Biosynthesis and accumulation of sterols

Plant cyclopropylsterol-cycloisomerase: key amino acids affecting activity and substrate specificity

The enzyme CPI (cyclopropylsterol-cycloisomerase) from the plant sterol pathway catalyses the cleavage of the 9β,19-cyclopropane ring of the 4α-methyl-cyclopropylsterol cycloeucalenol to produce the Δ8-sterol obtusifoliol. Randomly mutated plasmids carrying the Arabidopsis thaliana cpi gene were screened for inactive CPI mutant enzymes on the basis of their ability to genetically complement a Saccharomyces cerevisiae erg7 (defective in oxidosqualene cyclase) ergosterol auxotroph grown in the presence of exogenous cycloeucalenol, and led to the identification of four catalytically important residues. Site-directed mutagenesis experiments confirmed the role of the identified residues, and demonstrated the importance of selected acidic residues and a conserved G108NYFWTHYFF117 motif. The mutated isomerases were assayed both in vivo by quantification of cycloeucalenol conversion into ergosterol in erg7 cells, and in vitro by examination of activities of recombinant AtCPI (A. thaliana CPI) mutants. These studies show that Gly28, Glu29, Gly108 and Asp260 are crucial for CPI activity and that an hydroxy function at residue 113 is needed for maximal substrate affinity and CPI activity. CPI is inactive on upstream 4α,β-dimethyl-cyclopropylsterol precursors of phytosterols. The single mutation W112L generates a CPI with an extended substrate specificity, that is able to convert 4α,β-dimethyl-cyclopropylsterols into the corresponding Δ8 products. These findings provide insights into the molecular basis of CPI activity and substrate specificity.

Analysis of pecan nut (Carya illinoinensis) unsaponifiable fraction. Effect of ripening stage on phytosterols and phytostanols composition

Changes in 4-desmethylsterol, 4-monomethylsterol, 4,4-dimethylsterol and phytostanol composition were quantitatively and qualitatively investigated during the ripening of three varieties of Tunisian-grown pecan nuts (Mahan, Moore and Burkett). These components have many health benefits, especially in lowering LDL-cholesterol and preventing heart disease. The phytosterol composition of whole pecan kernel was quantified by Gas Chromatography-Flame Ionisation Detection (GC-FID) and identified by Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS). Fifteen phytosterols and one phytostanol were quantified. The greatest amount of phytosterols (2852.5mg/100g of oil) was detected in Mahan variety at 20 weeks after the flowering date (WAFD). Moore had the highest level of phytostanols (7.3mg/100g of oil) at 20 WAFD. Phytosterol and phytostanol contents showed a steep decrease during pecan nut development. Results from the quantitative characterisation of pecan nut oils revealed that β-sitosterol, Δ5-avenasterol, and campesterol were the most abundant phytosterol compounds at all ripening stages.

Distinct biochemical activities and heat shock responses of two UDP-glucose sterol glucosyltransferases in cotton

UDP-glucose sterol glucosyltransferase (SGT) are enzymes typically involved in the production of sterol glycosides (SG) in various organisms. However, the biological functions of SGTs in plants remain largely unknown. In the present study, we identified two full-length GhSGT genes in cotton and examined their distinct biochemical properties. Using UDP-[U-(14)C]-glucose and β-sitosterol or total crude membrane sterols as substrates, GhSGT1 and GhSGT2 recombinant proteins were detected with different enzymatic activities for SG production. The addition of Triton (X-100) strongly inhibited the activity of GhSGT1 but caused an eightfold increase in the activity of GhSGT2. The two GhSGTs showed distinct enzyme activities after the addition of NaCl, MgCl2, and ZnCl2, indicating that the two GhSGTs exhibited distinct biochemical properties under various conditions. Furthermore, after heat shock treatment, GhSGT1 showed rapidly enhanced gene expression in vivo and low enzyme activity in vitro, whereas GhSGT2 maintained extremely low gene expression levels and relatively high enzyme activity. Notably, the GhSGT2 gene was highly expressed in cotton fibers, and the biochemical properties of GhSGT2 were similar to those of GhCESA in favor for MgCl2 and non-reduction reaction condition. It suggested that GhSGT2 may have important functions in cellulose biosynthesis in cotton fibers, which must be tested in the transgenic plants in the future. Hence, the obtained data provided insights into the biological functions of two different GhSGTs in cotton and in other plants.

Sterol binding by methyl-β-cyclodextrin and nystatin--comparative analysis of biochemical and physiological consequences for plants

The dependence of membrane function on its sterol component has been intensively studied with model lipids and isolated animal membranes, but to a much lesser extent with plant membranes. Depleting membrane sterols could be predicted to have a strong effect on membrane activity and have harmful physiological consequences. In this study, we characterized membrane lipid composition, membrane permeability for ions, some physiological parameters, such as H2O2 accumulation, formation of autophagosomal vacuoles, and expression of peroxidase and autophagic genes, and cell viability in the roots of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) seedlings in the presence of two agents that specifically bind to endogenous sterols. The polyene antibiotic nystatin binds to endogenous sterols, forming so-called 'nystatin pores' or 'channels' in the membrane, and methyl-β-cyclodextrin has the capacity to sequester sterols in its hydrophobic core. Unexpectedly, although application of both methyl-β-cyclodextrin and nystatin reduced the sterol content, their effects on membrane permeability, oxidative status and autophagosome formation in roots differed dramatically. For comparison, we also tested the effects of the antibiotic gramicidin S, which does not bind to sterols but forms nonspecific channels in the membrane. Gramicidin S considerably increased membrane permeability, caused oxidative stress, and reduced cell viability. Our results suggest that a decrease in the sterol content is, in itself, not sufficient to have deleterious effects on a cell. The disturbance of membrane integrity, rather than the decrease in the sterol content, is responsible for the toxicity of sterol-binding compounds.

Sterol-dependent induction of plant defense responses by a microbe-associated molecular pattern from Trichoderma viride

Plant-microbe interactions involve numerous regulatory systems essential for plant defense against pathogens. An ethylene-inducing xylanase (Eix) of Trichoderma viride is a potent elicitor of plant defense responses in specific cultivars of tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) and tomato (Solanum lycopersicum). We demonstrate that tomato cyclopropyl isomerase (SlCPI), an enzyme involved in sterol biosynthesis, interacts with the LeEix2 receptor. Moreover, we examined the role of SlCPI in signaling during the LeEix/Eix defense response. We found that SlCPI is an important factor in the regulation of the induction of defense responses such as the hypersensitive response, ethylene biosynthesis, and the induction of pathogenesis-related protein expression in the case of LeEix/Eix. Our results also suggest that changes in the sterol composition reduce LeEix internalization, thereby attenuating the induction of plant defense responses.

