Cancer nanomedicine: a review of recent success in drug delivery

Cancer stem cells and tumor heterogeneity: Deciphering the role in tumor progression and metastasis

Tumor heterogeneity, in principle, reflects the variation among different cancer cell populations. It can be termed inter- or intra-tumoral heterogeneity, respectively, based on its occurrence in various tissues from diverse patients or within a single tumor. The intra-tumoral heterogeneity is one of the leading causes of cancer progression and treatment failure, with the cancer stem cells (CSCs) contributing immensely to the same. These niche cells, similar to normal stem cells, possess the characteristics of self-renewal and differentiation into multiple cell types. Moreover, CSCs contribute to tumor growth and surveillance by promoting recurrence, metastasis, and therapeutic resistance. Diverse factors, including intracellular signalling pathways and tumor microenvironment (TME), play a vital role in regulating these CSCs. Although a panel of markers is considered to identify the CSC pool in various cancers, further research is needed to discriminate cancer-specific CSC markers in those. CSCs have also been found to be promising therapeutic targets for cancer therapy. Several small molecules, natural compounds, antibodies, chimeric antigen receptor T (CAR-T) cells, and CAR-natural killer (CAR-NK) cells have emerged as therapeutic tools for specific targeting of CSCs. Interestingly, many of these are in clinical trials too. Despite being a much-explored avenue of research for years, and we have come to understand its nitty-gritty, there is still a tremendous gap in our knowledge concerning its precise genesis and regulation. Hence, a concrete understanding is needed to assess the CSC-TME link and how to target different cancer-specific CSCs by designing newer tools. In this review, we have summarized CSC, its causative, different pathways and factors regulating its growth, association with tumor heterogeneity, and last but not least, discussed many of the promising CSC-targeted therapies for combating cancer metastasis.

Potential cancer treatment effects of brusatol or eriodictyol combined with 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) in colorectal cancer cell

Colorectal cancer is among the most frequently diagnosed cancers in patients today. In the treatment of this disease, combination or multicomponent therapy has been identified as a potential method to improve patient response and delay side effects. The aim of this study was to determine the effects on cell viability of commercial Bru and Erio used together with the anticancer drug 5-FU in the human colorectal cancer (CRC) cell line (HT-29 cell line) for the first time, as far as can be determined from available literature at this time. Additionally, the research seeks to study any potential effects on apoptosis. For this purpose, the effects of independent and combined treatments of the aforementioned agents on cell viability were investigated through the MTT experiment. Apoptotic effects were determined by Annexin V/PI and real-time PCR methods. In addition, a cell cycle analysis was used to determine the distribution of cells in the cycle. Data from experiments for 48 h showed that Bru, alone or in combination with 5-FU, is capable of causing an increase in the percentage of apoptotic cells in HT-29 cells compared to those of Erio alone or in combination with 5-FU. A significant increase in the level of bax and caspase-3 apoptotic genes was also detected in combinations of IC₅₀ concentrations of Bru and 5-FU. These findings suggest that unlike Erio, Bru alone or in combination with 5-FU may be useful for increasing the effects of 5-FU used in the treatment of CRC and to provide data on alternative treatment approaches.

The uptake of metal-organic frameworks: a journey into the cell

The application of metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) in drug delivery has advanced rapidly over the past decade, showing huge progress in the development of novel systems. Although a large number of versatile MOFs that can carry and release multiple compounds have been designed and tested, one of the main limitations to their translation to the clinic is the limited biological understanding of their interaction with cells and the way they penetrate them. This is a crucial aspect of drug delivery, as MOFs need to be able not only to enter into cells but also to release their cargo in the correct intracellular location. While small molecules can enter cells by passive diffusion, nanoparticles (NPs) usually require an energy-dependent process known as endocytosis. Importantly, the fate of NPs after being taken up by cells is dependent on the endocytic pathways they enter through. However, no general guidelines for MOF particle internalization have been established due to the inherent complexity of endocytosis as a mechanism, with several factors affecting cellular uptake, namely NP size and surface chemistry. In this review, we cover recent advances regarding the understanding of the mechanisms of uptake of nano-sized MOFs (nanoMOFs)s, their journey inside the cell, and the importance of biological context in their final fate. We examine critically the impact of MOF physicochemical properties on intracellular trafficking and successful cargo delivery. Finally, we highlight key unanswered questions on the topic and discuss the future of the field and the next steps for nanoMOFs as drug delivery systems.

Multiparametric cytotoxicity assessment: the effect of gold nanoparticle ligand functionalization on SKOV3 ovarian carcinoma cell death

Gold nanoparticles (AuNP) are promising anti-cancer agents because of their modifiable properties and high biocompatibility. This study used multiple parallel analyses to investigate the cytotoxic properties of 5 nm AuNP conjugated to four different ligands with distinct surface chemistry: polyethylene glycol (PEG), trimethylammonium bromide (TMAB), 4-dimethylaminopyridine (DMAP), and carboxyl (COOH). We used a range of biochemical and high-content microscopy methods to evaluate the metabolic function, oxidative stress, cell health, cell viability, and cell morphology in SKOV3 ovarian cancer cells. Each AuNP displayed a distinct cytotoxicity profile. All AuNP species assessed exhibited signs of dose-dependent cytotoxicity when morphology, clonogenic survival, lysosomal uptake, or cell number were measured as the marker of toxicity. All particles except for AuNP-COOH increased SKOV3 apoptosis. In contrast, AuNP-TMAB was the only particle that did not alter the metabolic function or induce significant signs of oxidative stress. These results demonstrate that AuNP surface chemistry impacts the magnitude and mechanism of SKOV3 cell death. Together, these findings reinforce the important role for multiparametric cytotoxicity characterization when considering the utility of novel particles and surface chemistries.

