151
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Inzlicht M, Berkman E. Six Questions for the Resource Model of Control (and Some Answers). SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY PSYCHOLOGY COMPASS 2015; 9:511-524. [PMID: 28966660 DOI: 10.1111/spc3.12200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The resource model of self-control casts self-control as a capacity that relies on some limited resource that exhausts with use. The model captured our imagination and brought much-needed attention on an important yet neglected psychological construct. Despite its success, basic issues with the model remain. Here, we ask six questions: (i) Does self-control really wane over time? (ii) Is ego depletion a form of mental fatigue? (iii) What is the resource that is depleted by ego depletion? (iv) How can changes in motivation, perception, and expectations replenish an exhausted resource? (v) Has the revised resource model unwittingly become a model about motivation? (vi) Do self-control exercises increase self-control? By providing some answers to these questions - including conducting a meta-analysis of the self-control training literature - we highlight how the resource model needs to be revised if not supplanted altogether.
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152
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Social proof in the supermarket: Promoting healthy choices under low self-control conditions. Food Qual Prefer 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodqual.2015.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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153
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Voce AC, Moston S. Does Monitoring Performance Eliminate the Ego-depletion Phenomenon and Influence Perception of Time? SELF AND IDENTITY 2015. [DOI: 10.1080/15298868.2015.1074101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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154
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Mohr RI, Purdie-Vaughns V. Diversity within Women of Color: Why Experiences Change Felt Stigma. SEX ROLES 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s11199-015-0511-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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155
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156
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Hofmann W, Friese M, Strack F. Impulse and Self-Control From a Dual-Systems Perspective. PERSPECTIVES ON PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 2015; 4:162-76. [PMID: 26158943 DOI: 10.1111/j.1745-6924.2009.01116.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 575] [Impact Index Per Article: 63.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Though human beings embody a unique ability for planned behavior, they also often act impulsively. This insight may be important for the study of self-control situations in which people are torn between their long-term goals to restrain behavior and their immediate impulses that promise hedonic fulfillment. In the present article, we outline a dual-systems perspective of impulse and self-control and suggest a framework for the prediction of self-control outcomes. This framework combines three elements that, considered jointly, may enable a more precise prediction of self-control outcomes than they do when studied in isolation: impulsive precursors of behavior, reflective precursors, and situational or dispositional boundary conditions. The theoretical and practical utility of such an approach is demonstrated by drawing on recent evidence from several domains of self-control such as eating, drinking, and sexual behavior.
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157
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Abstract
Evidence from three studies reveals a critical difference in self-control as a function of political ideology. Specifically, greater endorsement of political conservatism (versus liberalism) was associated with greater attention regulation and task persistence. Moreover, this relationship is shown to stem from varying beliefs in freewill; specifically, the association between political ideology and self-control is mediated by differences in the extent to which belief in freewill is endorsed, is independent of task performance or motivation, and is reversed when freewill is perceived to impede (rather than enhance) self-control. Collectively, these findings offer insight into the self-control consequences of political ideology by detailing conditions under which conservatives and liberals are better suited to engage in self-control and outlining the role of freewill beliefs in determining these conditions.
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158
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Deng H, Wu CH, Leung K, Guan Y. Depletion from Self-Regulation: A Resource-based Account of the Effect of Value Incongruence. PERSONNEL PSYCHOLOGY 2015. [DOI: 10.1111/peps.12107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hong Deng
- London School of Economics and Political Science
| | - Chia-Huei Wu
- London School of Economics and Political Science
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159
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Neural and behavioral correlates of extended training during sleep deprivation in humans: evidence for local, task-specific effects. J Neurosci 2015; 35:4487-500. [PMID: 25788668 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.4567-14.2015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Recent work has demonstrated that behavioral manipulations targeting specific cortical areas during prolonged wakefulness lead to a region-specific homeostatic increase in theta activity (5-9 Hz), suggesting that theta waves could represent transient neuronal OFF periods (local sleep). In awake rats, the occurrence of an OFF period in a brain area relevant for behavior results in performance errors. Here we investigated the potential relationship between local sleep events and negative behavioral outcomes in humans. Volunteers participated in two prolonged wakefulness experiments (24 h), each including 12 h of practice with either a driving simulation (DS) game or a battery of tasks based on executive functions (EFs). Multiple high-density EEG recordings were obtained during each experiment, both in quiet rest conditions and during execution of two behavioral tests, a response inhibition test and a motor test, aimed at assessing changes in impulse control and visuomotor performance, respectively. In addition, fMRI examinations obtained at 12 h intervals were used to investigate changes in inter-regional connectivity. The EF experiment was associated with a reduced efficiency in impulse control, whereas DS led to a relative impairment in visuomotor control. A specific spatial and temporal correlation was observed between EEG theta waves occurring in task-related areas and deterioration of behavioral performance. The fMRI connectivity analysis indicated that performance impairment might partially depend on a breakdown in connectivity determined by a "network overload." Present results demonstrate the existence of an association between theta waves during wakefulness and performance errors and may contribute explaining behavioral impairments under conditions of sleep deprivation/restriction.