Allelic variation in genes contributing to glycoalkaloid biosynthesis in a diploid interspecific population of potato

Variation for allelic state within genes of both primary and secondary metabolism influences the quantity and quality of steroidal glycoalkaloids produced in potato leaves. Genetic factors associated with the biosynthesis and accumulation of steroidal glycoalkaloids (SGAs) in potato were addressed by a candidate gene approach and whole genome single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) genotyping. Allelic sequences spanning coding regions of four candidate genes [3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase 2 (HMG2); 2,3-squalene epoxidase; solanidine galactosyltransferase; and solanidine glucosyltransferase (SGT2)] were obtained from two potato species differing in SGA composition: Solanum chacoense (chc 80-1) and Solanum tuberosum group Phureja (phu DH). An F2 population was genotyped and foliar SGAs quantified. The concentrations of α-solanine, α-chaconine, leptine I, leptine II and total SGAs varied broadly among F2 individuals. F2 plants with chc 80-1 alleles for HMG2 or SGT2 accumulated significantly greater leptines and total SGAs compared to plants with phu DH alleles. Plants with chc 80-1 alleles at both loci expressed the greatest levels of total SGAs, α-solanine and α-chaconine. A significant positive correlation was found between α-solanine and α-chaconine accumulation as well as between leptine I and leptine II. A whole genome SNP genotyping analysis of an F2 subsample verified the importance of chc 80-1 alleles at HMG2 and SGT2 for SGA synthesis and accumulation and suggested additional candidate genes including some previously associated with SGA production. Loci on five and seven potato pseudochromosomes were associated with synthesis and accumulation of SGAs, respectively. Two loci, on pseudochromosomes 1 and 6, explained phenotypic segregation of α-solanine and α-chaconine synthesis. Knowledge of the genetic factors influencing SGA production in potato may assist breeding for pest resistance.

Exploring candidate genes for pericarp russet pigmentation of sand pear (Pyrus pyrifolia) via RNA-Seq data in two genotypes contrasting for pericarp color

Sand pear (Pyrus pyrifolia) russet pericarp is an important trait affecting both the quality and stress tolerance of fruits. This trait is controlled by a relative complex genetic process, with some fundamental biological questions such as how many and which genes are involved in the process remaining elusive. In this study, we explored differentially expressed genes between the russet- and green-pericarp offspring from the sand pear (Pyrus pyrifolia) cv. 'Qingxiang' × 'Cuiguan' F1 group by RNA-seq-based bulked segregant analysis (BSA). A total of 29,100 unigenes were identified and 206 of which showed significant differences in expression level (log2fold values>1) between the two types of pericarp pools. Gene Ontology (GO) analyses detected 123 unigenes in GO terms related to 'cellular_component' and 'biological_process', suggesting developmental and growth differentiations between the two types. GO categories associated with various aspects of 'lipid metabolic processes', 'transport', 'response to stress', 'oxidation-reduction process' and more were enriched with genes with divergent expressions between the two libraries. Detailed examination of a selected set of these categories revealed repressed expressions of candidate genes for suberin, cutin and wax biosynthesis in the russet pericarps.Genes encoding putative cinnamoyl-CoA reductase (CCR), cinnamyl alcohol dehydrogenase (CAD) and peroxidase (POD) that are involved in the lignin biosynthesis were suggested to be candidates for pigmentation of sand pear russet pericarps. Nine differentially expressed genes were analyzed for their expressions using qRT-PCR and the results were consistent with those obtained from Illumina RNA-sequencing. This study provides a comprehensive molecular biology insight into the sand pear pericarp pigmentation and appearance quality formation.

Sterol dynamics during endocytic trafficking in Arabidopsis

Sterols are lipids found in membranes of eukaryotic cells. Functions of sterols have been demonstrated for various cellular processes including endocytic trafficking in animal, fungal, and plant cells. The ability to visualize sterols at the subcellular level is crucial to understand sterol distribution and function during endocytic trafficking. In plant cells, the polyene antibiotic filipin is the most extensively used tool for the specific detection of fluorescently labeled 3-β-hydroxysterols in situ. Filipin can to some extent be used to track sterol internalization in live cells, but this application is limited, due to the inhibitory effects filipin exerts on sterol-dependent endocytosis. Nevertheless, filipin-sterol labeling can be performed on aldehyde-fixed cells which allows for sterol detection in endocytic compartments. This approach can combine studies correlating sterol distribution with experimental manipulations of endocytic trafficking pathways. Here, we describe step-by-step protocols and troubleshooting for procedures on live and fixed cells to visualize sterols during endocytic trafficking. We also provide a detailed discussion of advantages and limitations of both methods. Moreover, we illustrate the use of the endocytic recycling inhibitor brefeldin A and a genetically modified version of one of its target molecules for studying endocytic sterol trafficking.

Plasma membrane lipid-protein interactions affect signaling processes in sterol-biosynthesis mutants in Arabidopsis thaliana

The plasma membrane is an important organelle providing structure, signaling and transport as major biological functions. Being composed of lipids and proteins with different physicochemical properties, the biological functions of membranes depend on specific protein-protein and protein-lipid interactions. Interactions of proteins with their specific sterol and lipid environment were shown to be important factors for protein recruitment into sub-compartmental structures of the plasma membrane. System-wide implications of altered endogenous sterol levels for membrane functions in living cells were not studied in higher plant cells. In particular, little is known how alterations in membrane sterol composition affect protein and lipid organization and interaction within membranes. Here, we conducted a comparative analysis of the plasma membrane protein and lipid composition in Arabidopsis sterol-biosynthesis mutants smt1 and ugt80A2;B1. smt1 shows general alterations in sterol composition while ugt80A2;B1 is significantly impaired in sterol glycosylation. By systematically analyzing different cellular fractions and combining proteomic with lipidomic data we were able to reveal contrasting alterations in lipid-protein interactions in both mutants, with resulting differential changes in plasma membrane signaling status.

Plasma membrane lipid-protein interactions affect signaling processes in sterol-biosynthesis mutants in Arabidopsis thaliana

The plasma membrane is an important organelle providing structure, signaling and transport as major biological functions. Being composed of lipids and proteins with different physicochemical properties, the biological functions of membranes depend on specific protein-protein and protein-lipid interactions. Interactions of proteins with their specific sterol and lipid environment were shown to be important factors for protein recruitment into sub-compartmental structures of the plasma membrane. System-wide implications of altered endogenous sterol levels for membrane functions in living cells were not studied in higher plant cells. In particular, little is known how alterations in membrane sterol composition affect protein and lipid organization and interaction within membranes. Here, we conducted a comparative analysis of the plasma membrane protein and lipid composition in Arabidopsis sterol-biosynthesis mutants smt1 and ugt80A2;B1. smt1 shows general alterations in sterol composition while ugt80A2;B1 is significantly impaired in sterol glycosylation. By systematically analyzing different cellular fractions and combining proteomic with lipidomic data we were able to reveal contrasting alterations in lipid-protein interactions in both mutants, with resulting differential changes in plasma membrane signaling status.

