. coli concentration without, and 2.18-3.34 with, soil load; and a 2.44-3.06 log reduction in Phi6 without, and 2.71-3.69 with, soil load. HTH performed most consistently well, with significantly greater log reductions than other handwashing protocols in three models. However, the magnitude of handwashing efficacy differences was small, suggesting protocols are similarly efficacious. Rinse water demonstrated a 0.28-4.77 log reduction in remaining E. coli without, and 0.21-4.49 with, soil load and a 1.26-2.02 log reduction in Phi6 without, and 1.30-2.20 with, soil load. Chlorine resulted in significantly less persistence of E. coli in both conditions and Phi6 without soil load in rinse water (p<0.001). Thus, chlorine-based methods may offer a benefit of reducing persistence in rinse water. We recommend responders use the most practical handwashing method to ensure hand hygiene in Ebola contexts, considering the potential benefit of chlorine-based methods in rinse water persistence.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marlene K. Wolfe
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Karin Gallandat
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Kyle Daniels
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Anne Marie Desmarais
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Pamela Scheinman
- Department of Dermatology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Daniele Lantagne
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts, United States of America
| |
Collapse
|
187
|
Rattanakul S, Oguma K. Analysis of Hydroxyl Radicals and Inactivation Mechanisms of Bacteriophage MS2 in Response to a Simultaneous Application of UV and Chlorine. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2017; 51:455-462. [PMID: 27997138 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6b03394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
The simultaneous application of UV and chlorine (expressed as UV/Cl2) as a water treatment method may be a good disinfection option for UV-resistant microorganisms, such as human adenoviruses (HAdVs). In this study, we developed two approaches using UV/Cl2: one to quantitate the OH• radicals based on the degradation of the probe compound para-chlorobenzoic acid (pCBA) and the other to use bacteriophage MS2 to understand the virus inactivation mechanisms in response to UV, chlorine and UV/Cl2 disinfection using reverse-transcription quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR), attachment and genome penetration assays. The results revealed that OH• radicals were produced at a concentration of 2.70 × 10-14 M in the UV/Cl2 treatment with a practical chlorine dose of 1 mg/L and with a minimum UV254 fluence of approximately 10 mJ/cm2, whereas UV or chlorine alone did not produce OH• radicals. In the UV/Cl2 treatment, synergistic effects on viral genome damage were observed, but were not directly due to OH• radicals. The ability of MS2 to penetrate the genome of the host bacteria was impaired, but its ability to attach to the host was not affected by the treatment. We concluded that the major cause of virus inactivation in response to UV/Cl2 was the damage to the viral genome caused by combination actions of chlorine species and OH• radicals.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Surapong Rattanakul
- Research Center for Advanced Science and Technology, The University of Tokyo , Tokyo, Japan
| | - Kumiko Oguma
- Research Center for Advanced Science and Technology, The University of Tokyo , Tokyo, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
188
|
Qiao Z, Wigginton KR. Direct and Indirect Photochemical Reactions in Viral RNA Measured with RT-qPCR and Mass Spectrometry. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2016; 50:13371-13379. [PMID: 27993065 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6b04281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
RNA carries the genetic instructions for many viruses to replicate in their host cells. The photochemical reactions that take place in RNA and affect viral infectivity in natural and engineered environments, however, remain poorly understood. We exposed RNA oligomer segments from the genome of bacteriophage MS2 to UV254, simulated sunlight, and singlet oxygen (1O2) and analyzed the oligomer reaction kinetics with reverse transcription quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) and quantitative matrix-assisted laser desorption-ionization time-of-flight (MALDI-TOF) mass spectrometry (MS). Following UV254 exposure, quantitative MALDI-TOF-MS detected significantly more RNA modifications than did RT-qPCR, suggesting that certain chemical modifications in the RNA were not detected by the reverse transcriptase enzyme. In contrast, MALDI-TOF-MS tracked as much 1O2-induced RNA damage as RT-qPCR. After 5 h of simulated sunlight exposure (5100 J/m2 UVB and 1.2 × 105 J/m2 UVA), neither MALDI-TOF-MS nor RT-qPCR detected significant decreases in the oligomer concentrations. High-resolution electrospray ionization (ESI)-Orbitrap MS analyses identified pyrimidine photohydrates as the major UV254 products, which likely contributed to the discrepancy between the MS- and RT-qPCR-based results. Reactions between RNA oligomers and 1O2 resulted in an unidentified major product with a mass change of +6 Da. These results shed light on the photochemical reactions that take place in RNA and suggest that the analytical techniques used to detect RNA reactivity could bias the observed reaction kinetics.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zhong Qiao