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160
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Allom V, Mullan B. Two inhibitory control training interventions designed to improve eating behaviour and determine mechanisms of change. Appetite 2015; 89:282-90. [DOI: 10.1016/j.appet.2015.02.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2014] [Revised: 01/30/2015] [Accepted: 02/17/2015] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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161
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Westbrook A, Braver TS. Cognitive effort: A neuroeconomic approach. COGNITIVE, AFFECTIVE & BEHAVIORAL NEUROSCIENCE 2015; 15:395-415. [PMID: 25673005 PMCID: PMC4445645 DOI: 10.3758/s13415-015-0334-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 254] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Cognitive effort has been implicated in numerous theories regarding normal and aberrant behavior and the physiological response to engagement with demanding tasks. Yet, despite broad interest, no unifying, operational definition of cognitive effort itself has been proposed. Here, we argue that the most intuitive and epistemologically valuable treatment is in terms of effort-based decision-making, and advocate a neuroeconomics-focused research strategy. We first outline psychological and neuroscientific theories of cognitive effort. Then we describe the benefits of a neuroeconomic research strategy, highlighting how it affords greater inferential traction than do traditional markers of cognitive effort, including self-reports and physiologic markers of autonomic arousal. Finally, we sketch a future series of studies that can leverage the full potential of the neuroeconomic approach toward understanding the cognitive and neural mechanisms that give rise to phenomenal, subjective cognitive effort.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Westbrook
- Department of Psychology, Washington University in Saint Louis, Saint Louis, MO, 63130, USA,
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162
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Rivkin W, Diestel S, Schmidt KH. Affective commitment as a moderator of the adverse relationships between day-specific self-control demands and psychological well-being. JOURNAL OF VOCATIONAL BEHAVIOR 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jvb.2015.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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163
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Joosten A, van Dijke M, Van Hiel A, De Cremer D. Out of control!? How loss of self-control influences prosocial behavior: the role of power and moral values. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0126377. [PMID: 26024380 PMCID: PMC4449001 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0126377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2014] [Accepted: 04/01/2015] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Lack of self-control has been suggested to facilitate norm-transgressing behaviors because of the operation of automatic selfish impulses. Previous research, however, has shown that people having a high moral identity may not show such selfish impulses when their self-control resources are depleted. In the present research, we extended this effect to prosocial behavior. Moreover, we investigated the role of power in the interaction between moral identity and self-control depletion. More specifically, we expected that power facilitates the externalization of internal states, which implies that for people who feel powerful, rather than powerless, depletion decreases prosocial behavior especially for those low in moral identity. A laboratory experiment and a multisource field study supported our predictions. The present finding that the interaction between self-control depletion and moral identity is contingent upon people’s level of power suggests that power may enable people to refrain from helping behavior. Moreover, the findings suggest that if organizations want to improve prosocial behaviors, it may be effective to situationally induce moral values in their employees.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Joosten
- Department of Developmental, Personality, and Social Psychology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
- * E-mail:
| | - Marius van Dijke
- Rotterdam School of Management, Erasmus University, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Alain Van Hiel
- Department of Developmental, Personality, and Social Psychology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - David De Cremer
- Judge Business School, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
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164
