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Inference of Active Viral Replication in Cases with Sustained Positive Reverse Transcription-PCR Results for SARS-CoV-2. J Clin Microbiol 2021; 59:JCM.02277-20. [PMID: 33239378 PMCID: PMC8111132 DOI: 10.1128/jcm.02277-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2020] [Accepted: 11/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to detect coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) cases with persistent positive reverse transcription-PCR (RT-PCR) results for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), for which viable virus can be inferred due to the presence of subgenomic (SG) viral RNA, which is expressed only in replicating viruses. RNA remnants purified from diagnostic nasopharyngeal specimens were used as the templates for RT-PCR-specific detection of SG E gene RNA. The purpose of this study was to detect coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) cases with persistent positive reverse transcription-PCR (RT-PCR) results for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), for which viable virus can be inferred due to the presence of subgenomic (SG) viral RNA, which is expressed only in replicating viruses. RNA remnants purified from diagnostic nasopharyngeal specimens were used as the templates for RT-PCR-specific detection of SG E gene RNA. As controls, we also detected viral genomic RNA for the E gene and/or a human housekeeping gene (RNase P). We assessed the samples of 60 RT-PCR-positive cases with prolonged viral SARS-CoV-2 shedding (24 to 101 days) since the first diagnostic RT-PCR. SG viral RNA was detected in 12/60 (20%) of the persistent cases, 28 to 79 days after the onset of symptoms. The age range of the cases with prolonged viral shedding and the presence of SG RNA was quite wide (40 to 100 years), and the cases were equally distributed between males (42%) and females (58%). No case was HIV positive, although seven were immunosuppressed. According to the severities of the COVID-19 episodes, they were mild (40%), intermediate (20%), and severe (40%). In a percentage of persistent SARS-CoV-2 PCR-positive cases, the presence of actively replicating virus may be inferred, far beyond diagnosis. We should not assume a universal lack of infectiousness for COVID-19 cases with prolonged viral shedding.
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152
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Tang JW, Bahnfleth WP, Bluyssen PM, Buonanno G, Jimenez JL, Kurnitski J, Li Y, Miller S, Sekhar C, Morawska L, Marr LC, Melikov AK, Nazaroff WW, Nielsen PV, Tellier R, Wargocki P, Dancer SJ. Dismantling myths on the airborne transmission of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2). J Hosp Infect 2021; 110:89-96. [PMID: 33453351 PMCID: PMC7805396 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhin.2020.12.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 185] [Impact Index Per Article: 61.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2020] [Revised: 12/21/2020] [Accepted: 12/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has caused untold disruption throughout the world. Understanding the mechanisms for transmission of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) is key to preventing further spread, but there is confusion over the meaning of ‘airborne’ whenever transmission is discussed. Scientific ambivalence originates from evidence published many years ago which has generated mythological beliefs that obscure current thinking. This article collates and explores some of the most commonly held dogmas on airborne transmission in order to stimulate revision of the science in the light of current evidence. Six ‘myths’ are presented, explained and ultimately refuted on the basis of recently published papers and expert opinion from previous work related to similar viruses. There is little doubt that SARS-CoV-2 is transmitted via a range of airborne particle sizes subject to all the usual ventilation parameters and human behaviour. Experts from specialties encompassing aerosol studies, ventilation, engineering, physics, virology and clinical medicine have joined together to produce this review to consolidate the evidence for airborne transmission mechanisms, and offer justification for modern strategies for prevention and control of COVID-19 in health care and the community.
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Affiliation(s)
- J W Tang
- Respiratory Sciences, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK
| | - W P Bahnfleth
- Department of Architectural Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, State College, PA, USA
| | - P M Bluyssen
- Faculty of Architecture and the Built Environment, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
| | - G Buonanno
- Department of Civil and Mechanical Engineering, University of Cassino and Southern Lazio, Cassino, Italy
| | - J L Jimenez
- Department of Chemistry and CIRES, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - J Kurnitski
- REHVA Technology and Research Committee, Tallinn University of Technology, Tallinn, Estonia
| | - Y Li
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - S Miller
- Mechanical Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - C Sekhar
- Department of Building, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - L Morawska
- International Laboratory for Air Quality and Health, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - L C Marr
- Civil and Environmental Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA
| | - A K Melikov
- International Centre for Indoor Environment and Energy, Department of Civil Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - W W Nazaroff
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - P V Nielsen
- Faculty of Engineering and Science, Department of Civil Engineering, Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark
| | - R Tellier
- Department of Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - P Wargocki
- International Centre for Indoor Environment and Energy, Department of Civil Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - S J Dancer
- Department of Microbiology, NHS Lanarkshire, Glasgow, UK; School of Applied Sciences, Edinburgh Napier University, Edinburgh, UK.
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153
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Meyerowitz EA, Richterman A, Gandhi RT, Sax PE. Transmission of SARS-CoV-2: A Review of Viral, Host, and Environmental Factors. Ann Intern Med 2021; 174:69-79. [PMID: 32941052 PMCID: PMC7505025 DOI: 10.7326/m20-5008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 424] [Impact Index Per Article: 141.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the etiologic agent of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), has spread globally in a few short months. Substantial evidence now supports preliminary conclusions about transmission that can inform rational, evidence-based policies and reduce misinformation on this critical topic. This article presents a comprehensive review of the evidence on transmission of this virus. Although several experimental studies have cultured live virus from aerosols and surfaces hours after inoculation, the real-world studies that detect viral RNA in the environment report very low levels, and few have isolated viable virus. Strong evidence from case and cluster reports indicates that respiratory transmission is dominant, with proximity and ventilation being key determinants of transmission risk. In the few cases where direct contact or fomite transmission is presumed, respiratory transmission has not been completely excluded. Infectiousness peaks around a day before symptom onset and declines within a week of symptom onset, and no late linked transmissions (after a patient has had symptoms for about a week) have been documented. The virus has heterogeneous transmission dynamics: Most persons do not transmit virus, whereas some cause many secondary cases in transmission clusters called "superspreading events." Evidence-based policies and practices should incorporate the accumulating knowledge about transmission of SARS-CoV-2 to help educate the public and slow the spread of this virus.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Aaron Richterman
- Hospital of the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (A.R.)
| | - Rajesh T Gandhi
- Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts (R.T.G.)
| | - Paul E Sax
- Harvard Medical School and Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts (P.E.S.)
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154
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Choi H, Chatterjee P, Coppin JD, Martel JA, Hwang M, Jinadatha C, Sharma VK. Current understanding of the surface contamination and contact transmission of SARS-CoV-2 in healthcare settings. ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY LETTERS 2021; 19:1935-1944. [PMID: 33613145 PMCID: PMC7877517 DOI: 10.1007/s10311-021-01186-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2020] [Accepted: 01/15/2021] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
The novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) has rapidly spread across the world and was subsequently declared as a pandemic in 2020. To overcome this public health challenge, comprehensive understanding of the disease transmission is urgently needed. Recent evidences suggest that the most common route of transmission for SARS-CoV-2 is likely via droplet, aerosol, or direct contact in a person-to-person encounter, although the possibility of transmission via fomites from surfaces cannot be ruled out entirely. Environmental contamination in COVID-19 patient rooms is widely observed due to viral shedding from both asymptomatic and symptomatic patients, and SARS-CoV-2 can survive on hospital surfaces for extended periods. Sequence of contact events can spread the virus from one surface to the other in a hospital setting. Here, we review the studies related to viral shedding by COVID-19 patients that can contaminate surfaces and survival of SARS-CoV-2 on different types of surfaces commonly found in healthcare settings, as well as evaluating the importance of surface to person transmission characteristics. Based on recent evidences from the literature, decontamination of hospital surfaces should constitute an important part of the infection control and prevention of COVID-19.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hosoon Choi
- Department of Research, Central Texas Veterans Health Care System, 1901 Veterans Memorial Drive, Temple, TX USA
| | - Piyali Chatterjee
- Department of Research, Central Texas Veterans Health Care System, 1901 Veterans Memorial Drive, Temple, TX USA
| | - John D. Coppin
- Department of Research, Central Texas Veterans Health Care System, 1901 Veterans Memorial Drive, Temple, TX USA
| | - Julie A. Martel
- Department of Research, Central Texas Veterans Health Care System, 1901 Veterans Memorial Drive, Temple, TX USA
| | - Munok Hwang
- Department of Research, Central Texas Veterans Health Care System, 1901 Veterans Memorial Drive, Temple, TX USA
| | - Chetan Jinadatha
- Department of Research, Central Texas Veterans Health Care System, 1901 Veterans Memorial Drive, Temple, TX USA
| | - Virender K. Sharma
- Program of the Environment and Sustainability, Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Public Health, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843 USA
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155
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[Infection prevention and control for COVID-19 in healthcare settings]. Uirusu 2021; 71:151-162. [PMID: 37245977 DOI: 10.2222/jsv.71.151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
In healthcare facilities, the initial response to emerging and reemerging infectious diseases, including COVID-19, requires systematic management. The first step is to establish an initial risk assessment and subsequent response flow, using a combination of triage and clinical examination for patients. Screening tests are performed for the early diagnosis of asymptomatic patients who are judged to be at low risk in the initial assessment. However, regardless of the test results, subsequent patient care should be taken cautiously to avoid inadequate initial evaluation at the time of admission, follow-up of symptoms and infection control measures after admission. The basic principle is standard precautions, with particular emphasis on compliance with hand hygiene. Universal masking for preventing transmission from asymptomatic/pre-symptomatic patients and reducing droplet emission and inhalation become the new essential precaution. For suspected/confirmed patients with COVID-19, surgical mask or N95 mask, gloves, gown, eye protection, and cap are basically used. The policy for personal protective equipment is made based on the medical environment of each facility. A negative pressure room is not always required but should be considered in high-risk environments, if possible. While the risk of transmission from the surface environment in a standard healthcare delivery system is limited, a continuous review of the facility environment is expected, considering the importance of ventilation.
