151
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Xing C, Lo EH. Help-me signaling: Non-cell autonomous mechanisms of neuroprotection and neurorecovery. Prog Neurobiol 2016; 152:181-199. [PMID: 27079786 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2016.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2015] [Revised: 04/06/2016] [Accepted: 04/09/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Self-preservation is required for life. At the cellular level, this fundamental principle is expressed in the form of molecular mechanisms for preconditioning and tolerance. When the cell is threatened, internal cascades of survival signaling become triggered to protect against cell death and defend against future insults. Recently, however, emerging findings suggest that this principle of self-preservation may involve not only intracellular signals; the release of extracellular signals may provide a way to recruit adjacent cells into an amplified protective program. In the central nervous system where multiple cell types co-exist, this mechanism would allow threatened neurons to "ask for help" from glial and vascular compartments. In this review, we describe this new concept of help-me signaling, wherein damaged or diseased neurons release signals that may shift glial and vascular cells into potentially beneficial phenotypes, and help remodel the neurovascular unit. Understanding and dissecting these non-cell autonomous mechanisms of self-preservation in the CNS may lead to novel opportunities for neuroprotection and neurorecovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Changhong Xing
- Departments of Radiology and Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA 02129, USA.
| | - Eng H Lo
- Departments of Radiology and Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA 02129, USA.
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152
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Abstract
Perinatal stroke leads to significant morbidity and long-term neurological and cognitive deficits. The pathophysiological mechanisms of brain damage depend on brain maturation at the time of stroke. To understand whether microglial cells limit injury after neonatal stroke by preserving neurovascular integrity, we subjected postnatal day 7 (P7) rats depleted of microglial cells, rats with inhibited microglial TGFbr2/ALK5 signaling, and corresponding controls, to transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (tMCAO). Microglial depletion by intracerebral injection of liposome-encapsulated clodronate at P5 significantly reduced vessel coverage and triggered hemorrhages in injured regions 24 h after tMCAO. Lack of microglia did not alter expression or intracellular redistribution of several tight junction proteins, did not affect degradation of collagen IV induced by the tMCAO, but altered cell types producing TGFβ1 and the phosphorylation and intracellular distribution of SMAD2/3. Selective inhibition of TGFbr2/ALK5 signaling in microglia via intracerebral liposome-encapsulated SB-431542 delivery triggered hemorrhages after tMCAO, demonstrating that TGFβ1/TGFbr2/ALK5 signaling in microglia protects from hemorrhages. Consistent with observations in neonatal rats, depletion of microglia before tMCAO in P9 Cx3cr1(GFP/+)/Ccr2(RFP/+) mice exacerbated injury and induced hemorrhages at 24 h. The effects were independent of infiltration of Ccr2(RFP/+) monocytes into injured regions. Cumulatively, in two species, we show that microglial cells protect neonatal brain from hemorrhage after acute ischemic stroke.
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153
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Kaminska B, Mota M, Pizzi M. Signal transduction and epigenetic mechanisms in the control of microglia activation during neuroinflammation. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2016; 1862:339-51. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2015.10.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2015] [Revised: 10/12/2015] [Accepted: 10/28/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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154
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Ingberg E, Dock H, Theodorsson E, Theodorsson A, Ström JO. Method parameters' impact on mortality and variability in mouse stroke experiments: a meta-analysis. Sci Rep 2016; 6:21086. [PMID: 26876353 PMCID: PMC4753409 DOI: 10.1038/srep21086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2015] [Accepted: 01/13/2016] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Although hundreds of promising substances have been tested in clinical trials,
thrombolysis currently remains the only specific pharmacological treatment for
ischemic stroke. Poor quality, e.g. low statistical power, in the preclinical
studies has been suggested to play an important role in these failures. Therefore,
it would be attractive to use animal models optimized to minimize unnecessary
mortality and outcome variability, or at least to be able to power studies more
exactly by predicting variability and mortality given a certain experimental setup.
The possible combinations of methodological parameters are innumerous, and an
experimental comparison of them all is therefore not feasible. As an alternative
approach, we extracted data from 334 experimental mouse stroke articles and, using a
hypothesis-driven meta-analysis, investigated the method parameters’
impact on infarct size variability and mortality. The use of Swiss and C57BL6 mice
as well as permanent occlusion of the middle cerebral artery rendered the lowest
variability of the infarct size while the emboli methods increased variability. The
use of Swiss mice increased mortality. Our study offers guidance for researchers
striving to optimize mouse stroke models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edvin Ingberg
- Division of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Linköping University, Department of Clinical Chemistry, Center for Diagnostics, Region Östergötland, Sweden
| | - Hua Dock
- Division of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Linköping University, Department of Clinical Chemistry, Center for Diagnostics, Region Östergötland, Sweden
| | - Elvar Theodorsson
- Division of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Linköping University, Department of Clinical Chemistry, Center for Diagnostics, Region Östergötland, Sweden
| | - Annette Theodorsson
- Division of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Linköping University, Department of Clinical Chemistry, Center for Diagnostics, Region Östergötland, Sweden.,Division of Neuro and Inflammation Science, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Linköping University, Department of Neurosurgery, Anaesthetics, Operations and Specialty Surgery Center, Region Östergötland, Sweden
| | - Jakob O Ström
- Division of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Linköping University, Department of Clinical Chemistry, Center for Diagnostics, Region Östergötland, Sweden.,Vårdvetenskapligt Forskningscentrum/Centre for Health Sciences, Örebro University Hospital, County Council of Örebro, Örebro, Sweden.,School of Health and Medical Sciences, Örebro University, Örebro, Sweden
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155
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Takesue K, Kishi T, Hirooka Y, Sunagawa K. Activation of microglia within paraventricular nucleus of hypothalamus is NOT involved in maintenance of established hypertension. J Cardiol 2016; 69:84-88. [PMID: 26874752 DOI: 10.1016/j.jjcc.2016.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2015] [Revised: 12/14/2015] [Accepted: 01/07/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Inflammation within paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus (PVN), a key circulatory control center in the hypothalamus, is an important pathology of sympathetic hyperactivity. Brain inflammation is mainly mediated by microglia, innate immune cells in the brain. Activated microglia produce inflammatory cytokines with alteration of their morphology. Increase in inflammatory cytokines synthesis coincides with activation of microglia within PVN of angiotensin II-induced hypertensive model and myocardial infarction-induced heart failure model. Although the increase in inflammatory cytokines and the microglial activation within PVN were also seen in spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR), the model of essential hypertension, their involvement in blood pressure regulation has still be fully clarified. In the present study, we examined whether activated microglia within PVN were involved in maintenance of established severe hypertension with sympathoexcitation. METHODS Minocycline (25mg/kg/day), an inhibitor of microglial activation, or vehicle were orally administered to stroke-prone SHR (SHRSP) and normotensive Wistar-Kyoto (WKY) rats for 2 weeks from 15-weeks-old, the age of established hypertension. RESULTS Systolic blood pressure was comparable between minocycline treated-SHRSP and vehicle treated-SHRSP, whereas morphological analysis of microglia revealed smaller cell size in minocycline treated-SHRSP than vehicle treated-SHRSP, implying that minocycline deactivated microglia within PVN. CONCLUSIONS Activated microglia with morphological alteration within PVN are not involved in the maintenance of established severe hypertension, and inflammation within PVN could not be the therapeutic target of established hypertension.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ko Takesue
- Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Kyushu University Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Takuya Kishi
- Department of Collaborative Research Institute of Innovation for Cardiovascular Diseases, Kyushu University Center for Disruptive Cardiovascular Medicine, Fukuoka, Japan.