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Michigan , Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Krista R Wigginton
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Michigan , Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| |
Collapse
|
189
|
Zhong Q, Carratalà A, Nazarov S, Guerrero-Ferreira RC, Piccinini L, Bachmann V, Leiman PG, Kohn T. Genetic, Structural, and Phenotypic Properties of MS2 Coliphage with Resistance to ClO 2 Disinfection. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2016; 50:13520-13528. [PMID: 27709908 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6b04170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Common water disinfectants like chlorine have been reported to select for resistant viruses, yet little attention has been devoted to characterizing disinfection resistance. Here, we investigated the resistance of MS2 coliphage to inactivation by chlorine dioxide (ClO2). ClO2 inactivates MS2 by degrading its structural proteins, thereby disrupting the ability of MS2 to attach to and infect its host. ClO2-resistant virus populations emerged not only after repeated cycles of ClO2 disinfection followed by regrowth but also after dilution-regrowth cycles in the absence of ClO2. The resistant populations exhibited several fixed mutations which caused the substitution of ClO2-labile by ClO2-stable amino acids. On a phenotypic level, these mutations resulted in a more stable host binding during inactivation compared to the wild-type, thus resulting in a greater ability to maintain infectivity. This conclusion was supported by cryo-electron microscopy reconstruction of the virus particle, which demonstrated that most structural modification occurred in the putative A protein, an important binding factor. Resistance was specific to the inactivation mechanism of ClO2 and did not result in significant cross-resistance to genome-damaging disinfectants. Overall, our data indicate that resistant viruses may emerge even in the absence of ClO2 pressure but that they can be inactivated by other common disinfectants.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Qingxia Zhong
- Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry, School of Architecture, Civil and Environmental Engineering, and ‡Laboratory of Structural Biology and Biophysics, Institute of Physics, School of Basic Sciences, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) , CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Anna Carratalà
- Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry, School of Architecture, Civil and Environmental Engineering, and ‡Laboratory of Structural Biology and Biophysics, Institute of Physics, School of Basic Sciences, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) , CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Sergey Nazarov
- Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry, School of Architecture, Civil and Environmental Engineering, and ‡Laboratory of Structural Biology and Biophysics, Institute of Physics, School of Basic Sciences, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) , CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Ricardo Cesar Guerrero-Ferreira
- Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry, School of Architecture, Civil and Environmental Engineering, and ‡Laboratory of Structural Biology and Biophysics, Institute of Physics, School of Basic Sciences, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) , CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Laura Piccinini
- Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry, School of Architecture, Civil and Environmental Engineering, and ‡Laboratory of Structural Biology and Biophysics, Institute of Physics, School of Basic Sciences, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) , CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Virginie Bachmann
- Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry, School of Architecture, Civil and Environmental Engineering, and ‡Laboratory of Structural Biology and Biophysics, Institute of Physics, School of Basic Sciences, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) , CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Petr G Leiman
- Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry, School of Architecture, Civil and Environmental Engineering, and ‡Laboratory of Structural Biology and Biophysics, Institute of Physics, School of Basic Sciences, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) , CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Tamar Kohn
- Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry, School of Architecture, Civil and Environmental Engineering, and ‡Laboratory of Structural Biology and Biophysics, Institute of Physics, School of Basic Sciences, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) , CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