Conversion of exogenous cholesterol into glycoalkaloids in potato shoots, using two methods for sterol solubilisation

Steroidal glycoalkaloids (SGA) are toxic secondary metabolites naturally occurring in the potato, as well as in certain other Solanaceous plant species, such as tomato, eggplant and pepper. To investigate the steroidal origin of SGA biosynthesis, cut potato shoots were fed cholesterol labelled with deuterium (D) in the sterol ring structure (D5- or D6-labelled), or side chain (D7-labelled), and analysed after three or five weeks. The labelled cholesterol and presence of D-labelled SGA were analysed by GC-MS and LC-MS/MS, respectively. When feeding D-labelled cholesterol solubilised in Tween-80, labelled cholesterol in free form became present in both leaves and stems, although the major part was recovered as steryl esters. Minor amounts of D-labelled SGA (α-solanine and α-chaconine) were identified in cholesterol-treated shoots, but not in blank controls, or in shoots fed D6-27-hydroxycholesterol. Solubilising the labelled cholesterol in methyl-β-cyclodextrin instead of Tween-80 increased the levels of labelled SGA up to 100-fold, and about 1 mole% of the labelled cholesterol was recovered as labelled SGA in potato leaves. Both side chain and ring structure D labels were retained in SGA, showing that the entire cholesterol molecule is converted to SGA. However, feeding side chain D7-labelled cholesterol resulted in D5-labelled SGA, indicating that two hydrogen atoms were released during formation of the SGA nitrogen-containing ring system. Feeding with D7-sitosterol did not produce any labelled SGA, indicating that cholesterol is a specific SGA precursor. In conclusion, we have demonstrated a superior performance of methyl-β-cyclodextrin for delivery of cholesterol in plant tissue feeding experiments, and given firm evidence for cholesterol as a specific sterol precursor of SGA in potato.

Arabidopsis ERG28 tethers the sterol C4-demethylation complex to prevent accumulation of a biosynthetic intermediate that interferes with polar auxin transport

Sterols are vital for cellular functions and eukaryotic development because of their essential role as membrane constituents. Sterol biosynthetic intermediates (SBIs) represent a potential reservoir of signaling molecules in mammals and fungi, but little is known about their functions in plants. SBIs are derived from the sterol C4-demethylation enzyme complex that is tethered to the membrane by Ergosterol biosynthetic protein28 (ERG28). Here, using nonlethal loss-of-function strategies focused on Arabidopsis thaliana ERG28, we found that the previously undetected SBI 4-carboxy-4-methyl-24-methylenecycloartanol (CMMC) inhibits polar auxin transport (PAT), a key mechanism by which the phytohormone auxin regulates several aspects of plant growth, including development and responses to environmental factors. The induced accumulation of CMMC in Arabidopsis erg28 plants was associated with diagnostic hallmarks of altered PAT, including the differentiation of pin-like inflorescence, loss of apical dominance, leaf fusion, and reduced root growth. PAT inhibition by CMMC occurs in a brassinosteroid-independent manner. The data presented show that ERG28 is required for PAT in plants. Furthermore, it is accumulation of an atypical SBI that may act to negatively regulate PAT in plants. Hence, the sterol pathway offers further prospects for mining new target molecules that could regulate plant development.

Inducible expression of Arabidopsis response regulator 22 (ARR22), a type-C ARR, in transgenic Arabidopsis enhances drought and freezing tolerance

The Arabidopsis two-component signaling system, which is comprised of sensor histidine kinases, histidine phosphotransfer proteins, and response regulators, mediates cytokinin response as well as various other plant responses including abiotic stress responses. Arabidopsis response regulators (ARRs) are classified into type-A, -B, and -C. Although the roles of type-A and -B ARRs are well established in Arabidopsis plant signaling, roles of type-C ARRs, ARR22 and ARR24, remain elusive. ARR22, a preferentially cytosolic protein, interacts with certain Arabidopsis histidine phosphotransfer proteins (AHPs) and displays phosphatase activity on AHP5. ARR22 is induced by cold and dehydration. Here, we show that inducible overexpression of ARR22 in Arabidopsis enhanced dehydration, drought, and cold tolerance in a dexamethasone-dependent manner, whereas mutation of the putative phospho-accepting Asp to Asn in ARR22 (ARR22^D74N) abolished these tolerance phenotypes. Overexpression of ARR22 decreased electrolyte leakage in dehydration-, drought-, or cold-stressed transgenic Arabidopsis plants compared with that of ARR22^D74N or compared with wild-type plants. Transpiration rates and stomatal apertures were not affected by ARR22 overexpression. No significant difference in both dehydration and freezing tolerance was observed between wild-type and arr22 mutants with or without cytokinin preincubation, consistent with the lack of phenotypes of arr22 mutants in their vegetative development. Meta-profile analyses of the microarray data on ARR22-responsive genes indicate that ARR22 modulates expression of a variety of abiotic stress-responsive genes, which might contribute to increasing drought and freezing tolerance. Taken together, these results suggest that ARR22 plays a positive role in the stress tolerance response in part via enhancing cell membrane integrity and that phospho-histidine phosphatase activity of ARR22 may be required for this function.

From squalene to brassinolide: the steroid metabolic and signaling pathways across the plant kingdom

The plant steroid hormones, brassinosteroids (BRs), and their precursors, phytosterols, play major roles in plant growth, development, and stress tolerance. Here, we review the impressive progress made during recent years in elucidating the components of the sterol and BR metabolic and signaling pathways, and in understanding their mechanism of action in both model plants and crops, such as Arabidopsis and rice. We also discuss emerging insights into the regulations of these pathways, their interactions with other hormonal pathways and multiple environmental signals, and the putative nature of sterols as signaling molecules.

Sterols of the green-pigmented, freshwater raphidophyte, Gonyostomum semen, from Scandinavian lakes

Sterols are a class of membrane-reinforcing, ringed lipids which have a long history of examination in algae as a means of deriving chemotaxonomic relationships and as potential lipidic biomarkers. The Raphidophyceae represent a class of harmful, bloom-forming, marine and freshwater algae. To date, there have been four published examinations of their sterol composition, focusing primarily on brown-pigmented, marine species within the genera, Chattonella, Fibrocapsa, and Heterosigma. Lacking in these examinations has been the species Gonyostomum semen Ehrenb., which is a green-pigmented, freshwater raphidophyte with a worldwide distribution. The goal of this study was to examine the sterol composition of this nuisance alga, determine the potential of using its sterol profile as a biomarker, and finally to determine if there is any intraspecific variability between isolates. We have examined 21 isolates of G. semen from a number of Scandinavian lakes, and all were found to produce two major sterols, 24-ethylcholesta-5,22E-dien-3β-ol and 24-ethylcholest-5-en-3β-ol, and 24-methylcholest-5-en-3β-ol as a minor sterol; the presence of 24-ethylcholesta-5,22E-dien-3β-ol differentiates G. semen from brown-pigmented, marine raphidophytes which generally lack it. The results of this study indicate that isolates of G. semen from geographically separate lakes across Finland and Scandinavia have the same sterol biosynthetic pathway, and that there is no evolutionary divergence between the isolates with regard to sterol composition. The sterols of G. semen are not considered to be useful biomarkers for this particular organism because they are commonly found in other algae and plants.