| | - Yoshitaka Hirooka
- Department of Advanced Cardiovascular Regulation and Therapeutics for Cardiovascular Diseases, Kyushu University Center for Disruptive Cardiovascular Medicine, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Kenji Sunagawa
- Kyushu University Center for Disruptive Cardiovascular Medicine, Fukuoka, Japan
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156
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Martin NA, Bonner H, Elkjær ML, D'Orsi B, Chen G, König HG, Svensson M, Deierborg T, Pfeiffer S, Prehn JH, Lambertsen KL. BID Mediates Oxygen-Glucose Deprivation-Induced Neuronal Injury in Organotypic Hippocampal Slice Cultures and Modulates Tissue Inflammation in a Transient Focal Cerebral Ischemia Model without Changing Lesion Volume. Front Cell Neurosci 2016; 10:14. [PMID: 26869884 PMCID: PMC4737886 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2016.00014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2015] [Accepted: 01/14/2016] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The BH3 interacting-domain death agonist (BID) is a pro-apoptotic protein involved in death receptor-induced and mitochondria-mediated apoptosis. Recently, it has also been suggested that BID is involved in the regulation of inflammatory responses in the central nervous system. We found that BID deficiency protected organotypic hippocampal slice cultures in vitro from neuronal injury induced by oxygen-glucose deprivation. In vivo, BID-knockout (KO) mice and wild type (WT) mice were subjected to 60 min of transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (tMCAO) to induce focal cerebral ischemia, and allowed to recover for 24 h. Infarct volumes and functional outcome were assessed and the inflammatory response was evaluated using immunofluorescence, Western blotting, quantitative PCR (qPCR) and Mesoscale multiplex analysis. We observed no difference in the infarct volume or neurological outcome between BID-KO and WT mice. The inflammatory response was reduced by BID deficiency as indicated by a change in microglial/leukocyte response. In conclusion, our data suggest that BID deficiency is neuroprotective in an in vitro model and modulates the inflammatory response to focal cerebral ischemia in vivo. However, this is not translated into a robust neuroprotection in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nellie Anne Martin
- Department of Neurology, Institute of Clinical Research, Odense University HospitalOdense, Denmark; Department of Physiology and Medical Physics, Centre for the Study of Neurological Disorders and 3U-COEN, Royal College of Surgeons in IrelandDublin, Ireland; Department of Neurobiology Research, Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern DenmarkOdense, Denmark
| | - Helena Bonner
- Department of Physiology and Medical Physics, Centre for the Study of Neurological Disorders and 3U-COEN, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland Dublin, Ireland
| | - Maria Louise Elkjær
- Department of Neurology, Institute of Clinical Research, Odense University HospitalOdense, Denmark; Department of Neurobiology Research, Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern DenmarkOdense, Denmark
| | - Beatrice D'Orsi
- Department of Physiology and Medical Physics, Centre for the Study of Neurological Disorders and 3U-COEN, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland Dublin, Ireland
| | - Gang Chen
- Department of Physiology and Medical Physics, Centre for the Study of Neurological Disorders and 3U-COEN, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland Dublin, Ireland
| | - Hans Georg König
- Department of Physiology and Medical Physics, Centre for the Study of Neurological Disorders and 3U-COEN, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland Dublin, Ireland
| | - Martina Svensson
- Department of Experimental Medical Sciences, Experimental Neuroinflammation Laboratory, Lund University Lund, Sweden
| | - Tomas Deierborg
- Department of Experimental Medical Sciences, Experimental Neuroinflammation Laboratory, Lund University Lund, Sweden
| | - Shona Pfeiffer
- Department of Physiology and Medical Physics, Centre for the Study of Neurological Disorders and 3U-COEN, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland Dublin, Ireland
| | - Jochen H Prehn
- Department of Physiology and Medical Physics, Centre for the Study of Neurological Disorders and 3U-COEN, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland Dublin, Ireland
| | - Kate Lykke Lambertsen
- Department of Neurobiology Research, Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark Odense, Denmark
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157
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Ma Y, Wang J, Wang Y, Yang GY. The biphasic function of microglia in ischemic stroke. Prog Neurobiol 2016; 157:247-272. [PMID: 26851161 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2016.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 491] [Impact Index Per Article: 61.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2015] [Revised: 12/22/2015] [Accepted: 01/10/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Microglia are brain resident macrophages originated from primitive progenitor cells in the yolk sac. Microglia can be activated within hours and recruited to the lesion site. Traditionally, microglia activation is considered to play a deleterious role in ischemic stroke, as inhibition of microglia activation attenuates ischemia induced brain injury. However, increasing evidence show that microglia activation is critical for attenuating neuronal apoptosis, enhancing neurogenesis, and promoting functional recovery after cerebral ischemia. Differential polarization of microglia could likely explain the biphasic role of microglia in ischemia. We comprehensively reviewed the mechanisms involved in regulating microglia activation and polarization. The latest discoveries of microRNAs in modulating microglia function are discussed. In addition, the interaction between microglia and other cells including neurons, astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and stem cells were also reviewed. Future therapies targeting microglia may not exclusively aim at suppressing microglia activation, but also at modulating microglia polarization at different stages of ischemic stroke. More work is needed to elucidate the cellular and molecular mechanisms of microglia polarization under ischemic environment. The roles of microRNAs and transplanted stem cells in mediating microglia activation and polarization during brain ischemia also need to be further studied.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuanyuan Ma
- Department of Neurology, Ruijin Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200025, China; Neuroscience and Neuroengineering Research Center, Med-X Research Institute and School of Biomedical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200030, China
| | - Jixian Wang
- Neuroscience and Neuroengineering Research Center, Med-X Research Institute and School of Biomedical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200030, China; Department of Rehabilitation, Ruijin Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200025, China
| | - Yongting Wang
- Neuroscience and Neuroengineering Research Center, Med-X Research Institute and School of Biomedical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200030, China.
| | - Guo-Yuan Yang
- Department of Neurology, Ruijin Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200025, China; Neuroscience and Neuroengineering Research Center, Med-X Research Institute and School of Biomedical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200030, China.
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158
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Hogg EL, Müller J, Corrêa SAL. Does the MK2-dependent Production of TNFα Regulate mGluR-dependent Synaptic Plasticity? Curr Neuropharmacol 2016; 14:474-80. [PMID: 27296641 PMCID: PMC4983755 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x13666150624165939] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2015] [Revised: 04/22/2015] [Accepted: 06/26/2015] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The molecular mechanisms and signalling cascades that trigger the induction of group I metabotropic glutamate receptor (GI-mGluR)-dependent long-term depression (LTD) have been the subject of intensive investigation for nearly two decades. The generation of genetically modified animals has played a crucial role in elucidating the involvement of key molecules regulating the induction and maintenance of mGluR-LTD. In this review we will discuss the requirement of the newly discovered MAPKAPK-2 (MK2) and MAPKAPK-3 (MK3) signalling cascade in regulating GI-mGluR-LTD. Recently, it has been shown that the absence of MK2 impaired the induction of GI-mGluR-dependent LTD, an effect that is caused by reduced internalization of AMPA receptors (AMPAR). As the MK2 cascade directly regulates tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNFα) production, this review will examine the evidence that the release of TNFα acts to regulate glutamate receptor expression and therefore may play a functional role in the impairment of GI-mGluRdependent LTD and the cognitive deficits observed in MK2/3 double knockout animals. The strong links of increased TNFα production in both aging and neurodegenerative disease could implicate the action of MK2 in these processes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Sônia A L Corrêa
- School of Life Sciences, Bradford University, Bradford, BD18 3LX.
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159
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15d-PGJ2 Reduced Microglia Activation and Alleviated Neurological Deficit of Ischemic Reperfusion in Diabetic Rat Model. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2015; 2015:864509. [PMID: 26844229 PMCID: PMC4710931 DOI: 10.1155/2015/864509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2015] [Accepted: 11/19/2015] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
To investigate the effect of PPARγ agonist 15d-PGJ2 treatment on the microglia activation and neurological deficit of ischemia reperfusion in diabetic rat model, adult Sprague-Dawley rats were sacrificed for the research. The rats were randomly categorized into four groups: (1) sham-operated group; (2) standard ischemia group; (3) diabetic ischemia group; (4) diabetic ischemia group with diabetes and treated with 15d-PGJ2. Compared to the sham-operated group, all the ischemic groups have significantly severer neurological deficits, more TNF-α and IL-1 expression, increased labeling of apoptotic cells, increased CD68 positive staining of brain lesion, and increased volume of infarct and cerebral edema in both 24 hours and 7 days after reperfusion. Interestingly, reduced neurological deficits, decreased TNF-α and IL-1 expression, less apoptotic cells and CD68 positive staining, and alleviated infarct and cerebral edema volume were observed when 15d-PGJ2 was intraperitoneally injected after reperfusion in diabetic ischemia group, suggesting its neuroprotective role in regulating microglia activation, which may have a therapeutic application in the future.