190
|
Moor KJ, Osuji CO, Kim JH. Dual-Functionality Fullerene and Silver Nanoparticle Antimicrobial Composites via Block Copolymer Templates. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2016; 8:33583-33591. [PMID: 27960391 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.6b10674] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
We present the facile prepartion of C70 and Ag nanoparticle (NP) loaded block copolymer (BCP) thin films, with C70 and Ag NPs working in tandem to provide virucidal and bactericidal activities, respectively. Polystyrene-block-poly-4-vinylpyridine (PS-P4VP) was used as a template, allowing C70 integration into PS domains and in situ formation of Ag NPs in P4VP domains, while providing control of the nanoscale spatial distribution of functionality as a function of BCP molecular weight (MW). C70 loaded PS-P4VP films were found to generate significant amounts of 1O2 under visible light illumination with no apparent dependence on BCP MW. An analogous C70 loaded PS homopolymer film produced notably less 1O2, highlighting a possible critical role of morphology on C70 photoactivity. The antimicrobial activity of Ag NP and C70 loaded composites against the model PR772 bacteriophage and Escherichia coli was assessed, finding synergistic inactivation afforded by the dual functionality. BCPs were demonstrated as versatile platforms for the preparation of multifunctional antimicrobial coatings toward combating diverse microbial communities.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kyle J Moor
- Department of Chemical & Environmental Engineering, School of Engineering & Applied Science, Yale University , 9 Hillhouse Avenue, New Haven, Connecticut 06511, United States
| | - Chinedum O Osuji
- Department of Chemical & Environmental Engineering, School of Engineering & Applied Science, Yale University , 9 Hillhouse Avenue, New Haven, Connecticut 06511, United States
| | - Jae-Hong Kim
- Department of Chemical & Environmental Engineering, School of Engineering & Applied Science, Yale University , 9 Hillhouse Avenue, New Haven, Connecticut 06511, United States
| |
Collapse
|
191
|
Brié A, Bertrand I, Meo M, Boudaud N, Gantzer C. The Effect of Heat on the Physicochemical Properties of Bacteriophage MS2. FOOD AND ENVIRONMENTAL VIROLOGY 2016; 8:251-261. [PMID: 27299642 DOI: 10.1007/s12560-016-9248-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2016] [Accepted: 06/06/2016] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
The differences in physicochemical characteristics between infectious and non-infectious viral particles are poorly known. Even for heat, which is known as one of the most efficient treatments to inactivate enteric viruses, the global inactivation mechanisms have not been described yet. Such knowledge would help distinguish between both types of particles and therefore clarify the interpretation of the presence of viral genomes in food after heat treatment. In this study, we examined in particular the differences in electrostatic charge and hydrophobicity between the two particle types. MS2 phage, a common surrogate for enteric viruses, was used as a model virus. The heat-induced inactivation process of the infectious phages caused hydrophobic domains to be transiently exposed and their charge to become less negative. The particles also became progressively permeable to small molecules such as SYPRO Orange dye. The presence of non-infectious phage particles in which the genome was not accessible to RNases has been clearly demonstrated. These observations were done for MS2 phages exposed to a temperature of 60 °C. When exposed to a temperature higher than their critical temperature (72 °C), the particles were disrupted and the genome became available for RNases. At lower temperatures, 60 °C in this study, the transient expression of hydrophobic domains of remaining infectious phages appeared as an interesting parameter for improving their specific detection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Adrien Brié
- LCPME (Laboratoire de Chimie Physique et Microbiologie pour l'Environnement), Faculté de Pharmacie, UMR 7564 CNRS-Université de Lorraine, 5 Rue Albert Lebrun, Nancy, 54000, France
- CNRS LCPME UMR 7564, Institut Jean Barriol, Nancy, France
- Food Safety Department, ACTALIA, Saint Lô, France
| | - Isabelle Bertrand
- LCPME (Laboratoire de Chimie Physique et Microbiologie pour l'Environnement), Faculté de Pharmacie, UMR 7564 CNRS-Université de Lorraine, 5 Rue Albert Lebrun, Nancy, 54000, France
- CNRS LCPME UMR 7564, Institut Jean Barriol, Nancy, France
| | - Marie Meo
- LCPME (Laboratoire de Chimie Physique et Microbiologie pour l'Environnement), Faculté de Pharmacie, UMR 7564 CNRS-Université de Lorraine, 5 Rue Albert Lebrun, Nancy, 54000, France
- CNRS LCPME UMR 7564, Institut Jean Barriol, Nancy, France
| | | | - Christophe Gantzer
- LCPME (Laboratoire de Chimie Physique et Microbiologie pour l'Environnement), Faculté de Pharmacie, UMR 7564 CNRS-Université de Lorraine, 5 Rue Albert Lebrun, Nancy, 54000, France.