Remote drug loading into liposomes via click reaction

The development of liposome-based drugs was severely limited due to inefficient loading strategies. Herein, we developed a click reaction-mediated loading procedure by designing an enzyme-sensitive maleimide (MAL) tag for ferrying chemotherapeutics into preformed liposomes containing glutathione (GSH). Based on this strategy, various hydrophobic drugs could be encapsulated into liposomes within 5-30 min with encapsulation efficiency >95% and loading capacity of 10-30% (w/w). The entrapped cargo could be slowly released from the liposomes, followed by rapid enzyme-mediated conversion into active drugs to exert antitumor activity under physiological conditions. The resulting drug-loaded liposomes significantly prolonged the blood circulation of cargos and displayed more potent in vivo antitumor efficacy than free drugs at the equitoxic dose. More importantly, this method is a remote drug loading strategy in nature, which is suitable for industrial production. This is the first demonstration of active loading of MAL-tagged chemotherapeutics in liposomes for improved antitumor efficacies, which has the potential to serve as a universal drug loading strategy for the development of liposomal formulations of chemotherapeutics.

Numerical simulation of superparamagnetic nanoparticle motion in blood vessels for magnetic drug delivery

A numerical model is developed for the motion of superparamagnetic nanoparticles in a non-Newtonian blood flow under the influence of a magnetic field. The rheological properties of blood are modeled by the Carreau flow and viscosity, and the stochastic effects of Brownian motion and red blood cell collisions are considered. The model is validated with existing data and good agreement with experimental results is shown. The effectiveness of magnetic drug delivery in various blood vessels is assessed and found to be most successful in arterioles and capillaries. A range of magnetic field strengths are modeled using equations for both a bar magnet and a point dipole: it is shown that the bar magnet is effective at capturing nanoparticles in limited cases, while the point dipole is highly effective across a range of conditions. A parameter study is conducted to show the effects of changing the dipole moment, the distance from the magnet to the blood vessel, and the initial release point of the nanoparticles. The distance from the magnet to the blood vessel is shown to play a significant role in determining nanoparticle capture rate. The optimal initial release position is found to be located within the tumor radius in capillaries and arterioles to prevent rapid diffusion to the edges of the blood vessel prior to arriving at the tumor and near the edge of the magnet when a bar magnet is used.

DNA Origami Nanostructures Elicit Dose-Dependent Immunogenicity and Are Nontoxic up to High Doses In Vivo

DNA origami (DO) nanotechnology enables the construction of precise nanostructures capable of functionalization with small molecule drugs, nucleic acids, and proteins, suggesting a promising platform for biomedical applications. Despite the potential for drug and vaccine delivery, the impact of DO vehicles on immunogenicity in vivo is not well understood. Here, two DO vehicles, a flat triangle and a nanorod, at varying concentrations are evaluated in vitro and with a repeated dosing regimen administered at a high dose in vivo to study early and late immunogenicity. The studies show normal CD11b⁺ myeloid cell populations preferentially internalize DO in vitro. DO structures distribute well systemically in vivo, elicit a modest pro-inflammatory immune response that diminishes over time and are nontoxic as shown by weight, histopathology, lack of cytokine storm, and a complete biochemistry panel at the day 10 end point. The results take critical steps to characterize the biological response to DO and suggest that DO vehicles represent a promising platform for drug delivery and vaccine development where immunogenicity should be a key consideration.

Efficacy of Green Cerium Oxide Nanoparticles for Potential Therapeutic Applications: Circumstantial Insight on Mechanistic Aspects

Green synthesized cerium oxide nanoparticles (GS-CeO₂ NPs) have a unique size, shape, and biofunctional properties and are decorated with potential biocompatible agents to perform various therapeutic actions, such as antimicrobial, anticancer, antidiabetic, and antioxidant effects and drug delivery, by acquiring various mechanistic approaches at the molecular level. In this review article, we provide a detailed overview of some of these critical mechanisms, including DNA fragmentation, disruption of the electron transport chain, degradation of chromosomal assemblage, mitochondrial damage, inhibition of ATP synthase activity, inhibition of enzyme catalytic sites, disorganization, disruption, and lipid peroxidation of the cell membrane, and inhibition of various cellular pathways. This review article also provides up-to-date information about the future applications of GS-CeONPs to make breakthroughs in medical sectors for the advancement and precision of medicine and to effectively inform the disease diagnosis and treatment strategies.

Arginine-based cationic liposomes accelerate T cell activation and differentiation in vitro

Cationic liposomes are versatile lipid nanocarriers to improve the pharmacological properties of drug payloads. Recent advantages include the application of their intrinsic immunostimulatory effects to enhance immune activation. Herein, we report for the first time the structural effect of cationic lipids in promoting T cell activation and differentiation in vitro. Two types of cationic liposomes R3C14 and R5C14 were prepared from single type of lipids Arg-C3-Clu2C14 or Arg-C5-Clu2C14, which bear arginine head group and ditetradecyl tails but vary in the carbon number of the spacer in between. Murine CD8 or CD4 T cells were pretreated with 50 μM of each type of liposomes for 2 h, followed by stimulation with anti-CD3/CD28 antibodies for 24 h. In comparison to liposome-untreated T cells, R5C14-pretreatment induced a robust T cell activation (IL-2, CD25⁺) and differentiation into effector cells (CD44^high, CD62L^low), whereas R3C14 did not show comparable effect. Furthermore, a weak activation of nuclear factor of activated T cells (NFAT) was detected in Jurkat-Lucia NFAT cells (InvivoGen), suggesting a potential signaling pathway for the liposomal effect. Although R5C14 liposomes did not activate T cells without subsequent CD3/CD28 stimulation, this study implied a recessive effect of some cationic adjuvant in priming T cells to enhance their responsiveness to antigens.