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156
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Fowler VL, Armson B, Gonzales JL, Wise EL, Howson ELA, Vincent-Mistiaen Z, Fouch S, Maltby CJ, Grippon S, Munro S, Jones L, Holmes T, Tillyer C, Elwell J, Sowood A, de Peyer O, Dixon S, Hatcher T, Patrick H, Laxman S, Walsh C, Andreou M, Morant N, Clark D, Moore N, Houghton R, Cortes NJ, Kidd SP. A highly effective reverse-transcription loop-mediated isothermal amplification (RT-LAMP) assay for the rapid detection of SARS-CoV-2 infection. J Infect 2021; 82:117-125. [PMID: 33271166 PMCID: PMC7703389 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinf.2020.10.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2020] [Revised: 10/04/2020] [Accepted: 10/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic has illustrated the importance of simple, rapid and accurate diagnostic testing. This study describes the validation of a new rapid SARS-CoV-2 RT-LAMP assay for use on extracted RNA or directly from swab offering an alternative diagnostic pathway that does not rely on traditional reagents that are often in short supply during a pandemic. Analytical specificity (ASp) of this new RT-LAMP assay was 100% and analytical sensitivity (ASe) was between 1 × 101 and 1 × 102 copies per reaction when using a synthetic DNA target. The overall diagnostic sensitivity (DSe) and specificity (DSp) of RNA RT-LAMP was 97% and 99% respectively, relative to the standard of care rRT-PCR. When a CT cut-off of 33 was employed, above which increasingly evidence suggests there is a low risk of patients shedding infectious virus, the diagnostic sensitivity was 100%. The DSe and DSp of Direct RT-LAMP (that does not require RNA extraction) was 67% and 97%, respectively. When setting CT cut-offs of ≤33 and ≤25, the DSe increased to 75% and 100%, respectively, time from swab-to-result, CT < 25, was < 15 min. We propose that RNA RT-LAMP could replace rRT-PCR where there is a need for increased sample throughput and Direct RT-LAMP as a near-patient screening tool to rapidly identify highly contagious individuals within emergency departments and care homes during times of increased disease prevalence ensuring negative results still get laboratory confirmation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veronica L Fowler
- Hampshire Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Basingstoke & North Hampshire Hospital, Department of Microbiology, Basingstoke, UK; Eco Animal Health, The Grange, 100 The High Street, London, UK
| | - Bryony Armson
- Hampshire Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Basingstoke & North Hampshire Hospital, Department of Microbiology, Basingstoke, UK; School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Surrey, Guildford, UK
| | - Jose L Gonzales
- Wageningen Bioveterinary Research (WBVR), PO Box 65, 8200 AB Lelystad, the Netherlands
| | - Emma L Wise
- Hampshire Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Basingstoke & North Hampshire Hospital, Department of Microbiology, Basingstoke, UK; School of Biosciences and Medicine, University of Surrey, Guildford, UK
| | - Emma L A Howson
- GeneSys Biotech Limited, Camberley, Surrey, UK; The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, Woking, UK
| | - Zoe Vincent-Mistiaen
- Hampshire Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Basingstoke & North Hampshire Hospital, Department of Microbiology, Basingstoke, UK; Gibraltar Health Authority, Gibraltar, UK
| | - Sarah Fouch
- Hampshire Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Basingstoke & North Hampshire Hospital, Department of Microbiology, Basingstoke, UK; School of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Portsmouth, UK
| | - Connor J Maltby
- Hampshire Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Basingstoke & North Hampshire Hospital, Department of Microbiology, Basingstoke, UK
| | - Seden Grippon
- Hampshire Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Basingstoke & North Hampshire Hospital, Department of Microbiology, Basingstoke, UK
| | - Simon Munro
- Hampshire Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Basingstoke & North Hampshire Hospital, Department of Microbiology, Basingstoke, UK
| | - Lisa Jones
- Hampshire Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Basingstoke & North Hampshire Hospital, Department of Microbiology, Basingstoke, UK
| | - Tom Holmes
- Hampshire Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Basingstoke & North Hampshire Hospital, Department of Microbiology, Basingstoke, UK
| | - Claire Tillyer
- Hampshire Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Basingstoke & North Hampshire Hospital, Department of Microbiology, Basingstoke, UK
| | - Joanne Elwell
- Hampshire Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Basingstoke & North Hampshire Hospital, Department of Microbiology, Basingstoke, UK
| | - Amy Sowood
- Hampshire Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Basingstoke & North Hampshire Hospital, Department of Microbiology, Basingstoke, UK
| | - Oliver de Peyer
- Hampshire Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Basingstoke & North Hampshire Hospital, Department of Microbiology, Basingstoke, UK
| | - Sophie Dixon
- Hampshire Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Basingstoke & North Hampshire Hospital, Department of Microbiology, Basingstoke, UK
| | - Thomas Hatcher
- Hampshire Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Basingstoke & North Hampshire Hospital, Department of Microbiology, Basingstoke, UK
| | - Helen Patrick
- Hampshire Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Basingstoke & North Hampshire Hospital, Department of Microbiology, Basingstoke, UK
| | | | | | | | - Nick Morant
- GeneSys Biotech Limited, Camberley, Surrey, UK
| | | | - Nathan Moore
- Hampshire Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Basingstoke & North Hampshire Hospital, Department of Microbiology, Basingstoke, UK
| | - Rebecca Houghton
- Hampshire Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Basingstoke & North Hampshire Hospital, Department of Microbiology, Basingstoke, UK
| | - Nicholas J Cortes
- Hampshire Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Basingstoke & North Hampshire Hospital, Department of Microbiology, Basingstoke, UK; Gibraltar Health Authority, Gibraltar, UK
| | - Stephen P Kidd
- Hampshire Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Basingstoke & North Hampshire Hospital, Department of Microbiology, Basingstoke, UK.