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160
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Crain JM, Watters JJ. Microglial P2 Purinergic Receptor and Immunomodulatory Gene Transcripts Vary By Region, Sex, and Age in the Healthy Mouse CNS. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015; 3. [PMID: 26949719 DOI: 10.4172/2329-8936.1000124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Inflammatory damage in many neurodegenerative diseases is restricted to certain regions of the CNS, and while microglia have long been implicated in the pathology of many of these disorders, information comparing their gene expression in different CNS regions is lacking. Here we tested the hypothesis that the expression of purinergic receptors, estrogen receptors and other neuroprotective and pro-inflammatory genes differed among CNS regions in healthy mice. Because neurodegenerative diseases vary in incidence by sex and age, we also examined the regional distribution of these genes in male and female mice of four different ages between 21 days and 12 months. We postulated that pro-inflammatory gene expression would be higher in older animals, and lower in young adult females. We found that microglial gene expression differed across the CNS. Estrogen receptor alpha (Esr1) mRNA levels were often lower in microglia from the brainstem/spinal cord than from the cortex, whereas tumor necrosis factor alpha (Tnfα) expression was several times higher. In addition, the regional pattern of gene expression often changed with animal age; for example, no regional differences in P2X7 mRNA levels were detected in 21 day-old animals, but at 7 weeks and older, expression was highest in cerebellar microglia. Lastly, the expression of some genes was sexually dimorphic. In microglia from 12 month-old animals, mRNA levels of inducible nitric oxide synthase, but not Tnfα, were higher in females than males. These data suggest that microglial gene expression is not uniformly more pro-inflammatory in males or older animals. Moreover, microglia from CNS regions in which neuronal damage predominates in neurodegenerative disease do not generally express more pro-inflammatory genes than microglia from regions less frequently affected. This study provides an in-depth assessment of regional-, sex- and age-dependent differences in key microglial transcripts from the healthy mouse CNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica M Crain
- Program in Cellular and Molecular Biology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706; Center for Women's Health Research, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706
| | - Jyoti J Watters
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706; Program in Cellular and Molecular Biology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706; Center for Women's Health Research, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706
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161
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Central nervous system myeloid cells as drug targets: current status and translational challenges. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2015; 15:110-24. [DOI: 10.1038/nrd.2015.14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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162
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Targeting of Tumor Necrosis Factor Alpha Receptors as a Therapeutic Strategy for Neurodegenerative Disorders. Antibodies (Basel) 2015. [DOI: 10.3390/antib4040369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
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163
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Inácio AR, Liu Y, Clausen BH, Svensson M, Kucharz K, Yang Y, Stankovich T, Khorooshi R, Lambertsen KL, Issazadeh-Navikas S, Deierborg T. Endogenous IFN-β signaling exerts anti-inflammatory actions in experimentally induced focal cerebral ischemia. J Neuroinflammation 2015; 12:211. [PMID: 26581581 PMCID: PMC4652356 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-015-0427-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2015] [Accepted: 11/05/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Interferon (IFN)-β exerts anti-inflammatory effects, coupled to remarkable neurological improvements in multiple sclerosis, a neuroinflammatory condition of the central nervous system. Analogously, it has been hypothesized that IFN-β, by limiting inflammation, decreases neuronal death and promotes functional recovery after stroke. However, the core actions of endogenous IFN-β signaling in stroke are unclear. Methods To address this question, we used two clinically relevant models of focal cerebral ischemia, transient and permanent middle cerebral artery occlusion, and two genetically modified mouse lines, lacking either IFN-β or its receptor, the IFN-α/β receptor. Subsets of inflammatory and immune cells isolated from the brain, blood, and spleen were studied using flow cytometry. Sensorimotor deficits were assessed by a modified composite neuroscore, the rotating pole and grip strength tests, and cerebral infarct volumes were given by lack of neuronal nuclei immunoreactivity. Results Here, we report alterations in local and systemic inflammation in IFN-β knockout (IFN-βKO) mice over 8 days after induction of focal cerebral ischemia. Notably, IFN-βKO mice showed a higher number of infiltrating leukocytes in the brain 2 days after stroke. Concomitantly, in the blood of IFN-βKO mice, we found a higher percentage of total B cells but a similar percentage of mature and activated B cells, collectively indicating a higher proliferation rate. The additional differential regulation of circulating cytokines and splenic immune cell populations in wild-type and IFN-βKO mice further supports an important immunoregulatory function of IFN-β in stroke. Moreover, we observed a significant weight loss 2–3 days and a reduction in grip strength 2 days after stroke in the IFN-βKO group, while endogenous IFN-β signaling did not affect the infarct volume. Conclusions We conclude that endogenous IFN-β signaling attenuates local inflammation, regulates peripheral immune cells, and, thereby, may contribute positively to stroke outcome. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12974-015-0427-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana R Inácio
- Laboratory for Experimental Brain Research, Department of Clinical Sciences, Lund University, BMC A13, Sölvegatan 17, 22184, Lund, Sweden. .,Present Address: INMED, INSERM U901, Parc Scientifique de Luminy, 163 route de Luminy, BP13, 13273, Marseille cedex 09, France. .,Present Address: Aix-Marseille Université, UMR S901, 13009, Marseille, France.
| | - Yawei Liu
- Neuroinflammation Unit, Biotech Research and Innovation Centre (BRIC), University of Copenhagen, Ole Maaløes Vej 5, 2200, Copenhagen N, Denmark
| | - Bettina H Clausen
- Department of Neurobiology Research, Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, JB Winsloewsvej 21, st + 25, 2, 5000, Odense C, Denmark
| | - Martina Svensson
- Experimental Neuroinflammation Laboratory, Department of Experimental Medical Sciences, Lund University, BMC B11, Sölvegatan 19, 22184, Lund, Sweden
| | - Krzysztof Kucharz
- Laboratory for Experimental Brain Research, Department of Clinical Sciences, Lund University, BMC A13, Sölvegatan 17, 22184, Lund, Sweden.,7Present Address: Department of Neuroscience and Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen N, 2200, Denmark
| | - Yiyi Yang
- Experimental Neuroinflammation Laboratory, Department of Experimental Medical Sciences, Lund University, BMC B11, Sölvegatan 19, 22184, Lund, Sweden
| | - Totte Stankovich
- Laboratory for Experimental Brain Research, Department of Clinical Sciences, Lund University, BMC A13, Sölvegatan 17, 22184, Lund, Sweden
| | - Reza Khorooshi
- Department of Neurobiology Research, Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, JB Winsloewsvej 21, st + 25, 2, 5000, Odense C, Denmark
| | - Kate L Lambertsen
- Department of Neurobiology Research, Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, JB Winsloewsvej 21, st + 25, 2, 5000, Odense C, Denmark
| | - Shohreh Issazadeh-Navikas
- Neuroinflammation Unit, Biotech Research and Innovation Centre (BRIC), University of Copenhagen, Ole Maaløes Vej 5, 2200, Copenhagen N, Denmark.