Precision Medicine: An Optimal Approach to Patient Care in Renal Cell Carcinoma

Renal cell cancer (RCC) is a heterogeneous tumor that shows both intra- and inter-heterogeneity. Heterogeneity is displayed not only in different patients but also among RCC cells in the same tumor, which makes treatment difficult because of varying degrees of responses generated in RCC heterogeneous tumor cells even with targeted treatment. In that context, precision medicine (PM), in terms of individualized treatment catered for a specific patient or groups of patients, can shift the paradigm of treatment in the clinical management of RCC. Recent progress in the biochemical, molecular, and histological characteristics of RCC has thrown light on many deregulated pathways involved in the pathogenesis of RCC. As PM-based therapies are rapidly evolving and few are already in current clinical practice in oncology, one can expect that PM will expand its way toward the robust treatment of patients with RCC. This article provides a comprehensive background on recent strategies and breakthroughs of PM in oncology and provides an overview of the potential applicability of PM in RCC. The article also highlights the drawbacks of PM and provides a holistic approach that goes beyond the involvement of clinicians and encompasses appropriate legislative and administrative care imparted by the healthcare system and insurance providers. It is anticipated that combined efforts from all sectors involved will make PM accessible to RCC and other patients with cancer, making a tremendous positive leap on individualized treatment strategies. This will subsequently enhance the quality of life of patients.

Antineoplastic activity of biogenic silver and gold nanoparticles to combat leukemia: Beginning a new era in cancer theragnostic

The American Cancer Society estimated around 61,090 new cases of leukemia were diagnosed, and around 23,660 people died from this disease in the United States alone in 2021. Due to its burden on society, there is an unmet need to explore innovative approaches to overcome leukemia. Among different strategies that have been explored, nanotechnology appears to be a promising and effective approach for therapeutics. Specifically, biogenic silver and gold nanoparticles (NPs) have attracted significant attention for their antineoplastic activity toward leukemia cancer cells due to their unique physicochemical properties. Indeed, these nanostructures have emerged as useful approaches in anti-leukemic applications, either as carriers to enhance drug bioavailability and its targeted delivery to a specific organ or as a novel therapeutic agent. This review explores recent advances in green synthesized nanomaterials and their potential use against leukemia, especially focusing on silver (Ag) and gold (Au) nanostructures. In detail, we have reviewed various eco-friendly methods of bio-synthesized NPs, their analytical properties, and toxicity effects against leukemic models. This overview confirms the satisfactory potency of biogenic NPs toward leukemic cells and desirable safety profiles against human native cells, which opens a promising door toward commercializing these types of nontherapeutic agents if challenges involve clinical validations, reproducibility, and scalability could be resolved.

Temozolomide Efficacy and Metabolism: The Implicit Relevance of Nanoscale Delivery Systems

The most common primary malignant brain tumors in adults are gliomas. Glioblastoma is the most prevalent and aggressive tumor subtype of glioma. Current standards for the treatment of glioblastoma include a combination of surgical, radiation, and drug therapy methods. The drug therapy currently includes temozolomide (TMZ), an alkylating agent, and bevacizumab, a recombinant monoclonal IgG1 antibody that selectively binds to and inhibits the biological activity of vascular endothelial growth factor. Supplementation of glioblastoma radiation therapy with TMZ increased patient survival from 12.1 to 14.6 months. The specificity of TMZ effect on brain tumors is largely determined by special aspects of its pharmacokinetics. TMZ is an orally bioavailable prodrug, which is well absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and is converted to its active alkylating metabolite 5-(3-methyl triazen-1-yl)imidazole-4-carbozamide (MTIC) spontaneously in physiological condition that does not require hepatic involvement. MTIC produced in the plasma is not able to cross the BBB and is formed locally in the brain. A promising way to increase the effectiveness of TMZ chemotherapy for glioblastoma is to prevent its hydrolysis in peripheral tissues and thereby increase the drug concentration in the brain that nanoscale delivery systems can provide. The review discusses possible ways to increase the efficacy of TMZ using nanocarriers.

Current Status and Challenges of Analytical Methods for Evaluation of Size and Surface Modification of Nanoparticle-Based Drug Formulations

The present review discusses the current status and difficulties of the analytical methods used to evaluate size and surface modifications of nanoparticle-based pharmaceutical products (NPs) such as liposomal drugs and new SARS-CoV-2 vaccines. We identified the challenges in the development of methods for (1) measurement of a wide range of solid-state NPs, (2) evaluation of the sizes of polydisperse NPs, and (3) measurement of non-spherical NPs. Although a few methods have been established to analyze surface modifications of NPs, the feasibility of their application to NPs is unknown. The present review also examined the trends in standardization required to validate the size and surface measurements of NPs. It was determined that there is a lack of available reference materials and it is difficult to select appropriate ones for modified NP surface characterization. Research and development are in progress on innovative surface-modified NP-based cancer and gene therapies targeting cells, tissues, and organs. Next-generation nanomedicine should compile studies on the practice and standardization of the measurement methods for NPs to design surface modifications and ensure the quality of NPs.

Craft of Co-encapsulation in Nanomedicine: A Struggle To Achieve Synergy through Reciprocity

Achieving synergism, often by combination therapy via codelivery of chemotherapeutic agents, remains the mainstay of treating multidrug-resistance cases in cancer and microbial strains. With a typical core-shell architecture and surface functionalization to ensure facilitated targeting of tissues, nanocarriers are emerging as a promising platform toward gaining such synergism. Co-encapsulation of disparate theranostic agents in nanocarriers-from chemotherapeutic molecules to imaging or photothermal modalities-can not only address the issue of protecting the labile drug payload from a hostile biochemical environment but may also ensure optimized drug release as a mainstay of synergistic effect. However, the fate of co-encapsulated molecules, influenced by temporospatial proximity, remains unpredictable and marred with events with deleterious impact on therapeutic efficacy, including molecular rearrangement, aggregation, and denaturation. Thus, more than just an art of confining multiple therapeutics into a 3D nanoscale space, a co-encapsulated nanocarrier, while aiming for synergism, should strive toward achieving a harmonious cohabitation of the encapsulated molecules that, despite proximity and opportunities for interaction, remain innocuous toward each other and ensure molecular integrity. This account will inspect the current progress in co-encapsulation in nanocarriers and distill out the key points toward accomplishing such synergism through reciprocity.