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Grandey AA, Gabriel AS. Emotional Labor at a Crossroads: Where Do We Go from Here? ANNUAL REVIEW OF ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY AND ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR 2015. [DOI: 10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-032414-111400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 253] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Alicia A. Grandey
- Department of Psychology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802;
| | - Allison S. Gabriel
- Department of Management, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23284
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165
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Hagger MS. Conservation of resources theory and the 'strength' model of self-control: conceptual overlap and commonalities. Stress Health 2015; 31:89-94. [PMID: 25873420 DOI: 10.1002/smi.2639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Martin S Hagger
- Health Psychology and Behavioural Medicine Research Group, School of Psychology and Speech Pathology, Faculty of Health Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia
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166
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Hagger MS, Wong GG, Davey SR. A theory-based behavior-change intervention to reduce alcohol consumption in undergraduate students: trial protocol. BMC Public Health 2015; 15:306. [PMID: 25886281 PMCID: PMC4392782 DOI: 10.1186/s12889-015-1648-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2013] [Accepted: 03/17/2015] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Excessive alcohol consumption on single occasions among undergraduate students is a major health issue as research has shown this pattern of drinking to be related to maladaptive health and psychosocial outcomes. Brief, theory-based interventions targeting motivation and self-control as behavior-change techniques have been identified as effective means to reduce alcohol consumption, but few studies have examined the interactive effects of these components. The aim of the present study is to develop a brief theory-based intervention using motivational and self-control intervention techniques to reduce alcohol consumption in undergraduate students. METHODS/DESIGN The intervention will adopt a factorial design to test the main and interactive effects of the techniques on alcohol consumption. Using mental simulations and the strength model of self-control as the theoretical bases of the intervention, the study will adopt a fully randomized 2 (mental simulation: mental simulation vs. control irrelevant visualization exercise) × 2 (self-control training: challenging Stroop task vs. easy Stroop task) between-participants design. Non-abstinent undergraduate students aged 18 years or older will be eligible to participate in the study. Participants will complete an initial survey including self-reported alcohol consumption measures, measures of motivation and self- measures. Participants will be randomly allocated to receive either a mental simulation exercise presented in print format or a control irrelevant visualization exercise. Thereafter, participants will be randomly assigned to receive a challenging online self-control training exercise or an easy training exercise that has little self-control demand over the course of the next four weeks. Four weeks later participants will complete a follow-up alcohol consumption, motivation and self-control measures. DISCUSSION This study will provide the first evidence for the individual and interactive effects of motivational and self-control training techniques in an intervention to reduce alcohol consumption. It will also demonstrate the importance of adopting multiple theoretical perspectives and a factorial design to identify the unique and interactive impact of behavior-change techniques on health behavior. TRIAL REGISTRATION The trial is registered with the Australian and New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry, ACTRN12613000573752.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin S Hagger
- Health Psychology and Behavioural Medicine Research Group, School of Psychology and Speech Pathology, Faculty of Health Sciences, Curtin University, GPO Box U1987, Perth, WA, 6845, Australia.
| | - Ging Ging Wong
- Health Psychology and Behavioural Medicine Research Group, School of Psychology and Speech Pathology, Faculty of Health Sciences, Curtin University, GPO Box U1987, Perth, WA, 6845, Australia.
| | - Simon R Davey
- Health Psychology and Behavioural Medicine Research Group, School of Psychology and Speech Pathology, Faculty of Health Sciences, Curtin University, GPO Box U1987, Perth, WA, 6845, Australia.
- Department of Psychology, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom.