Vitamin D in plants: a review of occurrence, analysis, and biosynthesis

The major function of vitamin D in vertebrates is maintenance of calcium homeostasis, but vitamin D insufficiency has also been linked to an increased risk of hypertension, autoimmune diseases, diabetes, and cancer. Therefore, there is a growing awareness about vitamin D as a requirement for optimal health. Vitamin D3 is synthesized in the skin by a photochemical conversion of provitamin D3, but the necessary rays are only emitted all year round in places that lie below a 35° latitude. Unfortunately, very few food sources naturally contain vitamin D and the general population as a results fail to meet the requirements. Fish have the highest natural content of vitamin D expected to derive from an accumulation in the food chain originating from microalgae. Microalgae contain both vitamin D3 and provitamin D3, which suggests that vitamin D3 exist in the plant kingdom and vitamin D3 has also been identified in several plant species as a surprise to many. The term vitamin D also includes vitamin D2 that is produced in fungi and yeasts by UVB-exposure of provitamin D2. Small amounts can be found in plants contaminated with fungi and traditionally only vitamin D2 has been considered present in plants. This review summarizes the current knowledge on sterol biosynthesis leading to provitamin D. It also addresses the occurrence of vitamin D and its hydroxylated metabolites in higher plants and in algae and discusses limitations and advantages of analytical methods used in studies of vitamin D and related compounds including recent advances in analytical technologies. Finally, perspectives for a future production of vitamin D biofortified fruits, vegetables, and fish will be presented.

Plant sterol metabolism. Δ(7)-Sterol-C5-desaturase (STE1/DWARF7), Δ(5,7)-sterol-Δ(7)-reductase (DWARF5) and Δ(24)-sterol-Δ(24)-reductase (DIMINUTO/DWARF1) show multiple subcellular localizations in Arabidopsis thaliana (Heynh) L

Sterols are crucial lipid components that regulate membrane permeability and fluidity and are the precursors of bioactive steroids. The plant sterols exist as three major forms, free sterols, steryl glycosides and steryl esters. The storage of steryl esters in lipid droplets has been shown to contribute to cellular sterol homeostasis. To further document cellular aspects of sterol biosynthesis in plants, we addressed the question of the subcellular localization of the enzymes implicated in the final steps of the post-squalene biosynthetic pathway. In order to create a clear localization map of steroidogenic enzymes in cells, the coding regions of Δ⁷-sterol-C₅-desaturase (STE1/DWARF7), Δ²⁴-sterol-Δ²⁴-reductase (DIMINUTO/DWARF1) and Δ^5,7-sterol-Δ⁷-reductase (DWARF5) were fused to the yellow fluorescent protein (YFP) and transformed into Arabidopsis thaliana mutant lines deficient in the corresponding enzymes. All fusion proteins were found to localize in the endoplasmic reticulum in functionally complemented plants. The results show that both Δ^5,7-sterol-Δ⁷-reductase and Δ²⁴-sterol-Δ²⁴-reductase are in addition localized to the plasma membrane, whereas Δ⁷-sterol-C₅-desaturase was clearly detected in lipid particles. These findings raise new challenging questions about the spatial and dynamic cellular organization of sterol biosynthesis in plants.

Open-chain steroidal glycosides, a diverse class of plant saponins

Saponins are an important class of plant natural products that consist of a triterpenoid or steroidal skeleton that is glycosylated by varying numbers of sugar units attached at different positions. Steroidal saponins are usually divided into two broad structural classes, namely spirostanol and furostanol saponins. A third, previously unrecognized structural class of plant saponins, the open-chain steroidal saponins, is introduced in this review; these possess an acyclic sidechain in place of the heterocyclic ring/s present in spirostanols and furostanols. Open-chain steroidal saponins are numerous and structurally diverse, with over 150 unique representatives reported from terrestrial plants. Despite this, they have to date been largely overlooked in reviews of plant natural products. This review catalogs the structural diversity of open-chain steroidal saponins isolated from terrestrial plants and discusses aspects of their structure elucidation, biological activities, biosynthesis, and distribution in the plant kingdom. It is intended that this review will provide a point of reference for those working with open-chain steroidal saponins and result in their recognition and inclusion in future reviews of plant saponins.

The SUD1 gene encodes a putative E3 ubiquitin ligase and is a positive regulator of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme a reductase activity in Arabidopsis

The 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA reductase (HMGR) enzyme catalyzes the major rate-limiting step of the mevalonic acid (MVA) pathway from which sterols and other isoprenoids are synthesized. In contrast with our extensive knowledge of the regulation of HMGR in yeast and animals, little is known about this process in plants. To identify regulatory components of the MVA pathway in plants, we performed a genetic screen for second-site suppressor mutations of the Arabidopsis thaliana highly drought-sensitive drought hypersensitive2 (dry2) mutant that shows decreased squalene epoxidase activity. We show that mutations in SUPPRESSOR OF DRY2 DEFECTS1 (SUD1) gene recover most developmental defects in dry2 through changes in HMGR activity. SUD1 encodes a putative E3 ubiquitin ligase that shows sequence and structural similarity to yeast Degradation of α factor (Doα10) and human TEB4, components of the endoplasmic reticulum-associated degradation C (ERAD-C) pathway. While in yeast and animals, the alternative ERAD-L/ERAD-M pathway regulates HMGR activity by controlling protein stability, SUD1 regulates HMGR activity without apparent changes in protein content. These results highlight similarities, as well as important mechanistic differences, among the components involved in HMGR regulation in plants, yeast, and animals.

Genetic variation in plant CYP51s confers resistance against voriconazole, a novel inhibitor of brassinosteroid-dependent sterol biosynthesis

Brassinosteroids (BRs) are plant steroid hormones with structural similarity to mammalian sex steroids and ecdysteroids from insects. The BRs are synthesized from sterols and are essential regulators of cell division, cell elongation and cell differentiation. In this work we show that voriconazole, an antifungal therapeutic drug used in human and veterinary medicine, severely impairs plant growth by inhibiting sterol-14α-demethylation and thereby interfering with BR production. The plant growth regulatory properties of voriconazole and related triazoles were identified in a screen for compounds with the ability to alter BR homeostasis. Voriconazole suppressed growth of the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana and of a wide range of both monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous plants. We uncover that voriconazole toxicity in plants is a result of a deficiency in BRs that stems from an inhibition of the cytochrome P450 CYP51, which catalyzes a step of BR-dependent sterol biosynthesis. Interestingly, we found that the woodland strawberry Fragaria vesca, a member of the Rosaceae, is naturally voriconazole resistant and that this resistance is conferred by the specific CYP51 variant of F. vesca. The potential of voriconazole as a novel tool for plant research is discussed.