What are the challenges with multi-targeted drug design for complex diseases?

INTRODUCTION

Current findings on multifactorial diseases with a complex pathomechanism confirm that multi-target drugs are more efficient ways in treating them as opposed to single-target drugs. However, to design multi-target ligands, a number of factors and challenges must be taken into account.

AREAS COVERED

In this perspective, we summarize the concept of application of multi-target drugs for the treatment of complex diseases such as neurodegenerative diseases, schizophrenia, diabetes, and cancer. We discuss the aspects of target selection for multifunctional ligands and the application of in silico methods in their design and optimization. Furthermore, we highlight other challenges such as balancing affinities to different targets and drug-likeness of obtained compounds. Finally, we present success stories in the design of multi-target ligands for the treatment of common complex diseases.

EXPERT OPINION

Despite numerous challenges resulting from the design of multi-target ligands, these efforts are worth making. Appropriate target selection, activity balancing, and ligand drug-likeness belong to key aspects in the design of ligands acting on multiple targets. It should be emphasized that in silico methods, in particular inverse docking, pharmacophore modeling, machine learning methods and approaches derived from network pharmacology are valuable tools for the design of multi-target drugs.

Using GPCRs as Molecular Beacons to Target Ovarian Cancer with Nanomedicines

The five-year survival rate for women with ovarian cancer is very poor despite radical cytoreductive surgery and chemotherapy. Although most patients initially respond to platinum-based chemotherapy, the majority experience recurrence and ultimately develop chemoresistance, resulting in fatal outcomes. The current administration of cytotoxic compounds is hampered by dose-limiting severe adverse effects. There is an unmet clinical need for targeted drug delivery systems that transport chemotherapeutics selectively to tumor cells while minimizing off-target toxicity. G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are the largest family of membrane receptors, and many are overexpressed in solid tumors, including ovarian cancer. This review summarizes the progress in engineered nanoparticle research for drug delivery for ovarian cancer and discusses the potential use of GPCRs as molecular entry points to deliver anti-cancer compounds into ovarian cancer cells. A newly emerging treatment paradigm could be the personalized design of nanomedicines on a case-by-case basis.

Dual stimuli-responsive nanocarriers based on polyethylene glycol-mediated schiff base interactions for overcoming tumour chemoresistance

Multifunctional and stimulus-sensitive intelligent nanodrug delivery systems (NDDSs) can significantly optimize the effectiveness of theranostic agents for cancer treatment. In this study, redox and pH dual-responsive nanocarriers (CPNPs) were prepared through molecular assembly by utilizing the Schiff base interactions of cystamine (Cys), PEG-NH₂ and formaldehyde (FA) under aqueous conditions with a one-pot, one-step technique. First, the degradation products of CPNPs exhibited good biocompatibility, and the high concentration of intact CPNPs (200 µg/mL) could inhibit the growth of cells. In addition, doxorubicin (DOX) was encapsulated in CPNPs simply by changing the pH (DOX@CPNPs), and pH/GSH-responsive release behaviour was confirmed. In vitro, CPNPs significantly increased the uptake of DOX and enhanced the cytotoxicity of DOX to tumour cells. More importantly, DOX@CPNPs strongly reversed drug resistance in three different types of cancer cells, exhibiting significant anticancer effects. Collectively, this study presents the easy preparation of nanomedicines that respond to multiple stimuli, which highlights the advantages of Schiff base-based nanomedicines for cancer therapy and reversing chemoresistance.

Biomedical polymers: synthesis, properties, and applications

Biomedical polymers have been extensively developed for promising applications in a lot of biomedical fields, such as therapeutic medicine delivery, disease detection and diagnosis, biosensing, regenerative medicine, and disease treatment. In this review, we summarize the most recent advances in the synthesis and application of biomedical polymers, and discuss the comprehensive understanding of their property-function relationship for corresponding biomedical applications. In particular, a few burgeoning bioactive polymers, such as peptide/biomembrane/microorganism/cell-based biomedical polymers, are also introduced and highlighted as the emerging biomaterials for cancer precision therapy. Furthermore, the foreseeable challenges and outlook of the development of more efficient, healthier and safer biomedical polymers are discussed. We wish this systemic and comprehensive review on highlighting frontier progress of biomedical polymers could inspire and promote new breakthrough in fundamental research and clinical translation.

Supramolecular nanomedicines through rational design of self-assembling prodrugs

Advancements in the development of nanomaterials have led to the creation of a plethora of functional constructs as drug delivery vehicles to address many dire medical needs. The emerging prodrug strategy provides an alternative solution to create nanomedicines of extreme simplicity by directly using the therapeutic agents as molecular building blocks. This Review outlines different prodrug-based drug delivery systems, highlights the advantages of the prodrug strategy for therapeutic delivery, and demonstrates how combinations of different functionalities - such as stimuli responsiveness, targeting propensity, and multidrug conjugation - can be incorporated into designed prodrug delivery systems. Furthermore, we discuss the opportunities and challenges facing this rapidly growing field.