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157
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Maricic T, Nickel O, Aximu-Petri A, Essel E, Gansauge M, Kanis P, Macak D, Richter J, Riesenberg S, Bokelmann L, Zeberg H, Meyer M, Borte S, Pääbo S. A direct RT-qPCR approach to test large numbers of individuals for SARS-CoV-2. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0244824. [PMID: 33382830 PMCID: PMC7774962 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0244824] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2020] [Accepted: 12/16/2020] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
SARS-CoV-2 causes substantial morbidity and mortality in elderly and immunocompromised individuals, particularly in retirement homes, where transmission from asymptomatic staff and visitors may introduce the infection. Here we present a cheap and fast screening method based on direct RT-qPCR to detect SARS-CoV-2 in single or pooled gargle lavages ("mouthwashes"). This method detects individuals with large viral loads (Ct≤29) and we use it to test all staff at a nursing home daily over a period of three weeks in order to reduce the risk that the infection penetrates the facility. This or similar approaches can be implemented to protect hospitals, nursing homes and other institutions in this and future viral epidemics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomislav Maricic
- Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Olaf Nickel
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Hospital St. Georg, Leipzig, Germany
| | | | - Elena Essel
- Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Marie Gansauge
- Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Philipp Kanis
- Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Dominik Macak
- Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Julia Richter
- Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
| | | | - Lukas Bokelmann
- Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Hugo Zeberg
- Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Matthias Meyer
- Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Stephan Borte
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Hospital St. Georg, Leipzig, Germany
- ImmunoDeficiencyCenter Leipzig (IDCL) at Hospital St. Georg Leipzig, Jeffrey Modell Diagnostic and Research Center for Primary Immunodeficiency Diseases, Leipzig, Germany
- Division of Clinical Immunology, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Karolinska University Hospital Huddinge at Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Svante Pääbo
- Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
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158
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Port JR, Yinda CK, Owusu IO, Holbrook M, Fischer R, Bushmaker T, Avanzato VA, Schulz JE, van Doremalen N, Clancy CS, Munster VJ. SARS-CoV-2 disease severity and transmission efficiency is increased for airborne but not fomite exposure in Syrian hamsters. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2020:2020.12.28.424565. [PMID: 33398267 PMCID: PMC7781302 DOI: 10.1101/2020.12.28.424565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/15/2023]
Abstract
Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 is driven by contact, fomite, and airborne transmission. The relative contribution of different transmission routes remains subject to debate. Here, we show Syrian hamsters are susceptible to SARS-CoV-2 infection through intranasal, aerosol and fomite exposure. Different routes of exposure presented with distinct disease manifestations. Intranasal and aerosol inoculation caused more severe respiratory pathology, higher virus loads and increased weight loss. Fomite exposure led to milder disease manifestation characterized by an anti-inflammatory immune state and delayed shedding pattern. Whereas the overall magnitude of respiratory virus shedding was not linked to disease severity, the onset of shedding was. Early shedding was linked to an increase in disease severity. Airborne transmission was more efficient than fomite transmission and dependent on the direction of the airflow. Carefully characterized of SARS-CoV-2 transmission models will be crucial to assess potential changes in transmission and pathogenic potential in the light of the ongoing SARS-CoV-2 evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia R. Port
- Laboratory of Virology, Division of Intramural Research, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA
| | - Claude Kwe Yinda
- Laboratory of Virology, Division of Intramural Research, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA
| | - Irene Offei Owusu
- Laboratory of Virology, Division of Intramural Research, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA
| | - Myndi Holbrook
- Laboratory of Virology, Division of Intramural Research, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA
| | - Robert Fischer
- Laboratory of Virology, Division of Intramural Research, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA
| | - Trenton Bushmaker
- Laboratory of Virology, Division of Intramural Research, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA
- Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana, USA
| | - Victoria A. Avanzato
- Laboratory of Virology, Division of Intramural Research, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA
| | - Jonathan E. Schulz
- Laboratory of Virology, Division of Intramural Research, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA
| | - Neeltje van Doremalen
- Laboratory of Virology, Division of Intramural Research, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA
| | - Chad S. Clancy
- Rocky Mountain Veterinary Branch, Division of Intramural Research, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA
| | - Vincent J. Munster
- Laboratory of Virology, Division of Intramural Research, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA
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159
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Khaiboullina S, Uppal T, Dhabarde N, Subramanian VR, Verma SC. Inactivation of Human Coronavirus by Titania Nanoparticle Coatings and UVC Radiation: Throwing Light on SARS-CoV-2. Viruses 2020. [PMID: 33374195 DOI: 10.1101/2020.08.25.265223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/02/2023] Open
Abstract
The newly identified pathogenic human coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2, led to an atypical pneumonia-like severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) outbreak called coronavirus disease 2019 (abbreviated as COVID-19). Currently, nearly 77 million cases have been confirmed worldwide with the highest numbers of COVID-19 cases in the United States. Individuals are getting vaccinated with recently approved vaccines, which are highly protective in suppressing COVID-19 symptoms but there will be a long way before the majority of individuals get vaccinated. In the meantime, safety precautions and effective disease control strategies appear to be vital for preventing the virus spread in public places. Due to the longevity of the virus on smooth surfaces, photocatalytic properties of "self-disinfecting/cleaning" surfaces appear to be a promising tool to help guide disinfection policies for controlling SARS-CoV-2 spread in high-traffic areas such as hospitals, grocery stores, airports, schools, and stadiums. Here, we explored the photocatalytic properties of nanosized TiO2 (TNPs) as induced by the UV radiation, towards virus deactivation. Our preliminary results using a close genetic relative of SAR-CoV-2, HCoV-NL63, showed the virucidal efficacy of photoactive TNPs deposited on glass coverslips, as examined by quantitative RT-qPCR and virus infectivity assays. Efforts to extrapolate the underlying concepts described in this study to SARS-CoV-2 are currently underway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Svetlana Khaiboullina
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Reno School of Medicine, University of Nevada, 1664 N Virginia Street, Reno, NV 89557, USA
| | - Timsy Uppal
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Reno School of Medicine, University of Nevada, 1664 N Virginia Street, Reno, NV 89557, USA
| | - Nikhil Dhabarde
- Chemical and Materials Engineering Department, University of Nevada, LME 309, MS 388, Reno, NV 89557, USA
| | - Vaidyanathan Ravi Subramanian
- Chemical and Materials Engineering Department, University of Nevada, LME 309, MS 388, Reno, NV 89557, USA
- GenNEXT Materials and Technologies, LLC., Reno, NV 89511, USA
| | - Subhash C Verma
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Reno School of Medicine, University of Nevada, 1664 N Virginia Street, Reno, NV 89557, USA
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160
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Khaiboullina S, Uppal T, Dhabarde N, Subramanian VR, Verma SC. Inactivation of Human Coronavirus by Titania Nanoparticle Coatings and UVC Radiation: Throwing Light on SARS-CoV-2. Viruses 2020; 13:E19. [PMID: 33374195 PMCID: PMC7824386 DOI: 10.3390/v13010019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2020] [Revised: 12/17/2020] [Accepted: 12/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The newly identified pathogenic human coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2, led to an atypical pneumonia-like severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) outbreak called coronavirus disease 2019 (abbreviated as COVID-19). Currently, nearly 77 million cases have been confirmed worldwide with the highest numbers of COVID-19 cases in the United States. Individuals are getting vaccinated with recently approved vaccines, which are highly protective in suppressing COVID-19 symptoms but there will be a long way before the majority of individuals get vaccinated. In the meantime, safety precautions and effective disease control strategies appear to be vital for preventing the virus spread in public places. Due to the longevity of the virus on smooth surfaces, photocatalytic properties of "self-disinfecting/cleaning" surfaces appear to be a promising tool to help guide disinfection policies for controlling SARS-CoV-2 spread in high-traffic areas such as hospitals, grocery stores, airports, schools, and stadiums. Here, we explored the photocatalytic properties of nanosized TiO2 (TNPs) as induced by the UV radiation, towards virus deactivation. Our preliminary results using a close genetic relative of SAR-CoV-2, HCoV-NL63, showed the virucidal efficacy of photoactive TNPs deposited on glass coverslips, as examined by quantitative RT-qPCR and virus infectivity assays. Efforts to extrapolate the underlying concepts described in this study to SARS-CoV-2 are currently underway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Svetlana Khaiboullina
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Reno School of Medicine, University of Nevada, 1664 N Virginia Street, Reno, NV 89557, USA; (S.K.); (T.U.)
| | - Timsy Uppal
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Reno School of Medicine, University of Nevada, 1664 N Virginia Street, Reno, NV 89557, USA; (S.K.); (T.U.)
| | - Nikhil Dhabarde
- Chemical and Materials Engineering Department, University of Nevada, LME 309, MS 388, Reno, NV 89557, USA;
| | - Vaidyanathan Ravi Subramanian
- Chemical and Materials Engineering Department, University of Nevada, LME 309, MS 388, Reno, NV 89557, USA;
- GenNEXT Materials and Technologies, LLC., Reno, NV 89511, USA
| | - Subhash C. Verma
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Reno School of Medicine, University of Nevada, 1664 N Virginia Street, Reno, NV 89557, USA; (S.K.); (T.U.)