Identification of marneral synthase, which is critical for growth and development in Arabidopsis

Plants produce structurally diverse triterpenoids, which are important for their life and survival. Most triterpenoids and sterols share a common biosynthetic intermediate, 2,3-oxidosqualene (OS), which is cyclized by 2,3-oxidosqualene cyclase (OSC). To investigate the role of an OSC, marneral synthase 1 (MRN1), in planta, we characterized a Arabidopsis mrn1 knock-out mutant displaying round-shaped leaves, late flowering, and delayed embryogenesis. Reduced growth of mrn1 was caused by inhibition of cell expansion and elongation. Marnerol, a reduced form of marneral, was detected in Arabidopsis overexpressing MRN1, but not in the wild type or mrn1. Alterations in the levels of sterols and triterpenols and defects in membrane integrity and permeability were observed in the mrn1. In addition, GUS expression, under the control of the MRN1 gene promoter, was specifically detected in shoot and root apical meristems, which are responsible for primary growth, and the mRNA expression of Arabidopsis clade II OSCs was preferentially observed in roots and siliques containing developing seeds. The eGFP:MRN1 was localized to the endoplasmic reticulum in tobacco protoplasts. Taken together, this report provides evidence that the unusual triterpenoid pathway via marneral synthase is important for the growth and development of Arabidopsis.

Sugar availability modulates polyisoprenoid and phytosterol profiles in Arabidopsis thaliana hairy root culture

Sugars are recognized as signaling molecules regulating the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites in plants. Here, a modulatory effect of sugars on dolichol and phytosterol profiles was noted in the hairy roots of Arabidopsis thaliana. Arabidopsis roots contain a complex dolichol mixture comprising three groups ('families') of dolichols differing in the chain-length. These dolichols, especially the longest ones are accompanied by considerable amounts of polyprenols of the same length. The spectrum of polyisoprenoid alcohols, i.e. dolichols and polyprenols, was dependent on sugar type (glucose or sucrose) and its concentration in the medium. Among the long-chain dolichols Dol/Pren-20 (dolichol or prenol molecule composed of 20 isoprene residues) and Dol/Pren-23 were the main components at 0.5% and 2% glucose, respectively. Moreover, the ratio of polyprenols versus respective dolichols was also modulated by sugar in this group of polyisoprenoids, with polyprenols dominating at 3% sucrose and dolichols at 2% glucose. Glucose concentration affected the expression level of genes encoding cis-prenyltransferases, enzymes responsible for elongation of the polyisoprenoid chain. The most abundant phytosterols of the A. thaliana roots, β-sitosterol, stigmasterol and campesterol, were accompanied by corresponding stanols and traces of brassicasterol, stigmast-4,22-dien-3-one and stigmast-4-en-3-one. Similar to the polyisoprenoids, sterol profile responded to the sugar present in the medium, β-sitosterol dominating in roots grown on 3% or lower glucose concentrations and stigmasterol in 3% sucrose. These results indicate an involvement of sugar signaling in the regulation of cis-prenyltransferases and phytosterol pathway enzymes.

Evolutionarily conserved Delta(25(27))-olefin ergosterol biosynthesis pathway in the alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii

Ergosterol is the predominant sterol of fungi and green algae. Although the biosynthetic pathway for sterol synthesis in fungi is well established and is known to use C24-methylation-C24 (28)-reduction (Δ(24(28))-olefin pathway) steps, little is known about the sterol pathway in green algae. Previous work has raised the possibility that these algae might use a novel pathway because the green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii was shown to possess a mevalonate-independent methylerythritol 4-phosphate not present in fungi. Here, we report that C. reinhardtii synthesizes the protosterol cycloartenol and converts it to ergosterol (C24β-methyl) and 7-dehydroporiferasterol (C24β-ethyl) through a highly conserved sterol C24- methylation-C25-reduction (Δ(25(27))-olefin) pathway that is distinct from the well-described acetate-mevalonate pathway to fungal lanosterol and its conversion to ergosterol by the Δ(24(28))-olefin pathway. We isolated and characterized 23 sterols by a combination of GC-MS and proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy analysis from a set of mutant, wild-type, and 25-thialanosterol-treated cells. The structure and stereochemistry of the final C24-alkyl sterol side chains possessed different combinations of 24β-methyl/ethyl groups and Δ(22(23))E and Δ(25(27))-double bond constructions. When incubated with [methyl-(2)H(3)]methionine, cells incorporated three (into ergosterol) or five (into 7-dehydroporiferasterol) deuterium atoms into the newly biosynthesized 24β-alkyl sterols, consistent only with a Δ(25(27))-olefin pathway. Thus, our findings demonstrate that two separate isoprenoid-24-alkyl sterol pathways evolved in fungi and green algae, both of which converge to yield a common membrane insert ergosterol.

Overexpression of 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases/C-4 decarboxylases causes growth defects possibly due to abnormal auxin transport in Arabidopsis

Sterols play crucial roles as membrane components and precursors of steroid hormones (e.g., brassinosteroids, BR). Within membranes, sterols regulate membrane permeability and fluidity by interacting with other lipids and proteins. Sterols are frequently enriched in detergent-insoluble membranes (DIMs), which organize molecules involved in specialized signaling processes, including auxin transporters. To be fully functional, the two methyl groups at the C-4 position of cycloartenol, a precursor of plant sterols, must be removed by bifunctional 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases/C-4 decarboxylases (3βHSD/D). To understand the role of 3βHSD/D in Arabidopsis development, we analyzed the phenotypes of knock-out mutants and overexpression lines of two 3βHSD/D genes (At1g47290 and At2g26260). Neither single nor double knock-out mutants displayed a noticeable phenotype; however, overexpression consistently resulted in plants with wrinkled leaves and short inflorescence internodes. Interestingly, the internode growth defects were opportunistic; even within a plant, some stems were more severely affected than others. Endogenous levels of BRs were not altered in the overexpression lines, suggesting that the growth defect is not primarily due to a flaw in BR biosynthesis. To determine if overexpression of the sterol biosynthetic genes affects the functions of membrane-localized auxin transporters, we subjected plants to the auxin efflux carrier inhibitor, 1-N-naphthylphthalamic acid (NPA). Where-as the gravity vectors of wild-type roots became randomly scattered in response to NPA treatment, those of the overexpression lines continued to grow in the direction of gravity. Overexpression of the two Arabidopsis 3βHSD/D genes thus appears to affect auxin transporter activity, possibly by altering sterol composition in the membranes.