- CNRS LCPME UMR 7564, Institut Jean Barriol, Nancy, France.
| |
Collapse
|
192
|
Pumpens P, Renhofa R, Dishlers A, Kozlovska T, Ose V, Pushko P, Tars K, Grens E, Bachmann MF. The True Story and Advantages of RNA Phage Capsids as Nanotools. Intervirology 2016; 59:74-110. [DOI: 10.1159/000449503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2016] [Accepted: 08/30/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
|
193
|
McLellan NL, Lee H, Habash MB. Evaluation of propidium monoazide and long-amplicon qPCR as an infectivity assay for coliphage. J Virol Methods 2016; 238:48-55. [PMID: 27744093 DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2016.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2016] [Revised: 08/17/2016] [Accepted: 10/09/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Standardized and rapid assays for viable viral pathogens are needed to inform human health risk assessments. Conventional qPCR is designed to enumerate the gene copies of an organism in a sample, but does not identify those that originated from a viable pathogen. This study was undertaken to evaluate modified qPCR methods as infectivity assays for the enumeration of infectious MS2 coliphage. Propidium monoazide (PMA) treatment coupled with long-amplicon qPCR assays were assessed for their ability to quantify infectious MS2 in pure cultures and following inactivation by a range of UV light exposures and chlorine doses. The qPCR results were compared to the plaque assay, which was used as the standard to indicate the level of infectious MS2 in each sample. For pure cultures, PMA-qPCR results were not significantly different from the plaque assay (p>0.05). At >4 log inactivation, combined PMA and long-amplicon qPCR assays overestimated the level of infectious MS2 remaining (p<0.05). The most accurate long-amplicon qPCR infectivity assay targeted a 624-bp region at the 5' end of the genome. Modified qPCR approaches may be useful tools to monitor the loss of infectivity as a result of disinfection processes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nicole L McLellan
- School of Environmental Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada.
| | - Hung Lee
- School of Environmental Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada.
| | - Marc B Habash
- School of Environmental Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
194
|
Relevance of F-Specific RNA Bacteriophages in Assessing Human Norovirus Risk in Shellfish and Environmental Waters. Appl Environ Microbiol 2016; 82:5709-19. [PMID: 27422833 DOI: 10.1128/aem.01528-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2016] [Accepted: 07/08/2016] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Human noroviruses (HuNoVs) are the main cause of shellfish-borne gastroenteritis outbreaks. In the absence of routine technical approaches allowing infectious particles to be detected, this viral pathogen is currently targeted by genome research, leading to difficult interpretations. In this study, we investigated the potential of F-specific RNA bacteriophages (FRNAPH) as fecal and viral contamination indicators in shellfish and water from a local harvesting area. FRNAPH were also used as microbial source tracking tools. Constraints imposed by detection limits are illustrated here by the detection of infectious FRNAPH in several samples in the absence of FRNAPH genomes. The opposite situation was also observed, likely explained by the persistence of the genomes being greater than infectivity. Similar considerations may be applied to HuNoVs, suggesting that HuNoV genome targeting is of limited relevance in assessing infectious risks. While FRNAPH did not provide any benefits compared to Escherichia coli as fecal pollution indicators in water, novel observations were made in shellfish: contrary to E. coli, a seasonal trend of infectious FRNAPH concentrations was observed. These concentrations were higher than those found in water, confirming bioaccumulation in shellfish. This study also underlines a relationship between the presence of HuNoV genomes and those of human-specific FRNAPH subgroup II (FRNAPH-II) in shellfish collected throughout Europe. Further research should be undertaken to evaluate FRNAPH potential as an indicator of the presence of infectious HuNoVs. To this end, shellfish involved in HuNoV-caused gastroenteritis outbreaks should be analyzed for the presence of infectious FRNAPH-II. IMPORTANCE This work provides new data about the use of F-specific RNA phages (FRNAPH) as a tool for evaluating fecal or viral contamination, especially in shellfish. In our case study, FRNAPH did not provide any benefits compared to E. coli as fecal pollution indicators in water but were found to be very useful in shellfish. Their concentrations in shellfish were higher than those found in the surrounding water, confirming bioaccumulation. This study also underlines a relationship between the presence of human norovirus genomes (HuNoVs) and those of FRNAPH subgroup II (FRNAPH-II). Considering that the two virus types have similar behaviors and since FRNAPH infectivity can be investigated, the specific detection of infectious FRNAPH-II could be regarded as an indication of the presence of infectious HuNoVs. The contribution of infectious human FRNAPH targeting for assessing the viral risk associated with HuNoVs in shellfish should thus be investigated.