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161
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Binder RA, Alarja NA, Robie ER, Kochek KE, Xiu L, Rocha-Melogno L, Abdelgadir A, Goli SV, Farrell AS, Coleman KK, Turner AL, Lautredou CC, Lednicky JA, Lee MJ, Polage CR, Simmons RA, Deshusses MA, Anderson BD, Gray GC. Environmental and Aerosolized Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 Among Hospitalized Coronavirus Disease 2019 Patients. J Infect Dis 2020; 222:1798-1806. [PMID: 32905595 PMCID: PMC7499634 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiaa575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2020] [Accepted: 09/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
During April and May 2020, we studied 20 patients hospitalized with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), their hospital rooms (fomites and aerosols), and their close contacts for molecular and culture evidence of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Among >400 samples, we found molecular evidence of virus in most sample types, especially the nasopharyngeal (NP), saliva, and fecal samples, but the prevalence of molecular positivity among fomites and aerosols was low. The agreement between NP swab and saliva positivity was high (89.5%; κ = 0.79). Two NP swabs collected from patients on days 1 and 7 post-symptom onset had evidence of infectious virus (2 passages over 14 days in Vero E6 cells). In summary, the low molecular prevalence and lack of viable SARS-CoV-2 virus in fomites and air samples implied low nosocomial risk of SARS-CoV-2 transmission through inanimate objects or aerosols.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raquel A Binder
- Division of Infectious Diseases, School of Medicine, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA.,Duke Global Health Institute, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Natalie A Alarja
- Division of Infectious Diseases, School of Medicine, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA.,Duke Global Health Institute, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Emily R Robie
- Division of Infectious Diseases, School of Medicine, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA.,Duke Global Health Institute, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Kara E Kochek
- Division of Infectious Diseases, School of Medicine, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA.,Duke Global Health Institute, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Leshan Xiu
- Division of Infectious Diseases, School of Medicine, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA.,Duke Global Health Institute, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA.,National Health Commission Key Laboratory of Systems Biology of Pathogens, Institute of Pathogen Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - Lucas Rocha-Melogno
- Duke Global Health Institute, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA.,Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Anfal Abdelgadir
- Division of Infectious Diseases, School of Medicine, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA.,Duke Global Health Institute, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Sumana V Goli
- Division of Infectious Diseases, School of Medicine, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA.,Duke Global Health Institute, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Amanda S Farrell
- Division of Infectious Diseases, School of Medicine, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA.,Duke Global Health Institute, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Kristen K Coleman
- Program in Emerging Infectious Diseases, Duke-National University of Singapore Medical School, Singapore
| | - Abigail L Turner
- Division of Infectious Diseases, School of Medicine, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA.,Duke Global Health Institute, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Cassandra C Lautredou
- Division of Infectious Diseases, School of Medicine, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - John A Lednicky
- Department of Environmental and Global Health, College of Public Health and Health Professions, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA.,Emerging Pathogens Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
| | - Mark J Lee
- Department of Pathology, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | | | - Ryan A Simmons
- Duke Global Health Institute, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA.,Department of Biostatistics and Bioinformatics, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Marc A Deshusses
- Duke Global Health Institute, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA.,Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Benjamin D Anderson
- Global Health Research Center, Duke Kunshan University, Kunshan, Jiangsu, China
| | - Gregory C Gray
- Division of Infectious Diseases, School of Medicine, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA.,Duke Global Health Institute, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA.,Program in Emerging Infectious Diseases, Duke-National University of Singapore Medical School, Singapore.,Global Health Research Center, Duke Kunshan University, Kunshan, Jiangsu, China
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162
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Zhang XS, Duchaine C. SARS-CoV-2 and Health Care Worker Protection in Low-Risk Settings: a Review of Modes of Transmission and a Novel Airborne Model Involving Inhalable Particles. Clin Microbiol Rev 2020; 34:e00184-20. [PMID: 33115724 PMCID: PMC7605309 DOI: 10.1128/cmr.00184-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Since the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, there has been intense debate over SARS-CoV-2's mode of transmission and appropriate personal protective equipment for health care workers in low-risk settings. The objective of this review is to identify and appraise the available evidence (clinical trials and laboratory studies on masks and respirators, epidemiological studies, and air sampling studies), clarify key concepts and necessary conditions for airborne transmission, and shed light on knowledge gaps in the field. We find that, except for aerosol-generating procedures, the overall data in support of airborne transmission-taken in its traditional definition (long-distance and respirable aerosols)-are weak, based predominantly on indirect and experimental rather than clinical or epidemiological evidence. Consequently, we propose a revised and broader definition of "airborne," going beyond the current droplet and aerosol dichotomy and involving short-range inhalable particles, supported by data targeting the nose as the main viral receptor site. This new model better explains clinical observations, especially in the context of close and prolonged contacts between health care workers and patients, and reconciles seemingly contradictory data in the SARS-CoV-2 literature. The model also carries important implications for personal protective equipment and environmental controls, such as ventilation, in health care settings. However, further studies, especially clinical trials, are needed to complete the picture.
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Affiliation(s)
- X Sophie Zhang
- Department of General Medicine, CIUSSS Centre-Sud-de-l'Île-de-Montréal, Montreal, Canada
- CHSLD Bruchési and CHSLD Jean De La Lande, Montreal, Canada
- GMF-U Faubourgs, Montreal, Canada
- Centre de Recherche et d'Aide aux Narcomanes, Montreal, Canada
| | - Caroline Duchaine
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Bioinformatics, Université Laval, Quebec City, Canada
- Quebec Heart and Lung Institute-Université Laval (CRIUCPQ), Quebec City, Canada
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163
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Tosta E. Transmission of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 through asymptomatic carriers and aerosols: A major public health challenge. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop 2020; 53:e20200669. [PMID: 33331612 PMCID: PMC7747819 DOI: 10.1590/0037-8682-0669-2020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2020] [Accepted: 11/18/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
In the absence of vaccines and effective antiviral drugs, control of the spread of coronavirus disease (Covid-19) relies mainly on the adequacy of public health resources and policies. Hence, failure to establish and implement scientifically reliable control measures may have a significant effect on the incidence of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection, severity of the disease, and death toll. The average number of secondary transmissions from an infected person, or reproduction numbers (R0 and R), and the points at which the collective immunity begins to reduce the transmission of the infection, or herd immunity thresholds, are important epidemiological tools used in strategies of Covid-19 control, suppression, and mitigation. However, SARS-CoV-2 transmission through asymptomatic carriers and, possibly, aerosols, has been ignored, and this may affect the effectiveness of Covid-19 control strategies. Therefore, consideration of the two possible ways of transmission would substantially increase the values of reproduction numbers, but if estimates of the contingent of the population naturally resistant to the virus, plus those with pre-existing cross-immunity to SARS-CoV-2 were considered, the evaluation of herd immunity thresholds should reach their real and achievable levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eduardo Tosta
- Professor emérito, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de
Brasília, Brasília, DF, Brasil
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164
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Birgand G, Peiffer-Smadja N, Fournier S, Kerneis S, Lescure FX, Lucet JC. Assessment of Air Contamination by SARS-CoV-2 in Hospital Settings. JAMA Netw Open 2020. [PMID: 33355679 DOI: 10.1001/jamaetworkopen.2020.33232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023] Open
Abstract
IMPORTANCE Controversy remains regarding the transmission routes of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). OBJECTIVE To review current evidence on air contamination with SARS-CoV-2 in hospital settings and the factors associated with contamination, including viral load and particle size. EVIDENCE REVIEW The MEDLINE, Embase, and Web of Science databases were systematically queried for original English-language articles detailing SARS-CoV-2 air contamination in hospital settings between January 1 and October 27, 2020. This study was conducted in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) guidelines. The positivity rate of SARS-CoV-2 viral RNA and culture were described and compared according to the setting, clinical context, air ventilation system, and distance from patients. The SARS-CoV-2 RNA concentrations in copies per meter cubed of air were pooled, and their distribution was described by hospital areas. Particle sizes and SARS-CoV-2 RNA concentrations in copies or median tissue culture infectious dose (TCID50) per meter cubed were analyzed after categorization as less than 1 μm, from 1 to 4 μm, and greater than 4 μm. FINDINGS Among 2284 records identified, 24 cross-sectional observational studies were included in the review. Overall, 82 of 471 air samples (17.4%) from close patient environments were positive for SARS-CoV-2 RNA, with a significantly higher positivity rate in intensive care unit settings (intensive care unit, 27 of 107 [25.2%] vs non-intensive care unit, 39 of 364 [10.7%]; P < .001). There was no difference according to the distance from patients (≤1 m, 3 of 118 [2.5%] vs >1-5 m, 13 of 236 [5.5%]; P = .22). The positivity rate was 5 of 21 air samples (23.8%) in toilets, 20 of 242 (8.3%) in clinical areas, 15 of 122 (12.3%) in staff areas, and 14 of 42 (33.3%) in public areas. A total of 81 viral cultures were performed across 5 studies, and 7 (8.6%) from 2 studies were positive, all from close patient environments. The median (interquartile range) SARS-CoV-2 RNA concentrations varied from 1.0 × 103 copies/m3 (0.4 × 103 to 3.1 × 103 copies/m3) in clinical areas to 9.7 × 103 copies/m3 (5.1 × 103 to 14.3 × 103 copies/m3) in the air of toilets or bathrooms. Protective equipment removal and patient rooms had high concentrations per titer of SARS-CoV-2 (varying from 0.9 × 103 to 40 × 103 copies/m3 and 3.8 × 103 to 7.2 × 103 TCID50/m3), with aerosol size distributions that showed peaks in the region of particle size less than 1 μm; staff offices had peaks in the region of particle size greater than 4 μm. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE In this systematic review, the air close to and distant from patients with coronavirus disease 2019 was frequently contaminated with SARS-CoV-2 RNA; however, few of these samples contained viable viruses. High viral loads found in toilets and bathrooms, staff areas, and public hallways suggest that these areas should be carefully considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriel Birgand