| | - Tomas Deierborg
- Laboratory for Experimental Brain Research, Department of Clinical Sciences, Lund University, BMC A13, Sölvegatan 17, 22184, Lund, Sweden.,Experimental Neuroinflammation Laboratory, Department of Experimental Medical Sciences, Lund University, BMC B11, Sölvegatan 19, 22184, Lund, Sweden
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164
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Ramírez-Sánchez J, Simões Pires EN, Nuñez-Figueredo Y, Pardo-Andreu GL, Fonseca-Fonseca LA, Ruiz-Reyes A, Ochoa-Rodríguez E, Verdecia-Reyes Y, Delgado-Hernández R, Souza DO, Salbego C. Neuroprotection by JM-20 against oxygen-glucose deprivation in rat hippocampal slices: Involvement of the Akt/GSK-3β pathway. Neurochem Int 2015; 90:215-23. [PMID: 26361722 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2015.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2015] [Revised: 09/03/2015] [Accepted: 09/04/2015] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Cerebral ischemia is the third most common cause of death and a major cause of disability worldwide. Beyond a shortage of essential metabolites, ischemia triggers many interconnected pathophysiological events, including excitotoxicity, oxidative stress, inflammation and apoptosis. Here, we investigated the neuroprotective mechanisms of JM-20, a novel synthetic molecule, focusing on the phosphoinositide-3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt survival pathway and glial cell response as potential targets of JM-20. For this purpose, we used organotypic hippocampal slice cultures exposed to oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD) to achieve ischemic/reperfusion damage in vitro. Treatment with JM-20 at 0.1 and 10 μM reduced PI incorporation (indicative of cell death) after OGD. OGD decreased the phosphorylation of Akt (pro-survival) and GSK 3β (pro-apoptotic), resulting in respective inhibition and activation of these proteins. Treatment with JM20 prevented the reduced phosphorylation of these proteins after OGD, representing a shift from pro-apoptotic to pro-survival signaling. The OGD-induced activation of caspase-3 was also attenuated by JM-20 treatment at 10 μM. Moreover, in cultures treated with JM-20 and exposed to OGD conditioning, we observed a decrease in activated microglia, as well as a decrease in interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6 and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α release into the culture medium, while the level of the anti-inflammatory IL-10 increased. GFAP immunostaining and IB4 labeling showed that JM-20 treatment significantly augmented GFAP immunoreactivity after OGD, when compared with cultures exposed to OGD only, suggesting the activation of astroglial cells. Our results confirm that JM-20 has a strong neuroprotective effect against ischemic injury and suggest that the mechanisms involved in this effect may include the modulation of reactive astrogliosis, as well as neuroinflammation and the anti-apoptotic cell signaling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeney Ramírez-Sánchez
- Centro de Investigación y Desarrollo de Medicamentos, Ave 26, No. 1605 Boyeros y Puentes Grandes, CP 10600 La Habana, Cuba
| | - Elisa Nicoloso Simões Pires
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Bioquímica, Departamento de Bioquímica, ICBS, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Rua Ramiro Barcelos, 2600-Anexo I, Porto Alegre, RS 90035-003, Brazil
| | - Yanier Nuñez-Figueredo
- Centro de Investigación y Desarrollo de Medicamentos, Ave 26, No. 1605 Boyeros y Puentes Grandes, CP 10600 La Habana, Cuba
| | - Gilberto L Pardo-Andreu
- Centro de Estudio para las Investigaciones y Evaluaciones Biológicas, Instituto de Farmacia y Alimentos, Universidad de La Habana, ave. 23 # 21425 e/214 y 222, La Coronela, La Lisa CP 13600, La Habana, Cuba
| | - Luis Arturo Fonseca-Fonseca
- Centro de Investigación y Desarrollo de Medicamentos, Ave 26, No. 1605 Boyeros y Puentes Grandes, CP 10600 La Habana, Cuba
| | - Alberto Ruiz-Reyes
- Laboratorio de Síntesis Orgánica de La Facultad de Química de La Universidad de La Habana, Zapata s/n entre G y Carlitos Aguirre, Vedado Plaza de la Revolución, CP 10400, La Habana, Cuba
| | - Estael Ochoa-Rodríguez
- Laboratorio de Síntesis Orgánica de La Facultad de Química de La Universidad de La Habana, Zapata s/n entre G y Carlitos Aguirre, Vedado Plaza de la Revolución, CP 10400, La Habana, Cuba
| | - Yamila Verdecia-Reyes
- Laboratorio de Síntesis Orgánica de La Facultad de Química de La Universidad de La Habana, Zapata s/n entre G y Carlitos Aguirre, Vedado Plaza de la Revolución, CP 10400, La Habana, Cuba
| | - René Delgado-Hernández
- Centro de Investigación y Desarrollo de Medicamentos, Ave 26, No. 1605 Boyeros y Puentes Grandes, CP 10600 La Habana, Cuba
| | - Diogo O Souza
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Bioquímica, Departamento de Bioquímica, ICBS, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Rua Ramiro Barcelos, 2600-Anexo I, Porto Alegre, RS 90035-003, Brazil; Departamento de Bioquímica, PPG em Bioquímica, PPG em Educação em Ciência, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Rua Ramiro Barcelos, 2600 anexo, Porto Alegre, RS 90035-003, Brazil
| | - Christianne Salbego
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Bioquímica, Departamento de Bioquímica, ICBS, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Rua Ramiro Barcelos, 2600-Anexo I, Porto Alegre, RS 90035-003, Brazil; Departamento de Bioquímica, PPG em Bioquímica, PPG em Educação em Ciência, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Rua Ramiro Barcelos, 2600 anexo, Porto Alegre, RS 90035-003, Brazil.
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165
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Li F, Faustino J, Woo MS, Derugin N, Vexler ZS. Lack of the scavenger receptor CD36 alters microglial phenotypes after neonatal stroke. J Neurochem 2015. [PMID: 26223273 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.13239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The stage of brain development at the time of stroke has a major impact on the pathophysiological mechanisms of ischemic damage, including the neuroinflammatory response. Microglial cells have been shown to contribute to acute and subchronic injury in adult stroke models, whereas in neonatal rodents we showed that microglial cells serve as endogenous neuroprotectants early following transient middle cerebral artery occlusion, limiting neuroinflammation and injury. In the neonate, microglial depletion or lack of the scavenger receptor CD36 exacerbates injury. In this study we asked if lack of CD36 affects microglial phenotypes after neonatal stroke. Using RT-PCR we characterized the patterns of gene expression in microglia isolated from injured regions following acute transient middle cerebral artery occlusion in postnatal day 10 mice and showed that expression of several pro-inflammatory genes, including Toll-like receptors, remains largely unaffected in activated microglia in injured regions. Using multiple biochemical assays we demonstrated that lack of CD36 alters several functions of microglia in acutely injured neonatal brain: it further enhances accumulation of the chemokine MCP-1, affects the number of CD11b(+) /CD45(+) cells, along with protein expression of its co-receptor, Toll-like receptor 2, but does not affect accumulation of superoxide in microglia or the cytokines TNFα and IL-1β in injured regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fan Li
- Department of Neurology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA.,Department of Pathology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Science, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, Yunnan, China
| | - Joel Faustino
- Department of Neurology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Moon-Sook Woo
- Department of Neurology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Nikita Derugin
- Department of Neurology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Zinaida S Vexler
- Department of Neurology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA
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166