Evoking Highly Immunogenic Ferroptosis Aided by Intramolecular Motion-Induced Photo-Hyperthermia for Cancer Therapy

Immunogenic cell death (ICD) through apoptosis or necroptosis is widely adopted to improve the therapeutic effect in cancer treatment by triggering a specific antitumor immunity. However, the tumor resistance to apoptosis/necroptosis seriously impedes the therapeutic effect. Recently, ferroptosis featured with excessive lipid peroxidation is demonstrated capable of bypassing the apoptosis/necroptosis resistance to kill cancer cells. To date, numerous efficient ferroptosis inducers are developed and successfully utilized for sensitizing cancer cells to ferroptosis. Unfortunately, these inducers can hardly generate adequate immunogenicity during induction of ferroptotic cancer cell death, which distinctly attenuates the efficacy of triggering antitumor immune response, therefore leads to unsatisfactory therapeutic effect. Herein, a novel high-performance photothermal nanoparticle (TPA-NDTA NP) is designed by exploiting energy via excited-state intramolecular motion and employed for immensely assisting ferroptosis inducer to evoke highly efficient ICD through ferroptosis pathway. Tumor models with poor immunogenicity are used to demonstrate the tremendously enhanced therapeutic effect endowed by highly enhanced immunogenic ferroptosis in vitro and in vivo by virtue of the NPs. This study sheds new light on a previously unrecognized facet of boosting the immunogenicity of ferroptosis for achieving satisfactory therapeutic effect in cancer therapy.

Engineering silica-polymer hybrid nanosystems for dual drug and gene delivery

In recent years, it has been shown that a combination of different antitumour strategies involving distinct therapeutic agents, such as chemical compounds and genetic material, could result in an effective therapeutic activity that is much higher than that obtained by conventionally used individual approaches. Therefore, the main goal of this work was to develop a new hybrid nanosystem based on mesoporous silica nanoparticles and polymers to efficiently transport and deliver drug and plasmid DNA into cancer cells. Moreover, its potential to mediate a combinatorial antitumour strategy involving epirubicin and herpes simplex virus thymidine kinase/ganciclovir (HSV-TK/GCV) gene therapy was evaluated. For this purpose, various cationic polymers were assessed, including poly(β-amino ester) homopolymer, gelatine type A, gelatine type B, and poly(ethylene glycol)-b-poly(2-aminoethyl methacrylate hydrochloride) block copolymer. The obtained results show that using different polymers leads to nanosystems with different physicochemical properties and, consequently, different biological activities. The best formulation was obtained for hybrid nanosystems coated with PEG-b-PAMA. They demonstrated the ability to cotransport and codeliver an anticancer drug and plasmid DNA and effectively mediate the combined antitumour strategy in 2D and 3D tumour cell culture models. In summary, we developed a novel silica- and polymer-based nanosystem able to mediate a dual chemotherapeutic and suicide gene therapy strategy with a much higher therapeutic effect than that obtained through the use of individual approaches, showing its potential for cancer treatment.

Advancements in nanomedicines for the detection and treatment of diabetic kidney disease

In the diabetic kidneys, morbidities such as accelerated ageing, hypertension and hyperglycaemia create a pro-inflammatory microenvironment characterised by extensive fibrogenesis. Radiological techniques are not yet optimised generating inconsistent and non-reproducible data. The gold standard procedure to assess renal fibrosis is kidney biopsy, followed by histopathological assessment. However, this method is risky, invasive, subjective and examines less than 0.01% of kidney tissue resulting in diagnostic errors. As such, less than 10% of patients undergo kidney biopsy, limiting the accuracy of the current diabetic kidney disease (DKD) staging method. Standard treatments suppress the renin-angiotensin system to control hypertension and use of pharmaceuticals aimed at controlling diabetes have shown promise but can cause hypoglycaemia, diuresis and malnutrition as a result of low caloric intake. New approaches to both diagnosis and treatment are required. Nanoparticles (NPs) are an attractive candidate for managing DKD due to their ability to act as theranostic tools that can carry drugs and enhance image contrast. NP-based point-of-care systems can provide physiological information previously considered unattainable and provide control over the rate and location of drug release. Here we discuss the use of nanotechnology in renal disease, its application to both the treatment and diagnosis of DKD. Finally, we propose a new method of NP-based DKD classification that overcomes the current systems limitations.

Rabies Virus Glycoprotein-Mediated Transportation and T Cell Infiltration to Brain Tumor by Magnetoelectric Gold Yarnballs

T lymphocyte infiltration with immunotherapy potentially suppresses most devastating brain tumors. However, local immune privilege and tumor heterogeneity usually limit the penetration of immune cells and therapeutic agents into brain tumors, leading to tumor recurrence after treatment. Here, a rabies virus glycoprotein (RVG)-camouflaged gold yarnball (RVG@GY) that can boost the targeting efficiency at a brain tumor via dual hierarchy- and RVG-mediated spinal cord transportation, facilitating the decrease of tumor heterogeneity for T cell infiltration, is developed. Upon magnetoelectric irradiation, the electron current generated on the GYs activates the electrolytic penetration of palbociclib-loaded dendrimer (Den[Pb]) deep into tumors. In addition, the high-density GYs at brain tumors also induces the disruption of cell-cell interactions and T cell infiltration. The integration of the electrolytic effects and T cell infiltration promoted by drug-loaded RVG@GYs deep in the brain tumor elicits sufficient T cell numbers and effectively prolongs the survival rate of mice with orthotopic brain tumors.

Bioresponsive Nanomaterials: Recent Advances in Cancer Multimodal Imaging and Imaging-Guided Therapy

Cancer is a serious health problem which increasingly causes morbidity and mortality worldwide. It causes abnormal and uncontrolled cell division. Traditional cancer treatments include surgery, chemotherapy, radiotherapy and so on. These traditional therapies suffer from high toxicity and arouse safety concern in normal area and have difficulty in accurately targeting tumour. Recently, a variety of nanomaterials could be used for cancer diagnosis and therapy. Nanomaterials have several advantages, e.g., high concentration in tumour via targeting design, reduced toxicity in normal area and controlled drug release after various rational designs. They can combine with many types of biomaterials in order to improve biocompatibility. In this review, we outlined the latest research on the use of bioresponsive nanomaterials for various cancer imaging modalities (magnetic resonance imaging, positron emission tomography and phototacoustic imaging) and imaging-guided therapy means (chemotherapy, radiotherapy, photothermal therapy and photodynamic therapy), followed by discussing the challenges and future perspectives of this bioresponsive nanomaterials in biomedicine.