- National Institute of Health Research Health Protection Research Unit in Healthcare Associated Infection and Antimicrobial Resistance, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
- Centre Hospitalo-Universitaire de Nantes, Nantes, France
| | - Nathan Peiffer-Smadja
- National Institute of Health Research Health Protection Research Unit in Healthcare Associated Infection and Antimicrobial Resistance, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
- INSERM, IAME, UMR 1137, Paris, France
- Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Hôpital Bichat-Claude Bernard, Infectious Diseases Unit, Paris, Paris, France
- Equipe Operationnelle d'Hygiène, Siège Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Paris, France
- Universitaire Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - Sandra Fournier
- Central Infection Control Team, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Paris, France
| | - Solen Kerneis
- Equipe Mobile d'Infectiologie, Hôpital Cochin, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Paris, France
- Equipe de Prévention du Risque Infectieux, Hôpital Bichat, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Paris, France
| | - François-Xavier Lescure
- INSERM, IAME, UMR 1137, Paris, France
- Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Hôpital Bichat-Claude Bernard, Infectious Diseases Unit, Paris, Paris, France
- Equipe Operationnelle d'Hygiène, Siège Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Paris, France
- Universitaire Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - Jean-Christophe Lucet
- INSERM, IAME, UMR 1137, Paris, France
- Equipe Operationnelle d'Hygiène, Siège Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Paris, France
- Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Hôpital Bichat-Claude Bernard, Infection Control Unit, Paris, France
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165
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Birgand G, Peiffer-Smadja N, Fournier S, Kerneis S, Lescure FX, Lucet JC. Assessment of Air Contamination by SARS-CoV-2 in Hospital Settings. JAMA Netw Open 2020; 3:e2033232. [PMID: 33355679 PMCID: PMC7758808 DOI: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.33232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
IMPORTANCE Controversy remains regarding the transmission routes of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). OBJECTIVE To review current evidence on air contamination with SARS-CoV-2 in hospital settings and the factors associated with contamination, including viral load and particle size. EVIDENCE REVIEW The MEDLINE, Embase, and Web of Science databases were systematically queried for original English-language articles detailing SARS-CoV-2 air contamination in hospital settings between January 1 and October 27, 2020. This study was conducted in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) guidelines. The positivity rate of SARS-CoV-2 viral RNA and culture were described and compared according to the setting, clinical context, air ventilation system, and distance from patients. The SARS-CoV-2 RNA concentrations in copies per meter cubed of air were pooled, and their distribution was described by hospital areas. Particle sizes and SARS-CoV-2 RNA concentrations in copies or median tissue culture infectious dose (TCID50) per meter cubed were analyzed after categorization as less than 1 μm, from 1 to 4 μm, and greater than 4 μm. FINDINGS Among 2284 records identified, 24 cross-sectional observational studies were included in the review. Overall, 82 of 471 air samples (17.4%) from close patient environments were positive for SARS-CoV-2 RNA, with a significantly higher positivity rate in intensive care unit settings (intensive care unit, 27 of 107 [25.2%] vs non-intensive care unit, 39 of 364 [10.7%]; P < .001). There was no difference according to the distance from patients (≤1 m, 3 of 118 [2.5%] vs >1-5 m, 13 of 236 [5.5%]; P = .22). The positivity rate was 5 of 21 air samples (23.8%) in toilets, 20 of 242 (8.3%) in clinical areas, 15 of 122 (12.3%) in staff areas, and 14 of 42 (33.3%) in public areas. A total of 81 viral cultures were performed across 5 studies, and 7 (8.6%) from 2 studies were positive, all from close patient environments. The median (interquartile range) SARS-CoV-2 RNA concentrations varied from 1.0 × 103 copies/m3 (0.4 × 103 to 3.1 × 103 copies/m3) in clinical areas to 9.7 × 103 copies/m3 (5.1 × 103 to 14.3 × 103 copies/m3) in the air of toilets or bathrooms. Protective equipment removal and patient rooms had high concentrations per titer of SARS-CoV-2 (varying from 0.9 × 103 to 40 × 103 copies/m3 and 3.8 × 103 to 7.2 × 103 TCID50/m3), with aerosol size distributions that showed peaks in the region of particle size less than 1 μm; staff offices had peaks in the region of particle size greater than 4 μm. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE In this systematic review, the air close to and distant from patients with coronavirus disease 2019 was frequently contaminated with SARS-CoV-2 RNA; however, few of these samples contained viable viruses. High viral loads found in toilets and bathrooms, staff areas, and public hallways suggest that these areas should be carefully considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriel Birgand
- National Institute of Health Research Health Protection Research Unit in Healthcare Associated Infection and Antimicrobial Resistance, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
- Centre Hospitalo-Universitaire de Nantes, Nantes, France
| | - Nathan Peiffer-Smadja
- National Institute of Health Research Health Protection Research Unit in Healthcare Associated Infection and Antimicrobial Resistance, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
- INSERM, IAME, UMR 1137, Paris, France
- Assistance Publique–Hôpitaux de Paris, Hôpital Bichat–Claude Bernard, Infectious Diseases Unit, Paris, Paris, France
- Equipe Operationnelle d'Hygiène, Siège Assistance Publique–Hôpitaux de Paris, Paris, France
- Universitaire Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - Sandra Fournier
- Central Infection Control Team, Assistance Publique–Hôpitaux de Paris, Paris, France
| | - Solen Kerneis
- Equipe Mobile d’Infectiologie, Hôpital Cochin, Assistance Publique–Hôpitaux de Paris, Paris, France
- Equipe de Prévention du Risque Infectieux, Hôpital Bichat, Assistance Publique–Hôpitaux de Paris, Paris, France
| | - François-Xavier Lescure
- INSERM, IAME, UMR 1137, Paris, France
- Assistance Publique–Hôpitaux de Paris, Hôpital Bichat–Claude Bernard, Infectious Diseases Unit, Paris, Paris, France
- Equipe Operationnelle d'Hygiène, Siège Assistance Publique–Hôpitaux de Paris, Paris, France
- Universitaire Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - Jean-Christophe Lucet
- INSERM, IAME, UMR 1137, Paris, France
- Equipe Operationnelle d'Hygiène, Siège Assistance Publique–Hôpitaux de Paris, Paris, France
- Assistance Publique–Hôpitaux de Paris, Hôpital Bichat–Claude Bernard, Infection Control Unit, Paris, France
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166
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Escudero D, Boga JA, Fernández J, Forcelledo L, Balboa S, Albillos R, Astola I, García-Prieto E, Álvarez-Argüelles ME, Martín G, Jiménez J, Vázquez F. SARS-CoV-2 analysis on environmental surfaces collected in an intensive care unit: keeping Ernest Shackleton's spirit. Intensive Care Med Exp 2020; 8:68. [PMID: 33225382 PMCID: PMC7680661 DOI: 10.1186/s40635-020-00349-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2020] [Accepted: 10/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Intensive care unit workers are at high risk of acquiring COVID-19 infection, especially when performing invasive techniques and certain procedures that generate aerosols (< 5 μm). Therefore, one of the objectives of the health systems should implement safety practices to minimize the risk of contagion among these health professionals. Monitoring environmental contamination of SARS-CoV-2 may help to determine the potential of the environment as a transmission medium in an area highly exposed to SARS-CoV-2, such as an intensive care unit. The objective of the study was to analyze the environmental contamination by SARS-CoV-2 on surfaces collected in an intensive care unit, which is dedicated exclusively to the care of patients with COVID-19 and equipped with negative pressure of – 10 Pa and an air change rate of 20 cycles per hour. Furthermore, all ICU workers were tested for COVID-19 by quantitative RT-PCR and ELISA methods. Results A total of 102 samples (72 collected with pre-moistened swabs used for collection of nasopharyngeal exudates and 30 with moistened wipes used in the environmental microbiological control of the food industry) were obtained from ventilators, monitors, perfusion pumps, bed rails, lab benches, containers of personal protective equipment, computer keyboards and mice, telephones, workers’ shoes, floor, and other areas of close contact with COVID-19 patients and healthcare professionals who cared for them. The analysis by quantitative RT-PCR showed no detection of SARS-CoV-2 genome in environmental samples collected by any of the two methods described. Furthermore, none of the 237 ICU workers was infected by the virus. Conclusions Presence of SARS-CoV-2 on the ICU surfaces could not be determined supporting that a strict cleaning protocol with sodium hypochlorite, a high air change rate, and a negative pressure in the ICU are effective in preventing environmental contamination. These facts together with the protection measures used could also explain the absence of contagion among staff inside ICUs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dolores Escudero
- Servicio de Medicina Intensiva, Hospital Universitario Central de Asturias (HUCA), Oviedo, Spain.,Grupo de Investigación Microbiología Traslacional, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Principado de Asturias (ISPA), Oviedo, Spain
| | - José Antonio Boga
- Grupo de Investigación Microbiología Traslacional, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Principado de Asturias (ISPA), Oviedo, Spain. .,Servicio de Microbiología, Hospital Universitario Central de Asturias (HUCA), Oviedo, Spain.