Genome sequence of the model medicinal mushroom Ganoderma lucidum

Ganoderma lucidum is a widely used medicinal macrofungus in traditional Chinese medicine that creates a diverse set of bioactive compounds. Here we report its 43.3-Mb genome, encoding 16,113 predicted genes, obtained using next-generation sequencing and optical mapping approaches. The sequence analysis reveals an impressive array of genes encoding cytochrome P450s (CYPs), transporters and regulatory proteins that cooperate in secondary metabolism. The genome also encodes one of the richest sets of wood degradation enzymes among all of the sequenced basidiomycetes. In all, 24 physical CYP gene clusters are identified. Moreover, 78 CYP genes are coexpressed with lanosterol synthase, and 16 of these show high similarity to fungal CYPs that specifically hydroxylate testosterone, suggesting their possible roles in triterpenoid biosynthesis. The elucidation of the G. lucidum genome makes this organism a potential model system for the study of secondary metabolic pathways and their regulation in medicinal fungi.

Ganoderma lucidum is a macrofungus in traditional Chinese medicine known to produce different bioactive compounds. In this study, the genome of G. lucidum is sequenced, making this organism a potential model system for future studies of secondary metabolic pathways and their regulation in medicinal fungi.

Induction of potato steroidal glycoalkaloid biosynthetic pathway by overexpression of cDNA encoding primary metabolism HMG-CoA reductase and squalene synthase

Potato steroidal glycoalkaloids (SGAs) are toxic secondary metabolites whose total content in tubers must be regulated. SGAs are biosynthesized by the sterol branch of the mevalonic acid/isoprenoid pathway. In a previous study, we showed a correlation between SGA levels and the abundance of transcript coding for HMG-CoA reductase 1 (HMG1) and squalene synthase 1 (SQS1) in potato tissues and potato genotypes varying in SGA content. Here, Solanum tuberosum cv. Desirée (low SGA producer) was transformed with a gene construct containing the coding region of either HMG1 or SQS1 of Solanum chacoense Bitt. clone 8380-1, a high SGA producer. SGA levels in transgenic HMG-plants were either greater than (in eight of 14 plants) or no different from untransformed controls, whereas only four of 12 SQS-transgenics had greater SGA levels than control, as determined by HPLC. Quantitative real-time PCR was used to estimate relative steady-state transcript levels of isoprenoid-, steroid-, and SGA-related genes in leaves of the transgenic plants compared to nontransgenic controls. HMG-transgenic plants exhibited increased transcript accumulation of SQS1, sterol C24-methyltransferase type1 (SMT1), and solanidine glycosyltransferase 2 (SGT2), whereas SQS-transgenic plants, had consistently lower transcript levels of HMG1 and variable SMT1 and SGT2 transcript abundance among different transgenics. HMG-transgenic plants exhibited changes in transcript accumulation for some sterol biosynthetic genes as well. Taken together, the data suggest coordinated regulation of isoprenoid metabolism and SGA secondary metabolism.

Propiconazole inhibits the sterol 14α-demethylase in Glomus irregulare like in phytopathogenic fungi

The increasing concentrations impact (0.02, 0.2 and 2 mg L(-1)) of a Sterol Biosynthesis Inhibitor (SBI) fungicide, propiconazole, was evaluated on development and sterol metabolism of two non-target organisms: mycorrhizal or non-mycorrhizal transformed chicory roots and the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus (AMF) Glomus irregulare using monoxenic cultures. In this work, we provide the first evidence of a direct impact of propiconazole on the AMF by disturbing its sterol metabolism. A significant decrease in end-products sterols contents (24-methylcholesterol and in 24-ethylcholesterol) was observed concomitantly to a 24-methylenedihydrolanosterol accumulation indicating the inhibition of a key enzyme in sterol biosynthesis pathway, the sterol 14α-demethylase like in phytopathogenic fungi. A decrease in end-product sterol contents in propiconazole-treated roots was also observed suggesting a slowing down of the sterol metabolism in plant. Taken together, our findings suggest that the inhibition of the both AM symbiotic partners development by propiconazole results from their sterol metabolism alterations.

Deciphering the molecular functions of sterols in cellulose biosynthesis

Sterols play vital roles in plant growth and development, as components of membranes and as precursors to steroid hormones. Analysis of Arabidopsis mutants indicates that sterol composition is crucial for cellulose biosynthesis. Sterols are widespread in the plasma membrane (PM), suggesting a possible link between sterols and the multimeric cellulose synthase complex. In one possible scenario, molecular interactions in sterol-rich PM microdomains or another form of sterol-dependent membrane scaffolding may be critical for maintaining the correct subcellular localization, structural integrity and/or activity of the cellulose synthase machinery. Another possible link may be through steryl glucosides, which could act as primers for the attachment of glucose monomers during the synthesis of β-(1 → 4) glucan chains that form the cellulose microfibrils. This mini-review examines genetic and biochemical data supporting the link between sterols and cellulose biosynthesis in cell wall formation and explores potential approaches to elucidate the mechanism of this association.

Plant VDAC: facts and speculations

The voltage-dependent anion-selective channel (VDAC) is the most abundant protein in the mitochondrial outer membrane and the major transport pathway for a large variety of compounds ranging from ions to large polymeric molecules such as DNA and tRNA. Plant VDACs feature a secondary structure content and electrophysiological properties akin to those of VDACs from other organisms. They however undergo a specific regulation. The general importance of VDAC in plant physiology has only recently emerged. Besides their role in metabolite transport, plant VDACs are also involved in the programmed cell death triggered in response to biotic and abiotic stresses. Moreover, their colocalization in non-mitochondrial membranes suggests a diversity of function. This review summarizes our current understanding of the structure and function of plant VDACs. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: VDAC structure, function, and regulation of mitochondrial metabolism.

Brassinosteroids

Brassinosteroids (BRs) are endogenous plant hormones essential for the proper regulation of multiple physiological processes required for normal plant growth and development. Since their discovery more than 30 years ago, extensive research on the mechanisms of BR action using biochemistry, mutant studies, proteomics and genome-wide transcriptome analyses, has helped refine the BR biosynthetic pathway, identify the basic molecular components required to relay the BR signal from perception to gene regulation, and expand the known physiological responses influenced by BRs. These mechanistic advances have helped answer the intriguing question of how BRs can have such dramatic pleiotropic effects on a broad range of diverse developmental pathways and have further pointed to BR interactions with other plant hormones and environmental cues. This chapter briefly reviews historical aspects of BR research and then summarizes the current state of knowledge on BR biosynthesis, metabolism and signal transduction. Recent studies uncovering novel phosphorelays and gene regulatory networks through which BR influences both vegetative and reproductive development are examined and placed in the context of known BR physiological responses including cell elongation and division, vascular differentiation, flowering, pollen development and photomorphogenesis.