Evaluation of cytotoxic activity of Fe doped cobalt oxide nanoparticles

BACKGROUND

This contribution of work describes a new strategy for manufacturing cobalt oxide nanoparticles and the results assured that, its efficiency was increased by adding Fe ions. The anticancer drugs usually have a limited medical value owing to their nonspecific cytotoxicity. It has been proven that by using the nanosystems to deliver tablets to tumour cells reduces the toxic quality. Because of these qualities, nanoparticles can be used as a stronger rival for potent cancer treatment.

METHOD

This study investigated the cytotoxicity of iron doped cobalt oxide nanoparticles through trypan blue exclusion method.

RESULT

The newly generated Fe doped Co₃O₄ nanoparticles had proved its biocompatibility from the report of reduced toxicity below 200 μg/mL on malignant cell lines.

CONCLUSION

The observed findings may encourage the development of anticancer drugs based on the inorganic particles, especially Fe doped Co₃O₄ nanoparticles, that could be serve as an excellent framework for the drug delivery and provide a new perspective for interpreting and targeting various therapeutic methodologies to tumours.

Nano to rescue: repository of nanocarriers for targeted drug delivery to curb breast cancer

Breast cancer is a heterogeneous disease with different intrinsic subtypes. The conventional treatment of surgical resection, chemotherapy, immunotherapy and radiotherapy has not shown significant improvement in the survival rate of breast cancer patients. The therapeutics used cause bystander toxicities deteriorating healthy tissues. The breakthroughs of nanotechnology have been a promising feat in selective targeting of tumor site thus increasing the therapeutic gain. By the application of nanoenabled carriers, nanomedicines ensure targeted delivery, stability, enhanced cellular uptake, biocompatibility and higher apoptotic efficacy. The present review focuses on breakthrough of nanoscale intervention in targeted drug delivery as novel class of therapeutics. Nanoenabled carriers like polymeric and metallic nanoparticles, dendrimers, quantum dots, liposomes, solid lipid nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes, drug-antibody conjugates and exosomes revolutionized the targeted therapeutic delivery approach. These nanoassemblies have shown additional effect of improving the solubility of drugs such as paclitaxel, reducing the dose and toxicity. The present review provides an insight on the different drug conjugates employed/investigated to curb breast cancer using nanocarrier mediated targeted drug delivery. However, identification of appropriate biomarkers to target, clearer insight of the biological processes, batch uniformity, reproducibility, nanomaterial toxicity and stabilities are the hurdles faced by nanodrugs. The potential of nano-therapeutics delivery necessitates the agglomerated efforts of research community to bridge the route of nanodrugs for scale-up, commercialization and clinical applications.

PEGylated Gold Nanoparticle Toxicity in Cardiomyocytes: Assessment of Size, Concentration, and Time Dependency

Gold Nanoparticles (GNPs) have shown promising capabilities for use in many in-vivo applications such as gene and drug delivery, photothermal ablation of tumors, and tracking in many imaging modalities. Yet GNPs have thus far had limited use in cardiovascular medicine. Polyethylene glycol functionalized (PEGylated) GNPs have been extensively studied in a wide array of in vitro and in vivo models with results showing no apparent toxicity, but to our knowledge an investigation has never been performed to determine direct cardiomyocyte toxicity. In this study, we assessed if PEGylated GNPs exhibited direct toxicity to a primary culture of neonatal rat cardiomyocytes in order to establish PEGylated GNPs for potential future use in cardiovascular medicine applications. We present novel results that demonstrate both a particle size and concentration dependent relationship on cell viability. Cell viability was found to be significantly enhanced for many concentrations and sizes as compared to the control and increased linearly as a function of particle diameter. Additionally, viability increased in a parabolically dependent manner as a function of decreasing particle concentration. These new results could advance understanding of nanoparticle-cell interactions and lead to the development of new applications involving the use of gold nanoparticles in cardiovascular medicine.

Chemical Advances in Therapeutic Application of Exosomes and Liposomes

Exosomes and liposomes are vesicular nanoparticles that can encapsulate functional cargo. The chemical similarities between naturally occurring exosomes and synthetic liposomes have accelerated the development of exosome mimetics as a therapeutic drug delivery platform under physiological and pathological environments. To maximise the applications of exosomes and liposomes in the clinical setting, it is essential to look into their basic chemical properties and utilise these characteristics to optimise the preparation, loading, modification and hybridisation. This review summarises the chemical and biological properties of both exosomal and liposomal systems as well as some of the challenges related to their production and application. This article concludes with a discussion on potential perspectives for the integration of exosomal and liposomal technologies in mapping better approaches for their biomedical use, especially in therapeutics.

The Fluorescent Effect of Withania Somnifera Chitosan Nanocomposite as an Effective Contrast Agent for Cancer Theragnostic: Experimental Study in Vitro

Nanomedicine and fluorescent optical imaging are effective in early cancer detection. The current study synthesized biocompatible nanocomposites from natural biomaterials towards inexpensive and safe cancer theragnostic. Two forms of nanocomposites were synthesized using the ionic gelation method: 1. Chitosan/ Withania Somnifera /tripolyphosphate nanocomposites, 2. Withania Somnifera/Chitosan nanocomposites. The nanocomposites were characterized by dynamic light scattering, zeta potential, and the transmission electron microscope. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy analyzed the Withania Somnifera root water extract, Chitosan, and the synthesized nanocomposites. The cytotoxicity of the nanocomposites was investigated against the colon cancer cells (Caco2 cells) in the absence and the presence of laser (665 nm, 5 mW) irradiation. MTT assay evaluated the cytotoxicity, and Trypan blue assay assessed the cell viability. Cancerous cells were photographed under the inverted microscope in the presence and the absence of laser irradiation. Results were analyzed statistically using one-way variance (ANOVA) analysis with Bonferroni post-Hoc multiple two-group comparisons. The characterization results ensured the successful synthesis of Withania Somnifera/Chitosan nanocomposites. The results showed an increase in the cytotoxicity against colon carcinoma and a decrease in cell viability in the presence and absence of Near-infrared laser irradiation under the action of nanocomposites. The cytotoxicity of the synthesized nanocomposites increased by exposing the cells to the laser. The shining light of the nanocomposites appeared on the cells photographed under the inverted microscope. The synthesized natural nanocomposites promise systemic cytotoxicity will be efficient in molecular imaging in vivo applications.