| | - Javier Fernández
- Grupo de Investigación Microbiología Traslacional, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Principado de Asturias (ISPA), Oviedo, Spain.,Servicio de Microbiología, Hospital Universitario Central de Asturias (HUCA), Oviedo, Spain
| | - Lorena Forcelledo
- Servicio de Medicina Intensiva, Hospital Universitario Central de Asturias (HUCA), Oviedo, Spain.,Grupo de Investigación Microbiología Traslacional, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Principado de Asturias (ISPA), Oviedo, Spain
| | - Salvador Balboa
- Servicio de Medicina Intensiva, Hospital Universitario Central de Asturias (HUCA), Oviedo, Spain.,Grupo de Investigación Microbiología Traslacional, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Principado de Asturias (ISPA), Oviedo, Spain
| | - Rodrigo Albillos
- Servicio de Medicina Intensiva, Hospital Universitario Central de Asturias (HUCA), Oviedo, Spain
| | - Iván Astola
- Servicio de Medicina Intensiva, Hospital Universitario Central de Asturias (HUCA), Oviedo, Spain.,Grupo de Investigación Microbiología Traslacional, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Principado de Asturias (ISPA), Oviedo, Spain
| | - Emilio García-Prieto
- Servicio de Medicina Intensiva, Hospital Universitario Central de Asturias (HUCA), Oviedo, Spain.,Grupo de Investigación Traslacional en el Paciente Crítico, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Principado de Asturias (ISPA), Oviedo, Spain.,CIBER-Enfermedades Respiratorias, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain.,Departamento de Medicina, Universidad de Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain
| | | | - Gabriel Martín
- Servicio de Microbiología, Hospital Universitario Central de Asturias (HUCA), Oviedo, Spain
| | - Josu Jiménez
- Servicio de Ingeniería y Mantenimiento, Hospital Universitario Central de Asturias (HUCA), Oviedo, Spain
| | - Fernando Vázquez
- Servicio de Microbiología, Hospital Universitario Central de Asturias (HUCA), Oviedo, Spain.,Fundación de Investigación Oftalmológica, Instituto Oftalmológico Fernández-Vega, Oviedo, Spain
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167
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Marotz C, Belda-Ferre P, Ali F, Das P, Huang S, Cantrell K, Jiang L, Martino C, Diner RE, Rahman G, McDonald D, Armstrong G, Kodera S, Donato S, Ecklu-Mensah G, Gottel N, Garcia MCS, Chiang LY, Salido RA, Shaffer JP, Bryant M, Sanders K, Humphrey G, Ackermann G, Haiminen N, Beck KL, Kim HC, Carrieri AP, Parida L, Vázquez-Baeza Y, Torriani FJ, Knight R, Gilbert JA, Sweeney DA, Allard SM. Microbial context predicts SARS-CoV-2 prevalence in patients and the hospital built environment. MEDRXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR HEALTH SCIENCES 2020:2020.11.19.20234229. [PMID: 33236030 PMCID: PMC7685343 DOI: 10.1101/2020.11.19.20234229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Synergistic effects of bacteria on viral stability and transmission are widely documented but remain unclear in the context of SARS-CoV-2. We collected 972 samples from hospitalized ICU patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), their health care providers, and hospital surfaces before, during, and after admission. We screened for SARS-CoV-2 using RT-qPCR, characterized microbial communities using 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing, and contextualized the massive microbial diversity in this dataset in a meta-analysis of over 20,000 samples. Sixteen percent of surfaces from COVID-19 patient rooms were positive, with the highest prevalence in floor samples next to patient beds (39%) and directly outside their rooms (29%). Although bed rail samples increasingly resembled the patient microbiome throughout their stay, SARS-CoV-2 was less frequently detected there (11%). Despite surface contamination in almost all patient rooms, no health care workers providing COVID-19 patient care contracted the disease. SARS-CoV-2 positive samples had higher bacterial phylogenetic diversity across human and surface samples, and higher biomass in floor samples. 16S microbial community profiles allowed for high classifier accuracy for SARS-CoV-2 status in not only nares, but also forehead, stool and floor samples. Across these distinct microbial profiles, a single amplicon sequence variant from the genus Rothia was highly predictive of SARS-CoV-2 across sample types, and had higher prevalence in positive surface and human samples, even when comparing to samples from patients in another intensive care unit prior to the COVID-19 pandemic. These results suggest that bacterial communities contribute to viral prevalence both in the host and hospital environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clarisse Marotz
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Pedro Belda-Ferre
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
- Center for Microbiome Innovation, Jacobs School of Engineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Farhana Ali
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Promi Das
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Shi Huang
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
- Center for Microbiome Innovation, Jacobs School of Engineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Kalen Cantrell
- Center for Microbiome Innovation, Jacobs School of Engineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
- Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Jacobs School of Engineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Lingjing Jiang
- Center for Microbiome Innovation, Jacobs School of Engineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
- Division of Biostatistics, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Cameron Martino
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
- Center for Microbiome Innovation, Jacobs School of Engineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
- Bioinformatics and Systems Biology Program, Jacobs School of Engineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Rachel E Diner
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Gibraan Rahman
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
- Bioinformatics and Systems Biology Program, Jacobs School of Engineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Daniel McDonald
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - George Armstrong
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
- Center for Microbiome Innovation, Jacobs School of Engineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
- Bioinformatics and Systems Biology Program, Jacobs School of Engineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Sho Kodera
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Sonya Donato
- Microbiome Core, School of Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Gertrude Ecklu-Mensah
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Neil Gottel
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Mariana C Salas Garcia
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Leslie Y Chiang
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Rodolfo A Salido
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Justin P Shaffer
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - MacKenzie Bryant
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Karenina Sanders
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Greg Humphrey
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Gail Ackermann
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Niina Haiminen
- IBM, T.J Watson Research Center, Yorktown Heights, New York, USA
| | - Kristen L Beck
- AI and Cognitive Software, IBM Research-Almaden, San Jose, California, USA
| | - Ho-Cheol Kim
- AI and Cognitive Software, IBM Research-Almaden, San Jose, California, USA
| | | | - Laxmi Parida
- AI and Cognitive Software, IBM Research-Almaden, San Jose, California, USA
| | - Yoshiki Vázquez-Baeza
- Center for Microbiome Innovation, Jacobs School of Engineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Francesca J Torriani
- Infection Prevention and Clinical Epidemiology Unit at UC San Diego Health, Division of Infectious Diseases and Global Public Health, Department of Medicine, UC San Diego, San Diego CA, USA
| | - Rob Knight
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
- Center for Microbiome Innovation, Jacobs School of Engineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
- Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Jacobs School of Engineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Jack A Gilbert
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
- Center for Microbiome Innovation, Jacobs School of Engineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Daniel A Sweeney
- Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care and Sleep Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Sarah M Allard
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
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168
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Simkovich SM, Thompson LM, Clark M, Balakrishnan K, Bussalleu A, Checkley W, Clasen T, Davila-Roman V, Diaz-Artiga A, de Las Fuentes L, Harvey S, Kirby M, Lovvorn A, McCollum E, Peel J, Quinn A, Rosa G, Underhill L, Williams K, Young B, Rosenthal J. A Risk Assessment Tool for Resumption of Research Activities During the COVID-19 Pandemic. RESEARCH SQUARE 2020:rs.3.rs-103997. [PMID: 33200126 PMCID: PMC7668754 DOI: 10.21203/rs.3.rs-103997/v1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE The spread of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 has suspended many non-COVID-19 related research activities. Where restarting research activities is permitted, investigators need to evaluate the risks and benefits of resuming data collection and adapt procedures to minimize risk. OBJECTIVES In the context of the multicountry Household Air Pollution Intervention (HAPIN) trial, we developed a framework to assess the risk of each trial activity and to guide protective measures. Our goal is to maximize integrity of reseach aims while minimizing infection risk based on the latest understanding of the virus. METHODS We drew on a combination of expert consultations, risk assessment frameworks, institutional guidance and literature to develop our framework. We then systematically graded clinical, behavioral, laboratory and field environmental health research activities in four countries for both adult and child subjects using this framework. RESULTS Our framework assesses risk based on staff proximity to the participant, exposure time between staff and participants, and potential aerosolization while performing the activity. One of of four risk levels, from minimal to unacceptable, is assigned and guidance on protective measures is provided. Those activities which can potentially aerosolize the virus are deemed the highest risk. CONCLUSIONS By applying a systematic, procedure-specific approach to risk assessment for each trial activity, we can compare trial activities using the same criteria. This approach allows us to protect our participants and research team and to uphold our ability to deliver on the research commitments we have made to our participants, local communities, and funders. The trial is registered with clinicaltrials.gov (NCT02944682).