A new insight into application for barley chromosome addition lines of common wheat: achievement of stigmasterol accumulation

Barley (Hordeum vulgare) has a much higher content of bioactive substances than wheat (Triticum aestivum). In order to investigate additive and/or synergistic effect(s) on the phytosterol content of barley chromosomes, we used a series of barley chromosome addition lines of common wheat that were produced by normal crossing. In determining the plant sterol levels in 2-week-old seedlings and dry seeds, we found that the level of stigmasterol in the barley chromosome 3 addition (3H) line in the seedlings was 1.5-fold higher than that in the original wheat line and in the other barley chromosome addition lines, but not in the seeds. Simultaneously, we determined the overall expression pattern of genes related to plant sterol biosynthesis in the seedlings of wheat and each addition line to assess the relative expression of each gene in the sterol pathway. Since we elucidated the CYP710A8 (cytochrome P450 subfamily)-encoding sterol C-22 desaturase as a key characteristic for the higher level of stigmasterol, full-length cDNAs of wheat and barley CYP710A8 genes were isolated. These CYP710A8 genes were mapped on chromosome 3 in barley (3H) and wheat (3A, 3B, and 3D), and the expression of CYP710A8 genes increased in the 3H addition line, indicating that it is responsible for stigmasterol accumulation. Overexpression of the CYP710A8 genes in Arabidopsis increased the stigmasterol content but did not alter the total sterol level. Our results provide new insight into the accumulation of bioactive compounds in common wheat and a new approach for assessing plant metabolism profiles.

Effects of sterol-binding agent nystatin on wheat roots: the changes in membrane permeability, sterols and glycoceramides

Plant sterols are important multifunctional lipids, which are involved in determining membrane properties. Biophysical characteristics of model lipid and isolated animal membranes with altered sterol component have been intensively studied. In plants however, the precise mechanisms of involvement of sterols in membrane functioning remain unclear. In present work the possible interactions between sterols and other membrane lipids in plant cells were studied. A useful experimental approach for elucidating the roles of sterols in membrane activity is to use agents that specifically bind with endogenous sterols, for example the antibiotic nystatin. Membrane characteristics and the composition of membrane lipids in the roots of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) seedlings treated with nystatin were analyzed. The application of nystatin greatly increased the permeability of the plasma membrane for ions and SH-containing molecules and decreased the total sterol level mainly as a consequence of a reduction in the amount of β-sitosterol and campesterol. Dynamic light-scattering was used to confirm the in vitro formation of stable complexes between nystatin and β-sitosterol or cholesterol. Sterol depletion was accompanied by a significant rise in total glycoceramide (GlCer) content after 2h treatment with nystatin. Analysis of the GlCer composition using mass spectrometry with electrospray ionization demonstrated that nystatin induced changes in the ratio of molecular species of GlCer. Our results suggest that changes in the sphingolipid composition can contribute to the changes in plasma membrane functioning induced by sterol depletion.

Steryl glucoside and acyl steryl glucoside analysis of Arabidopsis seeds by electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry

Establishment of sensitive methods for the detection of cellular sterols and their derivatives is a critical step in developing comprehensive lipidomics technology. We demonstrate that electrospray ionization tandem (triple quadrupole) mass spectrometry (ESI-MS/MS) is an efficient method for monitoring steryl glucosides (SG) and acyl steryl glucosides (ASG). Comparison of analysis of SG and ASG by ESI-MS/MS with analysis by gas chromatography with flame ionization detection (GC-FID) shows that the two methods yield similar molar compositions. These data demonstrate that ESI-MS/MS response per molar amount of sterol conjugate is similar among various molecular species of SG and ASG. Application of ESI-MS/MS to seed samples from wild-type Arabidopsis and a mutant deficient in two UDP-glucose:sterol glucosyltransferases, UGT80A2 and UGT80B1, revealed new details on the composition of sitosteryl, campesteryl and stigmasteryl glucosides and ASG. SG were decreased by 86% in the ugt80A2,B1 double mutant, compared to the wild-type, while ASG were reduced 96%. The results indicate that these glucosyltransferases account for much of the accumulation of the sterol conjugates in wild-type Arabidopsis seeds.

Roles for farnesol and ABA in Arabidopsis flower development

The Arabidopsis FOLK (At5g58560) gene encodes farnesol kinase, which phosphorylates farnesol to farnesyl phosphate. Loss-of-function mutations in the FOLK gene are associated with enhanced sensitivity to abscisic acid (ABA), suggesting that FOLK negatively regulates ABA signaling. Moreover, folk flowers develop supernumerary carpels under water stress, providing evidence for a molecular link between farnesol metabolism, abiotic stress signaling and flower development. Here, we show that farnesol increases ABA sensitivity and that ABA affects flower development in Arabidopsis.

Sterol glycosyltransferases--the enzymes that modify sterols

Sterols are important components of cell membranes, hormones, signalling molecules and defense-related biotic and abiotic chemicals. Sterol glycosyltransferases (SGTs) are enzymes involved in sterol modifications and play an important role in metabolic plasticity during adaptive responses. The enzymes are classified as a subset of family 1 glycosyltransferases due to the presence of a signature motif in their primary sequence. These enzymes follow a compulsory order sequential mechanism forming a ternary complex. The diverse applications of sterol glycosides, like cytotoxic and apoptotic activity, anticancer activity, medicinal values, anti-stress roles and anti-insect and antibacterial properties, draws attention towards their synthesis mechanisms. Many secondary metabolites are derived from sterol pathways, which are important in defense mechanisms against pathogens. SGTs in plants are involved in changed sensitivity to stress hormones and their agrochemical analogs and changed tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses. SGTs that glycosylate steroidal hormones, such as brassinosteroids, function as growth and development regulators in plants. In terms of metabolic roles, it can be said that SGTs occupy important position in plant metabolism and may offer future tools for crop improvement.

A dynamic role for sterols in embryogenesis of Pisum sativum

Molecular roles of sterols in plant development remain to be elucidated. To investigate sterol composition during embryogenesis, the occurrence of 25 steroid compounds in stages of developing seeds and pods of Pisum sativum was examined by GC-MS analysis. Immature seeds containing very young embryos exhibited the greatest concentrations of sterols. Regression models indicated that the natural log of seed or pod fr. wt was a consistent predictor of declining sterol content during embryonic development. Although total sterol levels were reduced in mature embryos, the composition of major sterols sitosterol and campesterol remained relatively constant in all 12 seed stages examined. In mature seeds, a significant decrease in isofucosterol was observed, as well as minor changes such as increases in cycloartenol branch sterols and campesterol derivatives. In comparison to seeds and pods, striking differences in composition were observed in sterol profiles of stems, shoots, leaves, flowers and flower buds, as well as cotyledons versus radicles. The highest levels of isofucosterol, a precursor to sitosterol, occurred in young seeds and flower buds, tissues that contain rapidly dividing cells and cells undergoing differentiation. Conversely, the highest levels of stigmasterol, a derivative of sitosterol, were found in fully-differentiated leaves while all seed stages exhibited low levels of stigmasterol. The observed differences in sterol content were correlated to mRNA expression data for sterol biosynthesis genes from Arabidopsis. These findings implicate the coordinated expression of sterol biosynthesis enzymes in gene regulatory networks underlying the embryonic development of flowering plants.