Progress and Hurdles of Therapeutic Nanosystems against Cancer

Nanomedicine against cancer, including diagnosis, prevention and treatment, has increased expectations for the solution of many biomedical challenges in the fight against this disease. In recent decades, an exhaustive design of nanosystems with high specificity, sensitivity and selectivity has been achieved due to a rigorous control over their physicochemical properties and an understanding of the nano–bio interface. However, despite the considerable progress that has been reached in this field, there are still different hurdles that limit the clinical application of these nanosystems, which, along with their possible solutions, have been reviewed in this work. Specifically, physiological processes as biological barriers and protein corona formation related to the administration routes, designing strategies to overcome these obstacles, promising new multifunctional nanotherapeutics, and recent clinical trials are presented in this review.

Delivering Therapeutics to Glioblastoma: Overcoming Biological Constraints

Glioblastoma multiforme is the most lethal intrinsic brain tumor. Even with the existing treatment regimen of surgery, radiation, and chemotherapy, the median survival time is only 15–23 months. The invasive nature of this tumor makes its complete removal very difficult, leading to a high recurrence rate of over 90%. Drug delivery to glioblastoma is challenging because of the molecular and cellular heterogeneity of the tumor, its infiltrative nature, and the blood–brain barrier. Understanding the critical characteristics that restrict drug delivery to the tumor is necessary to develop platforms for the enhanced delivery of effective treatments. In this review, we address the impact of tumor invasion, the molecular and cellular heterogeneity of the tumor, and the blood–brain barrier on the delivery and distribution of drugs using potential therapeutic delivery options such as convection-enhanced delivery, controlled release systems, nanomaterial systems, peptide-based systems, and focused ultrasound.

Apoferritin and Dps as drug delivery vehicles: Some selected examples in oncology

BACKGROUND

The ideal nanoparticle should be able to encapsulate either pharmaceutical agents or imaging probes so that it could treat or image clinical tumours by targeting the cancer site efficiently. Further, it would be an added advantage if it demonstrates: small size, built in targeting, biocompatibility and biodegradability. Ferritin, which is an endogenous self-assembling protein, stores iron and plays a role in iron homeostasis. When iron atoms are removed apoferritin (AFt) is formed which consists of a hollow shell where it can be used to load guest molecules. Due to its unique architecture, AFt has been investigated as a versatile carrier for tumour theranostic applications. DNA-binding protein from starved cells (Dps), which also belongs to the ferritin family, is a protein found only in prokaryotes. It is used to store iron and protect chromosomes from oxidative damage; because of its architecture, Dps could also be used as a delivery vehicle.

CONCLUSIONS

Both these nano particles are promising in the field of oncology, especially due to their stability, solubility and biocompatibility features. Further their exterior surface can be modified for better tumour-targeting ability. More studies, are warranted to determine the immunogenicity, biodistribution, and clearance from the body.

GENERAL PERSPECTIVE

This review discusses a few selected examples of the remarkable in vitro and in vivo studies that have been carried out in the recent past with the use of AFt and Dps in targeting and delivery of various pharmaceutical agents, natural products and imaging probes in the field of oncology.

Nanomaterial Technology and Triple Negative Breast Cancer

Triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) is a malignant breast cancer subtype that is prone to progression, with high associated metastasis and five-year mortality rates and an overall poor prognosis. Chemotherapy is usually administered to treat TNBC without additional targeted therapies. Novel nanomaterials have a variety of excellent physical and chemical properties and biological functions (including targeting specificity), and contrast agents and drug delivery vectors based on nanotechnology are progressing towards a more accurate and targeted direction. This review discusses the mechanisms of action and prospects for the use of nanotechnology in the treatment of TNBC, thus providing potential new strategies for the diagnosis and treatment of TNBC.

Doxorubicin nanoformulations on therapy against cancer: An overview from the last 10 years

Doxorubicin (DOX) is a natural antibiotic with antineoplastic activity. It has been used for over 40 years and remains one of the most used drugs in chemotherapy for a variety of cancers. However, cardiotoxicity limits its use for long periods. To overcome this limitation, encapsulation in smart drug delivery systems (DDS) brings advantages in comparison with free drug administration (i.e., conventional anticancer drug therapy). In this review, we present the most relevant nanostructures used for DOX encapsulation over the last 10 years, such as liposomes, micelles and polymeric vesicles (i.e., polymersomes), micro/nanoemulsions, different types of polymeric nanoparticles and hydrogel nanoparticles, as well as novel approaches for DOX encapsulation. The studies highlighted here show these nanoformulations achieved higher solubility, improved tumor cytotoxicity, prolonged DOX release, as well as reduced side effects, among other interesting advantages.