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167
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Wilson K, Senay I, Durantini M, Sánchez F, Hennessy M, Spring B, Albarracín D. When it comes to lifestyle recommendations, more is sometimes less: a meta-analysis of theoretical assumptions underlying the effectiveness of interventions promoting multiple behavior domain change. Psychol Bull 2015; 141:474-509. [PMID: 25528345 PMCID: PMC4801324 DOI: 10.1037/a0038295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
A meta-analysis of 150 research reports summarizing the results of multiple behavior domain interventions examined theoretical predictions about the effects of the included number of recommendations on behavioral and clinical change in the domains of smoking, diet, and physical activity. The meta-analysis yielded 3 main conclusions. First, there is a curvilinear relation between the number of behavioral recommendations and improvements in behavioral and clinical measures, with a moderate number of recommendations producing the highest level of change. A moderate number of recommendations is likely to be associated with stronger effects because the intervention ensures the necessary level of motivation to implement the recommended changes, thereby increasing compliance with the goals set by the intervention, without making the intervention excessively demanding. Second, this curve was more pronounced when samples were likely to have low motivation to change, such as when interventions were delivered to nonpatient (vs. patient) populations, were implemented in nonclinic (vs. clinic) settings, used lay community (vs. expert) facilitators, and involved group (vs. individual) delivery formats. Finally, change in behavioral outcomes mediated the effects of number of recommended behaviors on clinical change. These findings provide important insights that can help guide the design of effective multiple behavior domain interventions.
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168
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Egan PM, Clarkson JJ, Hirt ER. Revisiting the restorative effects of positive mood: An expectancy-based approach to self-control restoration. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2014.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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169
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Grillon C, Quispe-Escudero D, Mathur A, Ernst M. Mental fatigue impairs emotion regulation. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015; 15:383-9. [PMID: 25706833 DOI: 10.1037/emo0000058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Because healthy physical and mental functioning depends on the ability to regulate emotions, it is important to identify moderators of such regulations. Whether mental fatigue, subsequent to the depletion of cognitive resources, impairs explicit emotion regulation to negative stimuli is currently unknown. This study explored this possibility. In a within-subject design over 2 separate sessions, healthy individuals performed easy (control session) or difficult (depletion session) cognitive tasks. Subsequently, they were presented with neutral and negative pictures, with instructions to either maintain or regulate (i.e., reduce) the emotions evoked by the pictures. Emotional reactivity was probed with the startle reflex. The negative pictures evoked a similar aversive state in the control and depletion sessions as measured by startle potentiation. However, subjects were able to down-regulate their aversive state only in the control session, not in the depletion session. These results indicate that mental fatigue following performance of cognitive tasks impairs emotion regulation without affecting emotional reactivity. These findings suggest that mental fatigue needs to be incorporated into models of emotion regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Grillon
- Section on Neurobiology of Fear and Anxiety, National Institute of Mental Health
| | | | - Ambika Mathur
- Section on Neurobiology of Fear and Anxiety, National Institute of Mental Health
| | - Monique Ernst
- Section on Neurobiology of Fear and Anxiety, National Institute of Mental Health
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170
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Mechanisms of motivation-cognition interaction: challenges and opportunities. COGNITIVE AFFECTIVE & BEHAVIORAL NEUROSCIENCE 2015; 14:443-72. [PMID: 24920442 DOI: 10.3758/s13415-014-0300-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 202] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Recent years have seen a rejuvenation of interest in studies of motivation-cognition interactions arising from many different areas of psychology and neuroscience. The present issue of Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience provides a sampling of some of the latest research from a number of these different areas. In this introductory article, we provide an overview of the current state of the field, in terms of key research developments and candidate neural mechanisms receiving focused investigation as potential sources of motivation-cognition interaction. However, our primary goal is conceptual: to highlight the distinct perspectives taken by different research areas, in terms of how motivation is defined, the relevant dimensions and dissociations that are emphasized, and the theoretical questions being targeted. Together, these distinctions present both challenges and opportunities for efforts aiming toward a more unified and cross-disciplinary approach. We identify a set of pressing research questions calling for this sort of cross-disciplinary approach, with the explicit goal of encouraging integrative and collaborative investigations directed toward them.