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Masuch A, Shieh CH, van Rooijen N, van Calker D, Biber K. Mechanism of microglia neuroprotection: Involvement of P2X7, TNFα, and valproic acid. Glia 2015; 64:76-89. [PMID: 26295445 DOI: 10.1002/glia.22904] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2015] [Revised: 08/03/2015] [Accepted: 08/05/2015] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Recently, we have demonstrated that ramified microglia are neuroprotective in N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA)-induced excitotoxicity in organotypic hippocampal slice cultures (OHSCs). The present study aimed to elucidate the underlying neuron-glia communication mechanism. It is shown here that pretreatment of OHSC with high concentrations of adenosine 5'-triphosphate (ATP) reduced NMDA-induced neuronal death only in presence of microglia. Specific agonists and antagonists identified the P2X7 receptor as neuroprotective receptor which was confirmed by absence of ATP-dependent neuroprotection in P2X7-deficient OHSC. Microglia replenished chimeric OHSC consisting of wild-type tissue replenished with P2X7-deficient microglia confirmed the involvement of microglial P2X7 receptor in neuroprotection. Stimulation of P2X7 in primary microglia induced tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα) release and blocking TNFα by a neutralizing antibody in OHSC abolished neuroprotection by ATP. OHSC from TNFα-deficient mice show increased exicitoxicity and activation of P2X7 did not rescue neuronal survival in the absence of TNFα. The neuroprotective effect of valproic acid (VPA) was strictly dependent on the presence of microglia and was mediated by upregulation of P2X7 in the cells. The present study demonstrates that microglia-mediated neuroprotection depends on ATP-activated purine receptor P2X7 and induction of TNFα release. This neuroprotective pathway was strengthened by VPA elucidating a novel mechanism for the neuroprotective function of VPA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annette Masuch
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Hospital Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Chu-Hsin Shieh
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Hospital Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Nico van Rooijen
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Free University Medical Center (VUMC), Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Dietrich van Calker
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Hospital Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Knut Biber
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Hospital Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.,Department of Neuroscience, University Medical Center Groningen (UMCG), University of Groningen, the Netherlands
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167
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Linnartz-Gerlach B, Schuy C, Shahraz A, Tenner AJ, Neumann H. Sialylation of neurites inhibits complement-mediated macrophage removal in a human macrophage-neuron Co-Culture System. Glia 2015; 64:35-47. [PMID: 26257016 DOI: 10.1002/glia.22901] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2014] [Revised: 07/22/2015] [Accepted: 07/23/2015] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
The complement system has been implicated in the removal of dysfunctional synapses and neurites during development and in disease processes in the mouse, but it is unclear how far the mouse data can be transferred to humans. Here, we co-cultured macrophages derived from human THP1 monocytes and neurons derived from human induced pluripotent stem cells, to study the role of the complement system in a human model. Components of the complement system were expressed by the human macrophages and human neuronal culture, while receptors of the complement cascade were expressed by human macrophages as shown via gene transcript analysis and flow cytometry. We mimicked pathological conditions leading to an altered glycocalyx by treatment of human neurons with sialidases. Desialylated human neurites were opsonized by the complement component C1q. Furthermore, human neurites with an intact sialic acid cap remained untouched, while desialylated human neurites were removed and ingested by human macrophages. While blockage of the complement receptor 1 (CD35) had no effect, blockage of CD11b as part of the complement receptor 3 (CR3) reversed the effect on macrophage phagocytosis of desialylated human neurites. Data demonstrate that in the human system sialylation of the neuronal glycocalyx serves as an inhibitory flag for complement binding and CR3-mediated phagocytosis by macrophages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bettina Linnartz-Gerlach
- Neural Regeneration Group, Institute of Reconstructive Neurobiology, University Hospital Bonn, University of Bonn, Bonn, 53127, Germany
| | - Christine Schuy
- Neural Regeneration Group, Institute of Reconstructive Neurobiology, University Hospital Bonn, University of Bonn, Bonn, 53127, Germany
| | - Anahita Shahraz
- Neural Regeneration Group, Institute of Reconstructive Neurobiology, University Hospital Bonn, University of Bonn, Bonn, 53127, Germany
| | - Andrea J Tenner
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Institute for Immunology, University of California, Irvine, California, 92697, USA
| | - Harald Neumann
- Neural Regeneration Group, Institute of Reconstructive Neurobiology, University Hospital Bonn, University of Bonn, Bonn, 53127, Germany
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168
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TNF and its receptors in the CNS: The essential, the desirable and the deleterious effects. Neuroscience 2015; 302:2-22. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2015.06.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 290] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2015] [Revised: 06/17/2015] [Accepted: 06/19/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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169
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Babcock AA, Ilkjær L, Clausen BH, Villadsen B, Dissing-Olesen L, Bendixen ATM, Lyck L, Lambertsen KL, Finsen B. Cytokine-producing microglia have an altered beta-amyloid load in aged APP/PS1 Tg mice. Brain Behav Immun 2015; 48:86-101. [PMID: 25774009 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2015.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2014] [Revised: 02/21/2015] [Accepted: 03/06/2015] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Beta-amyloid (Aβ) plaques and chronic neuroinflammation are significant neuropathological features of Alzheimer's disease. Microglial cells in aged brains have potential to produce cytokines such as TNF and IL-1 family members (IL-1α, IL-1β, and IL-1Ra) and to phagocytose Aβ in Alzheimer's disease, however the inter-relationship between these processes is poorly understood. Here we show that % Aβ plaque load followed a sigmoidal trajectory with age in the neocortex of APPswe/PS1ΔE9 Tg mice, and correlated positively with soluble Aβ40 and Aβ42. Aβ measures were moderately correlated with mRNA levels of CD11b, TNF, and IL-1Ra. Cytokine production and Aβ load were assessed in neocortical CD11b(+)(CD45(+)) microglia by flow cytometry. Whereas most microglia in aged mice produced IL-1Ra, relatively low proportions of microglia produced TNF, IL-1α, and IL-1β. However, microglial production of these latter cytokines was generally increased in APP/PS1 Tg mice. Microglia that phagocytosed endogenously-produced Aβ were only observed in APP/PS1 Tg mice. Differences in phagocytic index and total Aβ load were observed in microglia with specific cytokine profiles. Both phagocytic index and total Aβ load were higher in IL-1α(+) and IL-1Ra(+) microglia, than microglia that did not produce these cytokines. In contrast, total Aβ load was lower in IL-1β(+) and TNF(+) microglia, compared to IL-1β(-) and TNF(-) microglia, and TNF(+) microglia also had a lower phagocytic index. Using GFP bone marrow chimeric mice, we confirmed that the majority of neocortical CD11b(+)(CD45(+)) microglia were resident cells (GFP(-)) in APP/PS1 Tg mice, even after selectively analysing CD11b(+)CD45(high) cells, which are typically considered to be infiltrating cells. Together, our data demonstrate that cytokine expression is selectively correlated with age and Aβ pathology, and is associated with an altered Aβ load in phagocytic microglia from APP/PS1 Tg mice. These findings have implications for understanding the regulation of microglial cytokine production and phagocytosis of Aβ in Alzheimer's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alicia A Babcock
- Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, JB Winsløws Vej 25, 2, 5000 Odense C, Denmark.
| | - Laura Ilkjær
- Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, JB Winsløws Vej 25, 2, 5000 Odense C, Denmark.
| | - Bettina H Clausen
- Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, JB Winsløws Vej 25, 2, 5000 Odense C, Denmark.
| | - Birgitte Villadsen
- Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, JB Winsløws Vej 25, 2, 5000 Odense C, Denmark.
| | - Lasse Dissing-Olesen
- Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, JB Winsløws Vej 25, 2, 5000 Odense C, Denmark.
| | - Anita T M Bendixen
- Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, JB Winsløws Vej 25, 2, 5000 Odense C, Denmark.
| | - Lise Lyck
- Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, JB Winsløws Vej 25, 2, 5000 Odense C, Denmark.
| | - Kate L Lambertsen
- Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, JB Winsløws Vej 25, 2, 5000 Odense C, Denmark.
| | - Bente Finsen
- Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, JB Winsløws Vej 25, 2, 5000 Odense C, Denmark.