Collapse
|
195
|
Zyara AM, Torvinen E, Veijalainen AM, Heinonen-Tanski H. The effect of chlorine and combined chlorine/UV treatment on coliphages in drinking water disinfection. JOURNAL OF WATER AND HEALTH 2016; 14:640-9. [PMID: 27441859 DOI: 10.2166/wh.2016.144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Chlorine disinfection is a globally used method to ensure the safety of drinking water. However, it has not always been successful against viruses and, therefore, it is important to find new methods to disinfect water. Seventeen different coliphages were isolated from the treated municipal wastewater. These coliphages and MS2 were treated with different dosages of chlorine in drinking water, and a combined chlorine/ultraviolet irradiation treatment for the chlorine-resistant coliphages. Chlorine disinfection with 0.3-0.5 mg/L total chlorine (free Cl-dosage 0.12-0.21 mg/L) for 10 min achieved 2.5-5.7 Log10-reductions for 11 sensitive coliphages. The six most resistant coliphages showed no reduction with these chlorine concentrations. MS2 was intermediate in chlorine resistance, and thus it is not a good indicator for viruses in chlorine disinfection. In the combined treatment total chlorine of 0.05-0.25 mg/L (free Cl-dosage 0.02-0.08 mg/L) and ultraviolet irradiation (14-22 mWs/cm(2)) were more effective than chlorine alone, and 3-5 Log10-reductions were achieved for the chlorine-resistant strains. The chlorination efficiency could be increased by higher dosages and longer contact times, but this could increase the formation of disinfection by-products. Therefore, the combination treatment is a recommended disinfection method.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alyaa M Zyara
- Department of Environmental and Biological Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, PO Box 1627, FI 70211 Kuopio, Finland E-mail: ; Department of Biology, University of Baghdad, College of Sciences for Women, Baghdad, Iraq
| | - Eila Torvinen
- Department of Environmental and Biological Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, PO Box 1627, FI 70211 Kuopio, Finland E-mail:
| | - Anna-Maria Veijalainen
- Department of Environmental and Biological Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, PO Box 1627, FI 70211 Kuopio, Finland E-mail:
| | - Helvi Heinonen-Tanski
- Department of Environmental and Biological Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, PO Box 1627, FI 70211 Kuopio, Finland E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
196
|
Loison P, Majou D, Gelhaye E, Boudaud N, Gantzer C. Impact of reducing and oxidizing agents on the infectivity of Qβ phage and the overall structure of its capsid. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 2016; 92:fiw153. [PMID: 27402711 DOI: 10.1093/femsec/fiw153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/05/2016] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Qβ phages infect Escherichia coli in the human gut by recognizing F-pili as receptors. Infection therefore occurs under reducing conditions induced by physiological agents (e.g. glutathione) or the intestinal bacterial flora. After excretion in the environment, phage particles are exposed to oxidizing conditions and sometimes disinfection. If inactivation does not occur, the phage may infect new hosts in the human gut through the oral route. During such a life cycle, we demonstrated that, outside the human gut, cysteines of the major protein capsid of Qβ phage form disulfide bonds. Disinfection with NaClO does not allow overoxidation to occur. Such oxidation induces inactivation rather by irreversible damage to the minor proteins. In the presence of glutathione, most disulfide bonds are reduced, which slightly increases the capacity of the phage to infect E. coli in vitro Such reduction is reversible and barely alters infectivity of the phage. Reduction of all disulfide bonds by dithiothreitol leads to complete capsid destabilization. These data provide new insights into how the phages are impacted by oxidizing-reducing conditions outside their host cell and raises the possibility of the intervention of the redox during life cycle of the phage.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Pauline Loison