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171
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Gillebaart M, de Ridder DTD. Effortless Self-Control: A Novel Perspective on Response Conflict Strategies in Trait Self-Control. SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY PSYCHOLOGY COMPASS 2015. [DOI: 10.1111/spc3.12160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 149] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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172
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Cognitive flexibility in healthy students is affected by fatigue: An experimental study. LEARNING AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lindif.2015.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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173
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Lange F. If ego depletion cannot be studied using identical tasks, it is not ego depletion. Appetite 2015; 84:325-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.appet.2014.10.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2014] [Revised: 09/26/2014] [Accepted: 10/28/2014] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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174
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Dang J, Xiao S, Shi Y, Mao L. Action orientation overcomes the ego depletion effect. Scand J Psychol 2014; 56:223-7. [PMID: 25491068 DOI: 10.1111/sjop.12184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2014] [Accepted: 10/10/2014] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
It has been consistently demonstrated that initial exertion of self-control had negative influence on people's performance on subsequent self-control tasks. This phenomenon is referred to as the ego depletion effect. Based on action control theory, the current research investigated whether the ego depletion effect could be moderated by individuals' action versus state orientation. Our results showed that only state-oriented individuals exhibited ego depletion. For individuals with action orientation, however, their performance was not influenced by initial exertion of self-control. The beneficial effect of action orientation against ego depletion in our experiment results from its facilitation for adapting to the depleting task.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junhua Dang
- Department of Psychology, Lund University, Sweden
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175
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Baay PE, de Ridder DT, Eccles JS, van der Lippe T, van Aken MA. Self-control trumps work motivation in predicting job search behavior. JOURNAL OF VOCATIONAL BEHAVIOR 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jvb.2014.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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176
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Chow JT, Lau S. Nature Gives Us Strength: Exposure to Nature Counteracts Ego-Depletion. The Journal of Social Psychology 2014; 155:70-85. [DOI: 10.1080/00224545.2014.972310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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177
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Chatzisarantis NLD, Hagger MS. Illusionary delusions. Willingness to exercise self-control can mask effects of glucose on self-control performance in experimental paradigms that use identical self-control tasks. Appetite 2014; 84:322-4. [PMID: 25450893 DOI: 10.1016/j.appet.2014.10.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2014] [Revised: 09/26/2014] [Accepted: 10/28/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of the present article is to highlight limitations of Lange and Eggert's methodology of using identical self-control tasks in testing effects of glucose on depletion of self-control resources and self-control performance. We suggest that when participants engage in two identical self-control tasks, cognitions developed during initial act of self-control may mask the effects of glucose on self-control performance by undermining willingness to exert effort during the second act of self-control. As a consequence, glucose may increase ability to exercise self-control but participants may not want to capitalize on this "ability advantage" because they are unwilling to exercise self-control. The present article concludes that researchers who test the glucose hypothesis in the context of a depletion paradigm should employ dissimilar acts of self-control and ensure that depleted participants are sufficiently motivated to exercise self-control.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Martin S Hagger
- School of Psychology and Speech Pathology, Curtin University, Perth, Australia
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178
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Masicampo EJ, Martin SR, Anderson RA. Understanding and Overcoming Self-control Depletion. SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY PSYCHOLOGY COMPASS 2014. [DOI: 10.1111/spc3.12139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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179
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Bray SR, Graham JD, Saville PD. Self-control training leads to enhanced cardiovascular exercise performance. J Sports Sci 2014; 33:534-43. [PMID: 25278342 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2014.949830] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of the study was to investigate the effects of two weeks of self-control strength training on maximum cardiovascular exercise performance. Forty-one participants completed a cognitive self-control depletion task (Stroop task) followed by a maximal graded cycling test and were randomized to training (maximal endurance contractions of spring handgrip trainers, twice daily) or no-treatment control groups. At follow-up (2 weeks), half of each group completed either a time-matched or trial-matched Stroop task followed by another maximal graded cycling test. Results showed a significant 2-way (training X time) interaction (P < 0.001), and a trend for the 3-way (training X time X cognitive task) interaction (P = 0.07). Decomposition of the interactions revealed that across sessions cycling performance increased in both training groups, did not change in the trial-matched cognitive task control group, and declined in the time-matched control group. We conclude that isometric handgrip training leads to self-control strength adaptations that enhance maximal cardiovascular exercise performance or tolerance of exercise at maximal levels of effort.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven R Bray