Polyprodrug Nanomedicines: An Emerging Paradigm for Cancer Therapy

Nanomedicines have the potential to provide advanced therapeutic strategies in combating tumors. Polymer-prodrug-based nanomedicines are particularly attractive in cancer therapies owing to the maximum drug loading, prolonged blood circulation, and reduced premature leakage and side effects in comparison with conventional nanomaterials. However, the difficulty in precisely tuning the composition and drug loading of polymer-drug conjugates leads to batch-to-batch variations of the prodrugs, thus significantly restricting their clinical translation. Polyprodrug nanomedicines inherit the numerous intrinsic advantages of polymer-drug conjugates and exhibit well-controlled composition and drug loading via direct polymerization of therapeutic monomers, representing a promising nanomedicine for clinical tumor therapies. In this review, recent advances in the development of polyprodrug nanomedicines are summarized for tumor elimination. Various types of polyprodrug nanomedicines and the corresponding properties are first summarized. The unique advantages of polyprodrug nanomedicines and their key roles in various tumor therapies are further highlighted. Finally, current challenges and the perspectives on future research of polyprodrug nanomedicines are discussed.

Recent Developments in Nanomaterials-Based Drug Delivery and Upgrading Treatment of Cardiovascular Diseases

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are the leading causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide. However, despite the recent developments in the management of CVDs, the early and long outcomes vary considerably in patients, especially with the current challenges facing the detection and treatment of CVDs. This disparity is due to a lack of advanced diagnostic tools and targeted therapies, requiring innovative and alternative methods. Nanotechnology offers the opportunity to use nanomaterials in improving health and controlling diseases. Notably, nanotechnologies have recognized potential applicability in managing chronic diseases in the past few years, especially cancer and CVDs. Of particular interest is the use of nanoparticles as drug carriers to increase the pharmaco-efficacy and safety of conventional therapies. Different strategies have been proposed to use nanoparticles as drug carriers in CVDs; however, controversies regarding the selection of nanomaterials and nanoformulation are slowing their clinical translation. Therefore, this review focuses on nanotechnology for drug delivery and the application of nanomedicine in CVDs.

Advanced Optical Imaging-Guided Nanotheranostics towards Personalized Cancer Drug Delivery

Nanomedicine involves the use of nanotechnology for clinical applications and holds promise to improve treatments. Recent developments offer new hope for cancer detection, prevention and treatment; however, being a heterogenous disorder, cancer calls for a more targeted treatment approach. Personalized Medicine (PM) aims to revolutionize cancer therapy by matching the most effective treatment to individual patients. Nanotheranostics comprise a combination of therapy and diagnostic imaging incorporated in a nanosystem and are developed to fulfill the promise of PM by helping in the selection of treatments, the objective monitoring of response and the planning of follow-up therapy. Although well-established imaging techniques, such as Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), Computed Tomography (CT), Positron Emission Tomography (PET) and Single-Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT), are primarily used in the development of theranostics, Optical Imaging (OI) offers some advantages, such as high sensitivity, spatial and temporal resolution and less invasiveness. Additionally, it allows for multiplexing, using multi-color imaging and DNA barcoding, which further aids in the development of personalized treatments. Recent advances have also given rise to techniques permitting better penetration, opening new doors for OI-guided nanotheranostics. In this review, we describe in detail these recent advances that may be used to design and develop efficient and specific nanotheranostics for personalized cancer drug delivery.

Engineering of small-molecule lipidic prodrugs as novel nanomedicines for enhanced drug delivery

A widely established prodrug strategy can effectively optimize the unappealing properties of therapeutic agents in cancer treatment. Among them, lipidic prodrugs extremely uplift the physicochemical properties, site-specificity, and antitumor activities of therapeutic agents while reducing systemic toxicity. Although great perspectives have been summarized in the progress of prodrug-based nanoplatforms, no attention has been paid to emphasizing the rational design of small-molecule lipidic prodrugs (SLPs). With the aim of outlining the prospect of the SLPs approach, the review will first provide an overview of conjugation strategies that are amenable to SLPs fabrication. Then, the rational design of SLPs in response to the physiological barriers of chemotherapeutic agents is highlighted. Finally, their biomedical applications are also emphasized with special functions, followed by a brief introduction of the promising opportunities and potential challenges of SLPs-based drug delivery systems (DDSs) in clinical application.

Graphical Abstract

Power in Numbers: Harnessing Combinatorial and Integrated Screens to Advance Nanomedicine

Nanocarriers have significant potential to advance personalized medicine through targeted drug delivery. However, to date, efforts to improve nanoparticle accumulation at target disease sites have largely failed to translate clinically, stemming from an incomplete understanding of nano-bio interactions. While progress has been made to evaluate the effects of specific physical and chemical nanoparticle properties on trafficking and uptake, there is much to be gained from controlling these properties singularly and in combination to determine their interactions with different cell types. We and others have recently begun leveraging library-based nanoparticle screens to study structure-function relationships of lipid- and polymer-based drug delivery systems to guide nanoparticle design. These combinatorial screening efforts are showing promise in leading to the successful identification of critical characteristics that yield improved and specific accumulation at target sites. However, there is a crucial need to equally consider the influence of biological complexity on nanoparticle delivery, particularly in the context of clinical translation. For example, tissue and cellular heterogeneity presents an additional dimension to nanoparticle trafficking, uptake, and accumulation; applying imaging and screening tools as well as bioinformatics may further expand our understanding of how nanoparticles engage with cells and tissues. Given recent advances in the fields of omics and machine learning, there is substantial promise to revolutionize nanocarrier development through the use of integrated screens, harnessing the combinatorial parameter space afforded both by nanoparticle libraries and clinically annotated biological data sets in combination with high throughput in vivo studies.

Nano drug delivery in intracellular bacterial infection treatments

The present work aimed to review the potential mechanisms used by macrophages to kill intracellular bacteria, their entrance to the cell, and mechanisms of escape of cellular immunity and applications of various nanoparticles. Since intracellular bacteria such as Mycobacterium and Brucella can survive in host cells and can resist the lethal power of macrophages, they can cause chronic disease or recur in 10-30% of cases in improved patients Nano drug-based therapeutics are promising tools for treating intracellular bacteria and preventing recurrence of the disease caused by these bacteria. In addition, among their unique features, we can mention the small size and the ability of these compounds to purposefully reach the target location.