- LCPME (Laboratory of Physical Chemistry and Microbiology for the Environment), Joint Research Unit - UMR 7564, CNRS/Université de Lorraine, Nancy 54000, France CNRS, LCPME, UMR 7564, Institut Jean Barriol (IJB), Nancy 54000, France Food Safety Department, ACTALIA, Saint Lô 50000, France
| | - Didier Majou
- ACTIA, 16 rue Claude Bernard, 75231 Paris Cedex 05, France
| | - Eric Gelhaye
- Université de Lorraine, Tree-Microbe Interactions Department, UMR1136, F-54500 Vandœuvre-lès-Nancy, France INRA, Tree-Microbe Interactions Department, UMR1136, F-54280 Champenoux, France
| | | | - Christophe Gantzer
- LCPME (Laboratory of Physical Chemistry and Microbiology for the Environment), Joint Research Unit - UMR 7564, CNRS/Université de Lorraine, Nancy 54000, France CNRS, LCPME, UMR 7564, Institut Jean Barriol (IJB), Nancy 54000, France
| |
Collapse
|
197
|
Gouvêa DM, Mendonça RCS, Lopez MES, Batalha LS. Absorbent food pads containing bacteriophages for potential antimicrobial use in refrigerated food products. Lebensm Wiss Technol 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2015.11.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
|
198
|
Huang X, Qu Y, Cid CA, Finke C, Hoffmann MR, Lim K, Jiang SC. Electrochemical disinfection of toilet wastewater using wastewater electrolysis cell. WATER RESEARCH 2016; 92:164-72. [PMID: 26854604 PMCID: PMC4773403 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2016.01.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2015] [Revised: 01/08/2016] [Accepted: 01/19/2016] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
The paucity of proper sanitation facilities has contributed to the spread of waterborne diseases in many developing countries. The primary goal of this study was to demonstrate the feasibility of using a wastewater electrolysis cell (WEC) for toilet wastewater disinfection. The treated wastewater was designed to reuse for toilet flushing and agricultural irrigation. Laboratory-scale electrochemical (EC) disinfection experiments were performed to investigate the disinfection efficiency of the WEC with four seeded microorganisms (Escherichia coli, Enterococcus, recombinant adenovirus serotype 5, and bacteriophage MS2). In addition, the formation of organic disinfection byproducts (DBPs) trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acids (HAA5) at the end of the EC treatment was also investigated. The results showed that at an applied cell voltage of +4 V, the WEC achieved 5-log10 reductions of all four seeded microorganisms in real toilet wastewater within 60 min. In contrast, chemical chlorination (CC) disinfection using hypochlorite [NaClO] was only effective for the inactivation of bacteria. Due to the rapid formation of chloramines, less than 0.5-log10 reduction of MS2 was observed in toilet wastewater even at the highest [NaClO] dosage (36 mg/L, as Cl2) over a 1 h reaction. Experiments using laboratory model waters showed that free reactive chlorine generated in situ during EC disinfection process was the main disinfectant responsible for the inactivation of microorganisms. However, the production of hydroxyl radicals [OH], and other reactive oxygen species by the active bismuth-doped TiO2 anode were negligible under the same electrolytic conditions. The formation of THMs and HAA5 were found to increase with higher applied cell voltage. Based on the energy consumption estimates, the WEC system can be operated using solar energy stored in a DC battery as the sole power source.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xiao Huang
- Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, United States
| | - Yan Qu
- Linde+Robinson Laboratories, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125, United States
| | - Clément A Cid
- Linde+Robinson Laboratories, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125, United States
| | - Cody Finke
- Linde+Robinson Laboratories, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125, United States
| | - Michael R Hoffmann
- Linde+Robinson Laboratories, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125, United States
| | - Keahying Lim
- Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, United States
| | - Sunny C Jiang
- Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, United States.