- a Department of Kinesiology , McMaster University , Hamilton , ON , Canada L8S 4K1
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180
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Personal prayer counteracts self-control depletion. Conscious Cogn 2014; 29:90-5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.concog.2014.08.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2014] [Revised: 07/06/2014] [Accepted: 08/18/2014] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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181
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Bending perception to desire: Effects of task demands, motivation, and cognitive resources. MOTIVATION AND EMOTION 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/s11031-014-9436-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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182
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Abstract
Research on cognitive control and executive function has long recognized the relevance of motivational factors. Recently, however, the topic has come increasingly to center stage, with a surge of new studies examining the interface of motivation and cognitive control. In the present article we survey research situated at this interface, considering work from cognitive and social psychology and behavioral economics, but with a particular focus on neuroscience research. We organize existing findings into three core areas, considering them in the light of currently vying theoretical perspectives. Based on the accumulated evidence, we advocate for a view of control function that treats it as a domain of reward-based decision making. More broadly, we argue that neuroscientific evidence plays a critical role in understanding the mechanisms by which motivation and cognitive control interact. Opportunities for further cross-fertilization between behavioral and neuroscientific research are highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew Botvinick
- Princeton Neuroscience Institute and Department of Psychology, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 08540;
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183
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The opportunity cost model: automaticity, individual differences, and self-control resources. Behav Brain Sci 2014; 36:687-8; discussion 707-26. [PMID: 24304785 DOI: 10.1017/s0140525x1300099x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
I contend that Kurzban et al.'s model is silent on three issues. First, the extent to which opportunity-cost computations are automatic or deliberative is unclear. Second, the role of individual differences in biasing opportunity-cost computations needs elucidating. Third, in the absence of "next-best" tasks, task persistence will be indefinite, which seems unfeasible, so perhaps integration with a limited-resource account is necessary.
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184
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Abstract
The target article highlights the role of the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) in conflict monitoring, but ACC function may be better understood in terms of the hierarchical organization of behavior. This proposal suggests that the ACC selects extended goal-directed actions according to their learned costs and benefits and executes those behaviors subject to depleting resources.
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185
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Abstract
Kurzban et al.'s framework may be extended in fruitful ways by treating effort also as a cost input that affects the utility computation of a given option (rather than only as the output of a utility comparison between options). The weight people assign to effort as a cost may vary dynamically as a function of situational and dispositional factors.
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186
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Baumeister RF. Self-regulation, ego depletion, and inhibition. Neuropsychologia 2014; 65:313-9. [PMID: 25149821 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2014.08.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 135] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2014] [Revised: 08/05/2014] [Accepted: 08/11/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Inhibition is a major form of self-regulation. As such, it depends on self-awareness and comparing oneself to standards and is also susceptible to fluctuations in willpower resources. Ego depletion is the state of reduced willpower caused by prior exertion of self-control. Ego depletion undermines inhibition both because restraints are weaker and because urges are felt more intensely than usual. Conscious inhibition of desires is a pervasive feature of everyday life and may be a requirement of life in civilized, cultural society, and in that sense it goes to the evolved core of human nature. Intentional inhibition not only restrains antisocial impulses but can also facilitate optimal performance, such as during test taking. Self-regulation and ego depletion- may also affect less intentional forms of inhibition, even chronic tendencies to inhibit. Broadly stated, inhibition is necessary for human social life and nearly all societies encourage and enforce it.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roy F Baumeister
- Florida State University, University in Tallahassee, FL, USA; King Abdulaziz University, Saudi Arabia; VU Free University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Russell Sage Foundation, New York, NY, USA.