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170
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Histological changes in albino rat hippocampus following postnatal exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic field emitted from mobile phones. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015. [DOI: 10.1097/01.ehx.0000464783.65190.9e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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171
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Morzaev D, Nicholson JD, Caspi T, Weiss S, Hochhauser E, Goldenberg-Cohen N. Toll-like receptor-4 knockout mice are more resistant to optic nerve crush damage than wild-type mice. Clin Exp Ophthalmol 2015; 43:655-65. [PMID: 25752496 DOI: 10.1111/ceo.12521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2014] [Accepted: 02/28/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND This study aims to investigate the role of the inflammatory response following optic nerve crush (ONC) in knockout mice for the toll-like receptor-4 gene (TLR4-/-) compared to wild-type (WT) mice. METHODS ONC was induced in TLR4-/- and C57BL6 WT mice. Histological sections of the retina and optic nerve were analysed on days 1, 3 or 21 after injury. Molecular analysis with real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction was used to study the expression of CD45, tumour necrosis-alpha (TNF-α) and glial fibrillary acidic protein, as well as retinal ganglion cell (RGC) markers THY-1 and Brn3b. RESULTS There was a 25.5% and 38% loss in the RGC layer of the ONC-injured eyes of the TLR4-/- and the WT mice, respectively (with 27% and 9% of the remaining cells positive for Brn3a, respectively). Mean levels of Thy-1 and Brn3b were higher in the TLR4-/- mice. CD45 and Iba1 staining revealed infiltration of inflammatory cells into the injured nerve and retina in both groups. Molecular analysis of the optic nerve on day 1 showed increased TNF-α expression and reduced CD45 and GFAP expression; on day 3, CD45 reverted to baseline but GFAP remained low; on day 21, all 3 markers were at baseline in the TLR4-/- group and decreased in the WT group. CONCLUSION Inflammation plays a major role in the response to ONC injury. Reduced levels of inflammation are associated with improved RGC preservation. The increase in TNF-α and reduction in CD45 in both TLR4-/- and WT mice may indicate the presence of an alternative pathway for induction of RGC death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dana Morzaev
- The Krieger Eye Research Laboratory, Felsenstein Medical Research Center, Petach Tikva, Israel.,Sackler School of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - James D Nicholson
- The Krieger Eye Research Laboratory, Felsenstein Medical Research Center, Petach Tikva, Israel.,Sackler School of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Tomm Caspi
- Sackler School of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Shirel Weiss
- The Krieger Eye Research Laboratory, Felsenstein Medical Research Center, Petach Tikva, Israel.,Sackler School of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Edith Hochhauser
- Sackler School of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel.,Laboratory of Cardiac Research, Felsenstein Medical Research Center, Petach Tikva, Israel
| | - Nitza Goldenberg-Cohen
- The Krieger Eye Research Laboratory, Felsenstein Medical Research Center, Petach Tikva, Israel.,Sackler School of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel.,Department of Ophthalmology, Pediatric Unit, Schneider Children's Medical Center of Israel, Petach Tikva, Israel
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172
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Larochelle A, Bellavance MA, Rivest S. Role of adaptor protein MyD88 in TLR-mediated preconditioning and neuroprotection after acute excitotoxicity. Brain Behav Immun 2015; 46:221-31. [PMID: 25733102 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2015.02.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2014] [Revised: 02/03/2015] [Accepted: 02/20/2015] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Excitotoxic cell death is a crucial mechanism through which neurodegeneration occurs in numerous pathologies of the central nervous system (CNS), such as Alzheimer's disease, stroke and spinal cord injury. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are strongly expressed on microglial cells and are key regulators of the innate immune response to neuronal damage. However, it is still unclear whether their stimulation is protective or harmful in excitotoxic contexts. In this study, we demonstrate that systemic administration of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or Pam3CSK4 24h prior to an intrastriatal injection of kainic acid (KA) significantly protected cortical neurons in the acute phase of injury. Protection could not be detected with the TLR3 ligand poly-IC. Histological analyses revealed that microglia of LPS and Pam3CSK4 pre-conditioned group were primed to react to injury and exhibited a stronger expression of Tnf and Tlr2 mRNA. We also found that mice deficient for MyD88, a critical adaptor protein for most TLR, were more vulnerable than WT mice to KA-induced excitotoxicity at early (12h and 24h) and late (10days) time points. Finally, bone-marrow chimeric mice revealed that MyD88 signaling in CNS resident cells, but not in cells of hematopoietic origin, mediates the protective effect. This study unravels the potential of TLR2 and TLR4 agonists to induce a protective state of preconditioning against KA-mediated excitotoxicity and further highlights the beneficial role of cerebral MyD88 signaling in this context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antoine Larochelle
- Neuroscience Laboratory, CHU de Québec Research Center and Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Laval University, 2705 Laurier Blvd., Québec G1V 4G2, Canada
| | - Marc-André Bellavance
- Neuroscience Laboratory, CHU de Québec Research Center and Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Laval University, 2705 Laurier Blvd., Québec G1V 4G2, Canada
| | - Serge Rivest
- Neuroscience Laboratory, CHU de Québec Research Center and Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Laval University, 2705 Laurier Blvd., Québec G1V 4G2, Canada.
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173
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Amantea D, Micieli G, Tassorelli C, Cuartero MI, Ballesteros I, Certo M, Moro MA, Lizasoain I, Bagetta G. Rational modulation of the innate immune system for neuroprotection in ischemic stroke. Front Neurosci 2015; 9:147. [PMID: 25972779 PMCID: PMC4413676 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2015.00147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 160] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2015] [Accepted: 04/09/2015] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The innate immune system plays a dualistic role in the evolution of ischemic brain damage and has also been implicated in ischemic tolerance produced by different conditioning stimuli. Early after ischemia, perivascular astrocytes release cytokines and activate metalloproteases (MMPs) that contribute to blood–brain barrier (BBB) disruption and vasogenic oedema; whereas at later stages, they provide extracellular glutamate uptake, BBB regeneration and neurotrophic factors release. Similarly, early activation of microglia contributes to ischemic brain injury via the production of inflammatory cytokines, including tumor necrosis factor (TNF) and interleukin (IL)-1, reactive oxygen and nitrogen species and proteases. Nevertheless, microglia also contributes to the resolution of inflammation, by releasing IL-10 and tumor growth factor (TGF)-β, and to the late reparative processes by phagocytic activity and growth factors production. Indeed, after ischemia, microglia/macrophages differentiate toward several phenotypes: the M1 pro-inflammatory phenotype is classically activated via toll-like receptors or interferon-γ, whereas M2 phenotypes are alternatively activated by regulatory mediators, such as ILs 4, 10, 13, or TGF-β. Thus, immune cells exert a dualistic role on the evolution of ischemic brain damage, since the classic phenotypes promote injury, whereas alternatively activated M2 macrophages or N2 neutrophils prompt tissue remodeling and repair. Moreover, a subdued activation of the immune system has been involved in ischemic tolerance, since different preconditioning stimuli act via modulation of inflammatory mediators, including toll-like receptors and cytokine signaling pathways. This further underscores that the immuno-modulatory approach for the treatment of ischemic stroke should be aimed at blocking the detrimental effects, while promoting the beneficial responses of the immune reaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana Amantea
- Section of Preclinical and Translational Pharmacology, Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria Rende, Italy
| | | | - Cristina Tassorelli
- C. Mondino National Neurological Institute Pavia, Italy ; Department of Brain and Behavioral Sciences, University of Pavia Pavia, Italy
| | - María I Cuartero
- Unidad de Investigación Neurovascular, Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Complutense de Madrid and Instituto de Investigación Hospital 12 de Octubre Madrid, Spain
| | - Iván Ballesteros
- Unidad de Investigación Neurovascular, Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Complutense de Madrid and Instituto de Investigación Hospital 12 de Octubre Madrid, Spain
| | - Michelangelo Certo
- Section of Preclinical and Translational Pharmacology, Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria Rende, Italy
| | - María A Moro
- Unidad de Investigación Neurovascular, Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Complutense de Madrid and Instituto de Investigación Hospital 12 de Octubre Madrid, Spain
| | - Ignacio Lizasoain
- Unidad de Investigación Neurovascular, Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Complutense de Madrid and Instituto de Investigación Hospital 12 de Octubre Madrid, Spain
| | - Giacinto Bagetta
- Section of Preclinical and Translational Pharmacology, Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria Rende, Italy ; Section of Neuropharmacology of Normal and Pathological Neuronal Plasticity, University Consortium for Adaptive Disorders and Head Pain, University of Calabria Rende, Italy
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174
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Moritz C, Berardi F, Abate C, Peri F. Live imaging reveals a new role for the sigma-1 (σ1) receptor in allowing microglia to leave brain injuries. Neurosci Lett 2015; 591:13-18. [PMID: 25666889 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2015.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2014] [Revised: 01/20/2015] [Accepted: 02/03/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Microglial cells are responsible for clearing and maintaining the central nervous system (CNS) microenvironment. Upon brain damage, they move toward injuries to clear the area by engulfing dying neurons. However, in the context of many neurological disorders chronic microglial responses are responsible for neurodegeneration. Therefore, it is important to understand how these cells can be "switched-off" and regain their ramified state. Current research suggests that microglial inflammatory responses can be inhibited by sigma (σ) receptor activation. Here, we take advantage of the optical transparency of the zebrafish embryo to study the role of σ1 receptor in microglia in an intact living brain. By combining chemical approaches with real time imaging we found that treatment with PB190, a σ1 agonist, blocks microglial migration toward injuries leaving cellular baseline motility and the engulfment of apoptotic neurons unaffected. Most importantly, by taking a reverse genetic approach, we discovered that the role of σ1in vivo is to "switch-off" microglia after they responded to an injury allowing for these cells to leave the site of damage. This indicates that pharmacological manipulation of σ1 receptor modulates microglial responses providing new approaches to reduce the devastating impact that microglia have in neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Moritz
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Developmental Biology Unit, Meyerhofstr. 1, 69117 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Francesco Berardi
- Dipartimento di Farmacia - Scienze del Farmaco, Università degli Studi di Bari ALDO MORO, Via Orabona 4, I-70125 Bari, Italy
| | - Carmen Abate
- Dipartimento di Farmacia - Scienze del Farmaco, Università degli Studi di Bari ALDO MORO, Via Orabona 4, I-70125 Bari, Italy.
| | - Francesca Peri
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Developmental Biology Unit, Meyerhofstr. 1, 69117 Heidelberg, Germany.