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169
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Marshall S, Duryea M, Huang G, Kadioglu O, Mah J, Palomo JM, Rossouw E, Stappert D, Stewart K, Tufekci E. COVID-19: What do we know? Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop 2020; 158:e53-e62. [PMID: 33131568 PMCID: PMC7505627 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajodo.2020.08.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2020] [Revised: 08/01/2020] [Accepted: 08/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
•Evidence regarding the provision of orthodontic care during the COVID-19 pandemic is examined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steve Marshall
- Department of Orthodontics, University of Iowa College of Dentistry and Dental Clinics, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa.
| | | | - Greg Huang
- Department of Orthodontics, University of Washington School of Dentistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Wash
| | - Onur Kadioglu
- Division of Graduate Orthodontics, Oklahoma University College of Dentistry, Oklahoma University, Oklahoma City, Okla
| | - James Mah
- Department of Orthodontics, University of Nevada Las Vegas School of Dental Medicine, University of Nevada Las Vegas, Las Vegas, Nev
| | - Juan Martin Palomo
- Department of Orthodontics, Case Western Reserve University School of Dental Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio
| | - Emile Rossouw
- Division of Orthodontics, Eastman Institute for Oral Health, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY
| | - Dina Stappert
- Division of Orthodontics, University of Maryland School of Dentistry, University of Maryland, Baltimore, MD
| | - Kelton Stewart
- Department of Orthodontics and Oral Facial Genetics, Indiana University School of Dentistry, Indiana University, Indianapolis, Ind
| | - Eser Tufekci
- Department of Orthodontics, Virginia Commonwealth University School of Dentistry, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Va
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170
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Salido RA, Morgan SC, Rojas MI, Magallanes CG, Marotz C, DeHoff P, Belda-Ferre P, Aigner S, Kado DM, Yeo GW, Gilbert JA, Laurent L, Rohwer F, Knight R. Handwashing and Detergent Treatment Greatly Reduce SARS-CoV-2 Viral Load on Halloween Candy Handled by COVID-19 Patients. mSystems 2020; 5:e01074-20. [PMID: 33127739 PMCID: PMC7743156 DOI: 10.1128/msystems.01074-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2020] [Accepted: 10/29/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Due to the COVID-19 pandemic and potential public health implications, we are publishing this peer-reviewed manuscript in its accepted form. The final, copyedited version of the paper will be available at a later date. Although SARS-CoV-2 is primarily transmitted by respiratory droplets and aerosols, transmission by fomites remains plausible. During Halloween, a major event for children in numerous countries, SARS-CoV-2 transmission risk via candy fomites worries many parents. To address this concern, we enrolled 10 recently diagnosed asymptomatic or mildly/moderately symptomatic COVID-19 patients to handle typical Halloween candy (pieces individually wrapped) under three conditions: normal handling with unwashed hands, deliberate coughing and extensive touching, and normal handling following handwashing. We then used a factorial design to subject the candies to two post-handling treatments: no washing (untreated) and household dishwashing detergent. We measured SARS-CoV-2 load by RT-qPCR and LAMP. From the candies not washed post-handling, we detected SARS-CoV-2 on 60% of candies that were deliberately coughed on, 60% of candies normally handled with unwashed hands, but only 10% of candies handled after hand washing. We found that treating candy with dishwashing detergent reduced SARS-CoV-2 load by 62.1% in comparison to untreated candy. Taken together, these results suggest that although the risk of transmission of SARS-CoV-2 by fomites is low even from known COVID-19 patients, viral RNA load can be reduced to near zero by the combination of handwashing by the infected patient and ≥1 minute detergent treatment after collection. We also found that the inexpensive and fast LAMP protocol was more than 80% concordant with RT-qPCR.IMPORTANCE The COVID-19 pandemic is leading to important tradeoffs between risk of SARS-CoV-2 transmission and mental health due to deprivation from normal activities, with these impacts being especially profound in children. Due to the ongoing pandemic, Halloween activities will be curtailed as a result of the concern that candy from strangers might act as fomites. Here we demonstrate that these risks can be mitigated by ensuring that prior to handling candy, the candy giver washes their hands, and by washing collected candy with household dishwashing detergent. Even in the most extreme case, with candy deliberately coughed on by known COVID-19 patients, viral load was reduced dramatically after washing with household detergent. We conclude that with reasonable precautions, even if followed only by either the candy giver or the candy recipient, the risk of viral transmission by this route is very low.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodolfo A. Salido
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Sydney C. Morgan
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Reproductive Science, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Maria I. Rojas
- Department of Biology, San Diego State University, San Diego, California, USA
- Viral Information Institute, San Diego State University, San Diego, California, USA
| | - Celestine G. Magallanes
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Reproductive Science, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Clarisse Marotz
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Peter DeHoff
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Reproductive Science, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Pedro Belda-Ferre
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Stefan Aigner
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
- Stem Cell Program, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
- Institute for Genomic Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Deborah M. Kado
- Herbert Wertheim School of Public Health and Human Longevity Science, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Gene W. Yeo
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
- Stem Cell Program, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
- Institute for Genomic Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Jack A. Gilbert
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
- Center for Microbiome Innovation, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Louise Laurent
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Reproductive Science, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Forest Rohwer
- Department of Biology, San Diego State University, San Diego, California, USA
- Viral Information Institute, San Diego State University, San Diego, California, USA
| | - Rob Knight
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
- Center for Microbiome Innovation, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
- Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
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171
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Wei L, Huang W, Lu X, Wang Y, Cheng L, Deng R, Long H, Zong Z. Contamination of SARS-CoV-2 in patient surroundings and on personal protective equipment in a non-ICU isolation ward for COVID-19 patients with prolonged PCR positive status. Antimicrob Resist Infect Control 2020; 9:167. [PMID: 33121538 PMCID: PMC7594964 DOI: 10.1186/s13756-020-00839-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2020] [Accepted: 10/22/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Objectives We performed an environmental sampling study to investigate the environmental contamination of SARS-CoV-2 by COVID-19 patients with prolonged PCR positive status of clinical samples. Methods We sampled the air from rooms for nine COVID-19 patients with illness or positive PCR > 30 days, before and after nasopharyngeal/oropharyngeal swabbing and before and after nebulization treatment. We also sampled patients’ surroundings and healthcare workers’ personal protection equipment (PPE) in a non-ICU ward. SARS-CoV-2 was detected by PCR. Results Eighty-eight samples were collected from high-touch surfaces and floors in patient rooms and toilets, with only the bedsheets of two patients and one toilet positive for SARS-CoV-2. All air samples (n = 34) were negative for SARS-CoV-2. Fifty-five samples collected from PPE were all negative. Conclusion Contamination of near-patient surroundings was uncommon for COVID-19 patients with prolonged PCR positive status if environmental cleaning/disinfection were performed rigorously. Airborne transmission of SARS-CoV-2 was unlikely in these non-ICU settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Wei
- Department of Infection Control, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Wenzhi Huang
- Department of Infection Control, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Xiaojun Lu
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Yantong Wang
- Department of Infection Control, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Linzhi Cheng
- Department of Infection Control, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Rong Deng
- Center for Pathogen Research, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Haiyan Long
- Center for Pathogen Research, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China.,Center of Infectious Diseases, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Zhiyong Zong
- Department of Infection Control, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. .,Center for Pathogen Research, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. .,Center of Infectious Diseases, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China.