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187
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In Den Bosch-Meevissen YMC, Peters ML, Alberts HJEM. Dispositional optimism, optimism priming, and prevention of ego depletion. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2014. [DOI: 10.1002/ejsp.2055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Madelon L. Peters
- Clinical Psychological Science; Maastricht University; Maastricht The Netherlands
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188
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Salmon SJ, Adriaanse MA, De Vet E, Fennis BM, De Ridder DTD. "When the going gets tough, who keeps going?" Depletion sensitivity moderates the ego-depletion effect. Front Psychol 2014; 5:647. [PMID: 25009523 PMCID: PMC4067808 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00647] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2014] [Accepted: 06/06/2014] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Self-control relies on a limited resource that can get depleted, a phenomenon that has been labeled ego-depletion. We argue that individuals may differ in their sensitivity to depleting tasks, and that consequently some people deplete their self-control resource at a faster rate than others. In three studies, we assessed individual differences in depletion sensitivity, and demonstrate that depletion sensitivity moderates ego-depletion effects. The Depletion Sensitivity Scale (DSS) was employed to assess depletion sensitivity. Study 1 employs the DSS to demonstrate that individual differences in sensitivity to ego-depletion exist. Study 2 shows moderate correlations of depletion sensitivity with related self-control concepts, indicating that these scales measure conceptually distinct constructs. Study 3 demonstrates that depletion sensitivity moderates the ego-depletion effect. Specifically, participants who are sensitive to depletion performed worse on a second self-control task, indicating a stronger ego-depletion effect, compared to participants less sensitive to depletion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefanie J Salmon
- Department of Marketing, University of Groningen Groningen, Netherlands ; Clinical and Health Psychology Department, Utrecht University Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Marieke A Adriaanse
- Clinical and Health Psychology Department, Utrecht University Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Emely De Vet
- Strategic Communication Chairgroup, Wageningen University Wageningen, Netherlands
| | - Bob M Fennis
- Department of Marketing, University of Groningen Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Denise T D De Ridder
- Clinical and Health Psychology Department, Utrecht University Utrecht, Netherlands
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189
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Turn It All You Want: Still No Effect of Sugar Consumption on Ego Depletion. JOURNAL OF EUROPEAN PSYCHOLOGY STUDENTS 2014. [DOI: 10.5334/jeps.cc] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
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190
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Gao H, Zhang Y, Wang F, Xu Y, Hong YY, Jiang J. Regret causes ego-depletion and finding benefits in the regrettable events alleviates ego-depletion. The Journal of General Psychology 2014; 141:169-206. [PMID: 24940811 DOI: 10.1080/00221309.2014.884053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
This study tested the hypotheses that experiencing regret would result in ego-depletion, while finding benefits (i.e., "silver linings") in the regret-eliciting events counteracted the ego-depletion effect. Using a modified gambling paradigm (Experiments 1, 2, and 4) and a retrospective method (Experiments 3 and 5), five experiments were conducted to induce regret. Results revealed that experiencing regret undermined performance on subsequent tasks, including a paper-and-pencil calculation task (Experiment 1), a Stroop task (Experiment 2), and a mental arithmetic task (Experiment 3). Furthermore, finding benefits in the regret-eliciting events improved subsequent performance (Experiments 4 and 5), and this improvement was mediated by participants' perceived vitality (Experiment 4). This study extended the depletion model of self-regulation by considering emotions with self-conscious components (in our case, regret). Moreover, it provided a comprehensive understanding of how people felt and performed after experiencing regret and after finding benefits in the events that caused the regret.
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191
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Abstract
The ego depletion effect has been consistently replicated using the typical paradigm that consists of two consecutive tasks. However, striking contradiction exists in studies employing multiple tasks. The aim of the current study is to replicate previous studies following a similar procedure and design in a sample of participants from a non-western cultural background (Chinese), while strictly controlling other confounding factors, such as task duration. Results indicated that although ego depletion occurred after performing a single initial self-control task, engaging in multiple tasks did indeed offset the depletion effect. These findings are contrary to the resource-based view of ego depletion (i.e., the strength model) but more consistent with other theoretical frameworks, such as the cognitive control theory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shanshan Xiao
- Department of Psychology, Peking University, Beijing, P.R. China
| | - Junhua Dang
- Department of Psychology, Lund University, Sweden
| | - Lihua Mao
- Department of Psychology, Peking University, Beijing, P.R. China
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192