Fluorescent in situ visualization of sterols in Arabidopsis roots

Sterols are eukaryotic membrane components with crucial roles in diverse cellular processes. Elucidation of sterol function relies on development of tools for in situ sterol visualization. Here we describe protocols for in situ sterol localization in Arabidopsis thaliana root cells, using filipin as a specific probe for detection of fluorescent filipin-sterol complexes. Currently, filipin is the only established tool for sterol visualization in plants. Filipin labeling can be performed on aldehyde-fixed samples, largely preserving fluorescent proteins and being compatible with immunocytochemistry. Filipin can also be applied for probing live cells, taking into account the fact that it inhibits sterol-dependent endocytosis. The experimental procedures described are designed for fluorescence detection by confocal laser-scanning microscopy with excitation of filipin-sterol complexes at 364 nm. The protocols require 1 d for sterol covisualization with fluorescent proteins in fixed or live roots and 2 d for immunocytochemistry on whole-mount roots.

Quantification of sterol lipids in plants by quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry

Glycerolipids, sphingolipids, and sterol lipids constitute the major lipid classes in plants. Sterol lipids are composed of free and conjugated sterols, i.e., sterol esters, sterol glycosides, and acylated sterol glycosides. Sterol lipids play crucial roles during adaption to abiotic stresses and plant-pathogen interactions. Presently, no comprehensive method for sterol lipid quantification in plants is available. We used nanospray ionization quadrupole-time-of-flight mass spectrometry (Q-TOF MS) to resolve and identify the molecular species of all four sterol lipid classes from Arabidopsis thaliana. Free sterols were derivatized with chlorobetainyl chloride. Sterol esters, sterol glycosides, and acylated sterol glycosides were ionized as ammonium adducts. Quantification of molecular species was achieved in the positive mode after fragmentation in the presence of internal standards. The amounts of sterol lipids quantified by Q-TOF MS/MS were validated by comparison with results obtained with TLC/GC. Quantification of sterol lipids from leaves and roots of phosphate-deprived A. thaliana plants revealed changes in the amounts and molecular species composition. The Q-TOF method is far more sensitive than GC or HPLC. Therefore, Q-TOF MS/MS provides a comprehensive strategy for sterol lipid quantification that can be adapted to other tandem mass spectrometers.

Dissecting the sterol C-4 demethylation process in higher plants. From structures and genes to catalytic mechanism

Sterols become functional only after removal of the two methyl groups at C-4. This review focuses on the sterol C-4 demethylation process in higher plants. An intriguing aspect in the removal of the two C-4 methyl groups of sterol precursors in plants is that it does not occur consecutively as it does in yeast and animals, but is interrupted by several enzymatic steps. Each C-4 demethylation step involves the sequential participation of three individual enzymatic reactions including a sterol methyl oxidase (SMO), a 3β-hydroxysteroid-dehydrogenase/C4-decarboxylase (3βHSD/D) and a 3-ketosteroid reductase (SR). The distant location of the two C-4 demethylations in the sterol pathway requires distinct SMOs with respective substrate specificity. Combination of genetic and molecular enzymological approaches allowed a thorough identification and functional characterization of two distinct families of SMOs genes and two 3βHSD/D genes. For the latter, these studies provided the first molecularly and functionally characterized HSDs from a short chain dehydrogenase/reductase family in plants, and the first data on 3-D molecular interactions of an enzyme of the postoxidosqualene cyclase sterol biosynthetic pathway with its substrate in animals, yeast and higher plants. Characterization of these three new components involved in C-4 demethylation participates to the completion of the molecular inventory of sterol synthesis in higher plants.

Antifungal activity of bis-azasqualenes, inhibitors of oxidosqualene cyclase

The antifungal activity and in vitro toxicity toward animal cells of two inhibitors of oxidosqualene cyclase, squalene bis-diethylamine (SBD) and squalene bis-diethylmethylammonium iodide (SBDI) were studied. Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) against dermatophytes and other fungi involved in cutaneous and systemic infections (12 isolates from seven species) were determined by the broth microdilution method based on the reference documents M38-A and M27-A2 of Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI). Both compounds exerted fungistatic activities, although with different action. SBDI was the more active compound and displayed low MIC values (in the 3.12-12.5 μg ml(-1) range) against Microsporum canis, Trichophyton mentagrophytes and one isolate of Scopulariopsis brevicaulis, while SBD showed MIC values against these species in the 3.12-25 μg ml(-1) range. Toxicity was tested on Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) epithelial cells and human microvascular endothelial cells (HMEC). SBDI proved the less toxic compound: it inhibited M. canis, T. mentagrophytes and S. brevicaulis at concentrations below those found toxic for MDCK cells. HMEC were the more sensitive cells.

Gene regulation patterns in triterpene biosynthetic pathway driven by overexpression of squalene synthase and methyl jasmonate elicitation in Bupleurum falcatum

The root of Bupleurum falcatum L. (Apiaceae) has long been one of the most important traditional herbal medicines in Asian countries. A group of triterpene saponins (saikosaponins) are the major constituents of this plant. Squalene synthase (SS) may play a regulatory role in directing triterpene intermediates and sterol pathways. Here, we investigated the regulatory role of the squalene synthase (BfSS1) gene in the biosynthesis of phytosterol and triterpene in B. falcatum. BfSS1 mRNA accumulated ubiquitously in plant organs and markedly increased in roots after treatment with methyl jasmonate (MeJA), ABA and ethephon. Transgenic B. falcatum constructs overexpressing BfSS1 in the sense and antisense orientations were assembled using the Agrobacterium-mediated method. Transgenic roots overexpressing BfSS1 in the sense orientation resulted in enhanced production of both phytosterol and saikosaponins. Overexpression of the BfSS1 gene in the sense orientation increased the mRNA accumulation of downstream genes such as squalene epoxidase and cycloartenol synthase but unexpectedly decreased the mRNA levels of β-amyrin synthase (β-AS), a triterpene synthase mRNA. MeJA treatment of wild-type roots strongly stimulated β-AS mRNA accumulation and saikosaponin production but suppressed phytosterol production. MeJA treatment of transgenic roots overexpressing BfSS1 in the sense orientation failed to stimulate β-AS mRNA accumulation but still enhanced saikosaponin and phytosterol production. These results indicate that overexpression of BfSS1 in B. falcatum regulates more powerfully the downstream genes than elicitor (MeJA) treatment in triterpene and phytosterol biosynthesis.