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175
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Clausen BH, Degn M, Martin NA, Couch Y, Karimi L, Ormhøj M, Mortensen MLB, Gredal HB, Gardiner C, Sargent IIL, Szymkowski DE, Petit GH, Deierborg T, Finsen B, Anthony DC, Lambertsen KL. Systemically administered anti-TNF therapy ameliorates functional outcomes after focal cerebral ischemia. J Neuroinflammation 2014; 11:203. [PMID: 25498129 PMCID: PMC4272527 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-014-0203-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2014] [Accepted: 11/15/2014] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The innate immune system contributes to the outcome after stroke, where neuroinflammation and post-stroke systemic immune depression are central features. Tumor necrosis factor (TNF), which exists in both a transmembrane (tm) and soluble (sol) form, is known to sustain complex inflammatory responses associated with stroke. We tested the effect of systemically blocking only solTNF versus blocking both tmTNF and solTNF on infarct volume, functional outcome and inflammation in focal cerebral ischemia. Methods We used XPro1595 (a dominant-negative inhibitor of solTNF) and etanercept (which blocks both solTNF and tmTNF) to test the effect of systemic administration on infarct volume, functional recovery and inflammation after focal cerebral ischemia in mice. Functional recovery was evaluated after one, three and five days, and infarct volumes at six hours, 24 hours and five days after ischemia. Brain inflammation, liver acute phase response (APR), spleen and blood leukocyte profiles, along with plasma microvesicle analysis, were evaluated. Results We found that both XPro1595 and etanercept significantly improved functional outcomes, altered microglial responses, and modified APR, spleen T cell and microvesicle numbers, but without affecting infarct volumes. Conclusions Our data suggest that XPro1595 and etanercept improve functional outcome after focal cerebral ischemia by altering the peripheral immune response, changing blood and spleen cell populations and decreasing granulocyte infiltration into the brain. Blocking solTNF, using XPro1595, was just as efficient as blocking both solTNF and tmTNF using etanercept. Our findings may have implications for future treatments with anti-TNF drugs in TNF-dependent diseases. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12974-014-0203-6) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bettina Hjelm Clausen
- Department of Neurobiology Research, Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, J.B. Winsloewsvej 21, st., 5000, Odense, Denmark.
| | - Matilda Degn
- Department of Diagnostics, Molecular Sleep Laboratory, Glostrup Hospital, Nordre Ringvej 69, 2600, Glostrup, Denmark.
| | - Nellie Anne Martin
- Department of Neurobiology Research, Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, J.B. Winsloewsvej 21, st., 5000, Odense, Denmark.
| | - Yvonne Couch
- Department of Neurobiology Research, Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, J.B. Winsloewsvej 21, st., 5000, Odense, Denmark. .,Department of Pharmacology, University of Oxford, Mansfield Road, OX1 3QT, Oxford, UK.
| | - Leena Karimi
- Department of Neurobiology Research, Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, J.B. Winsloewsvej 21, st., 5000, Odense, Denmark.
| | - Maria Ormhøj
- Department of Neurobiology Research, Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, J.B. Winsloewsvej 21, st., 5000, Odense, Denmark.
| | - Maria-Louise Bergholdt Mortensen
- Department of Neurobiology Research, Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, J.B. Winsloewsvej 21, st., 5000, Odense, Denmark.
| | - Hanne Birgit Gredal
- Department of Neurobiology Research, Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, J.B. Winsloewsvej 21, st., 5000, Odense, Denmark. .,Department of Veterinary Clinical and Animal Sciences, Facuty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Dyrlægevej 16, 1870, Frederiksberg, Denmark.
| | - Chris Gardiner
- Nuffield Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Oxford, Headley Way, OX1 3QT, Oxford, UK.
| | - Ian I L Sargent
- Nuffield Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Oxford, Headley Way, OX1 3QT, Oxford, UK.
| | | | - Géraldine H Petit
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Laboratory for Experimental Medical Science, Neuronal Survival Unit, 22100 Lund University, BMC B11, Sölveg 19, Lund, Sweden.
| | - Tomas Deierborg
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Laboratory for Experimental Medical Science, Neuronal Survival Unit, 22100 Lund University, BMC B11, Sölveg 19, Lund, Sweden.
| | - Bente Finsen
- Department of Neurobiology Research, Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, J.B. Winsloewsvej 21, st., 5000, Odense, Denmark.
| | - Daniel Clive Anthony
- Department of Neurobiology Research, Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, J.B. Winsloewsvej 21, st., 5000, Odense, Denmark. .,Department of Pharmacology, University of Oxford, Mansfield Road, OX1 3QT, Oxford, UK.
| | - Kate Lykke Lambertsen
- Department of Neurobiology Research, Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, J.B. Winsloewsvej 21, st., 5000, Odense, Denmark.
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Kim JY, Kim N, Yenari MA. Mechanisms and potential therapeutic applications of microglial activation after brain injury. CNS Neurosci Ther 2014; 21:309-19. [PMID: 25475659 DOI: 10.1111/cns.12360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2014] [Revised: 10/24/2014] [Accepted: 10/26/2014] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
As the resident immune cells of the central nervous system, microglia rapidly respond to brain insults, including stroke and traumatic brain injury. Microglial activation plays a major role in neuronal cell damage and death by releasing a variety of inflammatory and neurotoxic mediators. Their activation is an early response that may exacerbate brain injury and many other stressors, especially in the acute stages, but are also essential to brain recovery and repair. The full range of microglial activities is still not completely understood, but there is accumulating knowledge about their role following brain injury. We review recent progress related to the deleterious and beneficial effects of microglia in the setting of acute neurological insults and the current literature surrounding pharmacological interventions for intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jong-Youl Kim
- Department of Neurology, San Francisco Veterans Affairs Medical Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
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177
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van de Looij Y, Ginet V, Chatagner A, Toulotte A, Somm E, Hüppi PS, Sizonenko SV. Lactoferrin during lactation protects the immature hypoxic-ischemic rat brain. Ann Clin Transl Neurol 2014; 1:955-67. [PMID: 25574471 PMCID: PMC4284122 DOI: 10.1002/acn3.138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2014] [Revised: 10/06/2014] [Accepted: 10/07/2014] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective Lactoferrin (Lf) is an iron-binding glycoprotein secreted in maternal milk presenting anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. It shows efficient absorption into the brain from nutritional source. Brain injury frequently resulting from cerebral hypoxia-ischemia (HI) has a high incidence in premature infants with ensuing neurodevelopmental disabilities. We investigated the neuroprotective effect of maternal nutritional supplementation with Lf during lactation in a rat model of preterm HI brain injury using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), brain gene, and protein expression. Methods Moderate brain HI was induced using unilateral common carotid artery occlusion combined with hypoxia (6%, 30 min) in the postnatal day 3 (P3) rat brain (24–28 weeks human equivalent). High-field multimodal MRI techniques were used to investigate the effect of maternal Lf supplementation through lactation. Expression of cytokine coding genes (TNF-α and IL-6), the prosurvival/antiapoptotic AKT protein and caspase-3 activation were also analyzed in the acute phase after HI. Results MRI analysis demonstrated reduced cortical injury in Lf rats few hours post-HI and in long-term outcome (P25). Lf reduced HI-induced modifications of the cortical metabolism and altered white matter microstructure was recovered in Lf-supplemented rats at P25. Lf supplementation significantly decreased brain TNF-α and IL-6 gene transcription, increased phosphorylated AKT levels and reduced activation of caspase-3 at 24 h post-injury. Interpretation Lf given through lactation to rat pups with cerebral HI injury shows neuroprotective effects on brain metabolism, and cerebral gray and white matter recovery. This nutritional intervention may be of high interest for the clinical field of preterm brain neuroprotection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yohan van de Looij
- Division of Child Development and Growth, Department of Pediatrics, University of Geneva Geneva, Switzerland ; Laboratory for Functional and Metabolic Imaging (LIFMET), Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Vanessa Ginet
- Division of Child Development and Growth, Department of Pediatrics, University of Geneva Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Alexandra Chatagner
- Division of Child Development and Growth, Department of Pediatrics, University of Geneva Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Audrey Toulotte
- Division of Child Development and Growth, Department of Pediatrics, University of Geneva Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Emmanuel Somm
- Division of Child Development and Growth, Department of Pediatrics, University of Geneva Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Petra S Hüppi
- Division of Child Development and Growth, Department of Pediatrics, University of Geneva Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Stéphane V Sizonenko
- Division of Child Development and Growth, Department of Pediatrics, University of Geneva Geneva, Switzerland
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178