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Otten R, Cladder-Micus MB, Pouwels JL, Hennig M, Schuurmans AAT, Hermans RCJ. Facing temptation in the bar: counteracting the effects of self-control failure on young adults' ad libitum alcohol intake. Addiction 2014; 109:746-53. [PMID: 24325574 DOI: 10.1111/add.12446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2013] [Revised: 11/11/2013] [Accepted: 11/28/2013] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS The self-control strength model suggests that exertion of self-control leads to poorer subsequent self-control performance. Failure of self-control has been suggested as an important underlying mechanism of excessive drinking. This study tested the effects of self-control failure on ad libitum drinking, and the potential moderating role of glucose and self-awareness on this relationship. DESIGN The current research examined in two experiments whether the effects of self-control failure were different for males and females, and whether glucose (experiment 1) and self-awareness (experiment 2) would counteract the effects of self-control failure. A between-participants design with four conditions was employed in each experiment. SETTING A semi-naturalistic drinking setting in the form of a laboratory bar. PARTICIPANTS Undergraduate students recruited at Radboud University Nijmegen, the Netherlands (experiment 1: n = 106; experiment 2: n = 108). MEASUREMENTS The total amount of alcohol consumed during an experimental break (observational data) and questionnaire data on drinking patterns. FINDINGS Self-control failure led to increased levels of drinking in males (P < 0.05), whereas females drank less after being depleted (P < 0.01). Self-awareness, but not glucose, was found to counteract the effects of self-control failure among males (P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS Self-control failure leads to increased drinking of alcohol in males and decreased levels of drinking alcohol in females. However, increasing self-awareness appears to be a promising strategy in facing the temptation to drink when cognitive resources to inhibit intake are low.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roy Otten
- Behavioural Science Institute, Radboud University Nijmegen, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
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193
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Lanaj K, Johnson RE, Barnes CM. Beginning the workday yet already depleted? Consequences of late-night smartphone use and sleep. ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR AND HUMAN DECISION PROCESSES 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.obhdp.2014.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 189] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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194
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Wright RA. Presidential address 2013: Fatigue influence on effort—considering implications for self-regulatory restraint. MOTIVATION AND EMOTION 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/s11031-014-9406-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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195
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196
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Inzlicht M, Schmeichel BJ, Macrae CN. Why self-control seems (but may not be) limited. Trends Cogn Sci 2014; 18:127-33. [PMID: 24439530 DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2013.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 377] [Impact Index Per Article: 37.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2013] [Revised: 12/13/2013] [Accepted: 12/16/2013] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Michael Inzlicht
- University of Toronto, Department of Psychology, Toronto, Canada; Rotman School of Management, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada.
| | | | - C Neil Macrae
- University of Aberdeen, School of Psychology, Aberdeen, UK
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197
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Gröpel P, Baumeister RF, Beckmann J. Action versus state orientation and self-control performance after depletion. PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY BULLETIN 2014; 40:476-87. [PMID: 24501045 DOI: 10.1177/0146167213516636] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Three studies investigated the role of action versus state orientation in how people deal with depletion of self-control resources. Action-oriented persons were expected to continue allocating resources and hence to perform better than state-oriented persons who were expected to conserve strength. Consistent with this, action-oriented persons performed better on the d2 test of attention than state-oriented persons after a strenuous physical exercise (Study 1), showed higher acuity on the critical fusion frequency test after a test of vigilance (Study 2), and performed better on the Stroop test after a depleting sensorimotor task (Study 3). No differences emerged between action- and state-oriented persons in their initial performance and in a non-depleting context. The impact of depletion on subsequent performance is thus not fixed, but moderated by personality.
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198
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Peuker AC, Bizarro L. Attentional avoidance of smoking cues in former smokers. J Subst Abuse Treat 2014; 46:183-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jsat.2013.08.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2012] [Revised: 07/31/2013] [Accepted: 08/05/2013] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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199
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Baumeister RF, Monroe AE. Recent Research on Free Will. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-800284-1.00001-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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200
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Beyond simple utility in predicting self-control fatigue: A proximate alternative to the opportunity cost model. Behav Brain Sci 2013; 36:695-6; discussion 707-26. [DOI: 10.1017/s0140525x13001076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
AbstractThe opportunity cost model offers an ultimate explanation of ego depletion that helps to move the field beyond biologically improbable resource accounts. The model's more proximate explanation, however, falls short of accounting for much data and is based on an outdated view of human rationality. We suggest that our own process model offers a better proximate account of self-control fatigue.
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