| |
Collapse
|
199
|
Gall AM, Shisler JL, Mariñas BJ. Characterizing Bacteriophage PR772 as a Potential Surrogate for Adenovirus in Water Disinfection: A Comparative Analysis of Inactivation Kinetics and Replication Cycle Inhibition by Free Chlorine. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2016; 50:2522-2529. [PMID: 26820824 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.5b04713] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Elucidating mechanisms by which pathogenic waterborne viruses become inactivated by drinking water disinfectants would facilitate the development of sensors to detect infectious viruses and novel disinfection strategies to provide safe water. Using bacteriophages as surrogates for human pathogenic viruses could assist in elucidating these mechanisms; however, an appropriate viral surrogate for human adenovirus (HAdV), a medium-sized virus with a double-stranded DNA genome, needs to be identified. Here, we characterized the inactivation kinetics of bacteriophage PR772, a member of the Tectiviridae family with many similarities in structure and replication to HAdV. The inactivation of PR772 and HAdV by free chlorine had similar kinetics that could be represented with a model previously developed for HAdV type 2 (HAdV-2). We developed and tested a quantitative assay to analyze several steps in the PR772 replication cycle to determine if both viruses being inactivated at similar rates resulted from similar replication cycle events being inhibited. Like HAdV-2, we observed that PR772 inactivated by free chlorine still attached to host cells, and viral DNA synthesis and early and late gene transcription were inhibited. Consequently, free chlorine exposure inhibited a replication cycle event that was post-binding but took place prior to early gene synthesis for both PR772 and HAdV-2.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Aimee M Gall
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, ‡Department of Microbiology and College of Medicine, and §Safe Global Water Institute, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign , Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Joanna L Shisler
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, ‡Department of Microbiology and College of Medicine, and §Safe Global Water Institute, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign , Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Benito J Mariñas
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, ‡Department of Microbiology and College of Medicine, and §Safe Global Water Institute, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign , Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| |
Collapse
|
200
|
Zhang CM, Xu LM, Xu PC, Wang XC. Elimination of viruses from domestic wastewater: requirements and technologies. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 2016; 32:69. [PMID: 26931609 DOI: 10.1007/s11274-016-2018-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2015] [Accepted: 01/22/2016] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Domestic wastewater contains various pathogens, which, if not sufficiently eliminated, may enter the receiving water bodies and cause water-transmitted diseases. Among the waterborne pathogens, viruses may occur, survive and/or decay much differently from bacteria in water. In many cases, the diseases caused by viruses are more severe. Therefore, research efforts are mainly directed at the behavior of viruses in water environments, as well as the elimination of viruses from wastewater. In this paper, an overview of the occurrence of viruses in wastewater is presented, together with their categories, methods of detection and potential to cause waterborne diseases. As wastewater treatment plants are critical nodes for the influx and termination of virus transmission, the behavior of viruses at each stage of treatment is reviewed. Particular attention is paid to the unit operations, which play crucial roles in virus removals, such as coagulation and membrane filtration, and that for virus inactivation, such as chemical disinfection and UV irradiation. Future needs for the development of new technologies for virus elimination, source control, and finding more suitable indicators of viral pathogens are also highlighted.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chong-Miao Zhang
- Key Lab of Northwest Water Resource, Environment and Ecology, Ministry of Education, School of Environmental and Municipal Engineering, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an, 710055, China.
| | - Li-Mei Xu
- Key Lab of Northwest Water Resource, Environment and Ecology, Ministry of Education, School of Environmental and Municipal Engineering, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an, 710055, China
| | - Peng-Cheng Xu
- Key Lab of Northwest Water Resource, Environment and Ecology, Ministry of Education, School of Environmental and Municipal Engineering, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an, 710055, China
| | - Xiaochang C Wang
- Key Lab of Northwest Water Resource, Environment and Ecology, Ministry of Education, School of Environmental and Municipal Engineering, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an, 710055, China.
| |
Collapse
|