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172
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Environmental contamination in a coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) intensive care unit-What is the risk? Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2020; 42:669-677. [PMID: 33081858 PMCID: PMC7653228 DOI: 10.1017/ice.2020.1278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Background: The risk of environmental contamination by severe acute respiratory coronavirus virus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) in the intensive care unit (ICU) is unclear. We evaluated the extent of environmental contamination in the ICU and correlated this with patient and disease factors, including the impact of different ventilatory modalities. Methods: In this observational study, surface environmental samples collected from ICU patient rooms and common areas were tested for SARS-CoV-2 by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Select samples from the common area were tested by cell culture. Clinical data were collected and correlated to the presence of environmental contamination. Results were compared to historical data from a previous study in general wards. Results: In total, 200 samples from 20 patient rooms and 75 samples from common areas and the staff pantry were tested. The results showed that 14 rooms had at least 1 site contaminated, with an overall contamination rate of 14% (28 of 200 samples). Environmental contamination was not associated with day of illness, ventilatory mode, aerosol-generating procedures, or viral load. The frequency of environmental contamination was lower in the ICU than in general ward rooms. Eight samples from the common area were positive, though all were negative on cell culture. Conclusion: Environmental contamination in the ICU was lower than in the general wards. The use of mechanical ventilation or high-flow nasal oxygen was not associated with greater surface contamination, supporting their use and safety from an infection control perspective. Transmission risk via environmental surfaces in the ICUs is likely to be low. Nonetheless, infection control practices should be strictly reinforced, and transmission risk via droplet or airborne spread remains.
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173
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Escudero D, Barrera JA, Balboa S, Viñas S, Martín G, Boga JA. [Analysis of SARS-CoV-2 in the air of an ICU dedicated to covid-19 patients]. Med Intensiva 2020; 45:247-250. [PMID: 34040270 PMCID: PMC7547642 DOI: 10.1016/j.medin.2020.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2020] [Revised: 09/16/2020] [Accepted: 09/23/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- D Escudero
- Servicio de Medicina Intensiva, Hospital Universitario Central de Asturias, Oviedo, Asturias, España.,Grupo de Investigación Microbiología Traslacional del Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Principado de Asturias
| | - J A Barrera
- Anaqua SL y Laboratorios Innoagral SL, Sevilla, España
| | - S Balboa
- Servicio de Medicina Intensiva, Hospital Universitario Central de Asturias, Oviedo, Asturias, España.,Grupo de Investigación Microbiología Traslacional del Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Principado de Asturias
| | - S Viñas
- Servicio de Medicina Intensiva, Hospital Universitario Central de Asturias, Oviedo, Asturias, España.,Grupo de Investigación Microbiología Traslacional del Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Principado de Asturias
| | - G Martín
- Servicio de Microbiología, Hospital Universitario Central de Asturias, Oviedo, Asturias, España
| | - J A Boga
- Grupo de Investigación Microbiología Traslacional del Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Principado de Asturias.,Servicio de Microbiología, Hospital Universitario Central de Asturias, Oviedo, Asturias, España
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174
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Impact of Corona Virus Disease 2019 on Oral- and Maxillofacial Surgery: Preliminary Results After the Curfew. J Craniofac Surg 2020; 32:e305-e308. [PMID: 32941222 DOI: 10.1097/scs.0000000000007062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The COVID-19 pandemic affects basic health care in maxillofacial surgery (MFS) due to the shift in resources and the change in patient disorders treated during the pandemic. This paper aims to elucidate the medical and financial consequences driven by the measures for COVID-19 treatment in a tertiary care centre. MATERIAL AND METHODS To evaluate the impact of pandemic measures on daily routines of MFS, the surgical schedule during the first 2 weeks after the onset of the curfew (March 2020), and to compare it with the schedule of the same period of time 1 year earlier. Furthermore, postponed surgeries as well as cancelled follow-ups are listed. The loss of earning was calculated as well as the number and kind of postponed procedures. RESULTS The number of surgeries decreased by 45% (n = 163 in 2019 vs n = 89 in 2020), and the duration of the surgeries decreased from 94.2 minutes to 62.1 minutes. No elective surgeries, such as implantology, aesthetic surgery, or orthognathic surgery, took place. Furthermore, also trauma cases decreased from 9 to 3 cases. Considering all variables, the financial loss can be calculated as approximately 100,256.50 Euros per week. CONCLUSION The impact of COVID-19 on MFS is certainly of medical and economic importance and is related to the duration of the pandemic.
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175
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Peyrony O, Ellouze S, Fontaine JP, Thegat-Le Cam M, Salmona M, Feghoul L, Mahjoub N, Mercier-Delarue S, Gabassi A, Delaugerre C, Le Goff J. Surfaces and equipment contamination by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) in the emergency department at a university hospital. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2020; 230:113600. [PMID: 32799101 PMCID: PMC7413114 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2020.113600] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2020] [Revised: 07/20/2020] [Accepted: 07/22/2020] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Environmental contamination by patients with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) through respiratory droplets suggests that surfaces and equipment could be a medium of transmission. We aimed to assess the surface and equipment contamination by SARS-COV-2 of an emergency department (ED) during the coronavirus infectious disease-2019 (COVID-19) outbreak. METHODS We performed multiple samples from different sites in ED patients care and non-patient care areas with sterile premoistened swabs and used real-time reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) to detect the presence of SARS-CoV-2 ribonucleic acid (RNA). We also sampled the personal protective equipment (PPE) from health care workers (HCWs). RESULTS Among the 192 total samples, 10 (5.2%) were positive. In patient care areas, 5/46 (10.9%) of the surfaces directly in contact with COVID-19 patients revealed the presence of SARS-CoV-2 RNA, and 4/56 (7.1%) of the surfaces that were not directly in contact with COVID-19 patients were positive. SARS-CoV-2 RNA was present only in the patients' examination and monitoring rooms. Before decontamination SARS-CoV-2 RNA was present on the saturation clip, the scuff for blood pressure measurement, the stretcher, the plastic screens between patients and the floor. After decontamination, SARS-CoV-2 RNA remained on the scuff, the stretcher and the trolleys. All samples from non-patient care areas or staff working rooms were negative. Only one sample from the PPE of the HCWs was positive. CONCLUSIONS Our findings suggest that surfaces and equipment contamination by SARS-CoV-2 RNA in an ED during the COVID-19 outbreak is low and concerns exclusively patients' examination and monitoring rooms, preserving non-patient care areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olivier Peyrony
- Emergency Department, Saint-Louis Hospital, AP-HP, Paris, France.
| | - Sami Ellouze
- Emergency Department, Saint-Louis Hospital, AP-HP, Paris, France.
| | | | | | - Maud Salmona
- Université de Paris, Virology Department, Saint-Louis Hospital, AP-HP, INSERM U976, Paris, France.
| | - Linda Feghoul
- Université de Paris, Virology Department, Saint-Louis Hospital, AP-HP, INSERM U944, Paris, France.
| | - Nadia Mahjoub
- Virology Department, Saint-Louis Hospital, AP-HP, Paris, France.
| | | | - Audrey Gabassi
- Virology Department, Saint-Louis Hospital, AP-HP, Paris, France.
| | - Constance Delaugerre
- Université de Paris, Virology Department, Saint-Louis Hospital, AP-HP, INSERM U944, Paris, France.
| | - Jérôme Le Goff
- Université de Paris, Virology Department, Saint-Louis Hospital, AP-HP, INSERM U976, Paris, France.
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176
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Kanamori H. Rethinking environmental contamination and fomite transmission of SARS-CoV-2 in the healthcare. J Infect 2020; 82:e17-e18. [PMID: 32860816 PMCID: PMC7450250 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinf.2020.08.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2020] [Accepted: 08/26/2020] [Indexed: 10/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hajime Kanamori
- Dpartment of Infectious Diseases, Internal Medicine, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, 1-1 Seiryo-machi, Aoba-kum, Sendai 980-8574, Miyagi, Japan.
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177
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Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) nucleic acid contamination of surfaces on a coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) ward and intensive care unit. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2020; 42:215-217. [PMID: 32782056 PMCID: PMC7511842 DOI: 10.1017/ice.2020.416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
On coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) wards, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) nucleic acid was frequently detected on high-touch surfaces, floors, and socks inside patient rooms. Contamination of floors and shoes was common outside patient rooms on the COVID-19 wards but decreased after improvements in floor cleaning and disinfection were implemented.
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