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Yuan Y, Zha H, Rangarajan P, Ling EA, Wu C. Anti-inflammatory effects of Edaravone and Scutellarin in activated microglia in experimentally induced ischemia injury in rats and in BV-2 microglia. BMC Neurosci 2014; 15:125. [PMID: 25416145 PMCID: PMC4247200 DOI: 10.1186/s12868-014-0125-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2014] [Accepted: 11/10/2014] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Background In response to cerebral ischemia, activated microglia release excessive inflammatory mediators which contribute to neuronal damage. Therefore, inhibition of microglial over-activation could be a therapeutic strategy to alleviate various microglia-mediated neuroinflammation. This study was aimed to elucidate the anti-inflammatory effects of Scutellarin and Edaravone given either singly, or in combination in activated microglia in rats subjected to middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO), and in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced BV-2 microglia. Expression of proinflammatory cytokines, including tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β), and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) was assessed by immunofluorescence staining and Western blot. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) and nitric oxide (NO) levels were determined by flow cytometry and fluorescence microscopy, respectively. Results In vivo, both Edaravone and Scutellarin markedly reduced the infarct cerebral tissue area with the latter drug being more effective with the dosage used; furthermore, when used in combination the reduction was more substantial. Remarkably, a greater diminution in distribution of activated microglia was observed with the combined drug treatment which also attenuated the immunoexpression of TNF-α, IL-1β and iNOS to a greater extent as compared to the drugs given separately. In vitro, both drugs suppressed upregulated expression of inflammatory cytokines, iNOS, NO and ROS in LPS-induced BV-2 cells. Furthermore, Edaravone and Scutellarin in combination cumulatively diminished the expression levels of the inflammatory mediators being most pronounced for TNF-α as evidenced by Western blot. Conclusion The results suggest that Edaravone and Scutellarin effectively suppressed the inflammatory responses in activated microglia, with Scutellarin being more efficacious within the dosage range used. Moreover, when both drugs were used in combination, the infarct tissue area was reduced more extensively; also, microglia-mediated inflammatory mediators notably TNF-α expression was decreased cumulatively. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12868-014-0125-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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179
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Ding Y, Zhang K, Liu S, Zhang Q, Ma C, Bruce IC, Zhang X. Tumor necrosis factor-α promotes the expression of excitatory amino-acid transporter 2 in astrocytes: Optimal concentration and incubation time. Exp Ther Med 2014; 8:1909-1913. [PMID: 25371754 PMCID: PMC4217772 DOI: 10.3892/etm.2014.2024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2014] [Accepted: 09/08/2014] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of the present study was to determine whether tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α regulates the expression levels of excitatory amino-acid transporters (EAATs) in primary astrocytes and its roles in brain ischemia. Exogenous TNF-α was administered to pure cultured astrocytes and the expression levels of EAAT1, EAAT2 and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) were evaluated. The results showed that TNF-α at 10 ng/ml enhanced the expression of EAAT2 in a time-dependent manner, while the expression levels of EAAT1 and GFAP did not change. To determine whether the elevation in the levels of the EAAT2 protein induced by TNF-α had a beneficial effect on ischemic insult, TNF-α was applied to in vitro models of cerebral ischemia; the treatment was observed to increase neuronal viability. The present results suggest that a relatively short-term application of an optimal concentration of TNF-α may protect neurons against ischemic injury by elevating the expression of EAAT2 in astrocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuemin Ding
- School of Medicine, Zhejiang University City College, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310015, P.R. China ; Department of Basic Medicine, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, P.R. China
| | - Kena Zhang
- College of Basic Medical Science, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310053, P.R. China
| | - Shuqin Liu
- Department of Pharmacy, Wannan Medical College, Wuhu, Anhui 241002, P.R. China
| | - Qijun Zhang
- Department of Basic Medicine, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, P.R. China
| | - Chiyuan Ma
- Department of Basic Medicine, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, P.R. China
| | - Iain C Bruce
- Department of Basic Medicine, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, P.R. China
| | - Xiong Zhang
- Department of Basic Medicine, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, P.R. China
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180
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Doll D, Barr TL, Simpkins JW. Cytokines: their role in stroke and potential use as biomarkers and therapeutic targets. Aging Dis 2014; 5:294-306. [PMID: 25276489 DOI: 10.14336/ad.2014.0500294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2014] [Revised: 05/16/2014] [Accepted: 05/27/2014] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Inflammatory mechanisms both in the periphery and in the CNS are important in the pathophysiologic processes occurring after the onset of ischemic stroke (IS). Cytokines are key players in the inflammatory mechanism and contribute to the progression of ischemic damage. This literature review focuses on the effects of inflammation on ischemic stroke, and the role pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines play on deleterious or beneficial stroke outcome. The discovery of biomarkers and novel therapeutics for stroke has been the focus of extensive research recently; thus, understanding the roles of pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines that are up-regulated during stroke will help us further understand how inflammation contributes to the progression of ischemic damage and provide potential targets for novel therapeutics and biomarkers for diagnosis and prognosis of stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Taura L Barr
- School of Nursing, West Virginia University Health Sciences Center, Morgantown, WV 26506, USA ; Center for Basic and Translational Stroke Research, West Virginia University Health Sciences Center, Morgantown, WV 26506, USA
| | - James W Simpkins
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, School of Medicine, West Virginia University Health Sciences Center, Morgantown, WV 26506, USA ; Center for Basic and Translational Stroke Research, West Virginia University Health Sciences Center, Morgantown, WV 26506, USA
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Tobin MK, Bonds JA, Minshall RD, Pelligrino DA, Testai FD, Lazarov O. Neurogenesis and inflammation after ischemic stroke: what is known and where we go from here. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2014; 34:1573-84. [PMID: 25074747 PMCID: PMC4269726 DOI: 10.1038/jcbfm.2014.130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 260] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2014] [Revised: 06/28/2014] [Accepted: 06/30/2014] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
This review covers the pathogenesis of ischemic stroke and future directions regarding therapeutic options after injury. Ischemic stroke is a devastating disease process affecting millions of people worldwide every year. The mechanisms underlying the pathophysiology of stroke are not fully understood but there is increasing evidence demonstrating the contribution of inflammation to the drastic changes after cerebral ischemia. This inflammation not only immediately affects the infarcted tissue but also causes long-term damage in the ischemic penumbra. Furthermore, the interaction between inflammation and subsequent neurogenesis is not well understood but the close relationship between these two processes has garnered significant interest in the last decade or so. Current approved therapy for stroke involving pharmacological thrombolysis is limited in its efficacy and new treatment strategies need to be investigated. Research aimed at new therapies is largely about transplantation of neural stem cells and using endogenous progenitor cells to promote brain repair. By understanding the interaction between inflammation and neurogenesis, new potential therapies could be developed to further establish brain repair mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew K Tobin
- 1] Medical Scientist Training Program, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA [2] Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA [3] Graduate Program in Neuroscience, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Jacqueline A Bonds
- 1] Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA [2] Graduate Program in Neuroscience, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Richard D Minshall
- 1] Department of Anesthesiology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA [2] Department of Pharmacology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Dale A Pelligrino
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Fernando D Testai
- Department of Neurology and Rehabilitation Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Orly Lazarov
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
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182
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Jastroch M, Morin S, Tschöp MH, Yi CX. The hypothalamic neural-glial network and the metabolic syndrome. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab 2014; 28:661-71. [PMID: 25256762 DOI: 10.1016/j.beem.2014.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Despite numerous educational interventions and biomedical research efforts, modern society continues to suffer from obesity and its associated metabolic diseases, such as type 2 diabetes mellitus, and these diseases show little sign of abating. One reason for this is an incomplete understanding of the pathology of the metabolic syndrome, which obstructs the development of effective therapeutic strategies. While hypothalamic neuropathy is a potential candidate that may contribute to the pathogenesis of the metabolic syndrome, the specific causes of hypothalamic neuropathy remain largely unknown. During different stages of high-calorie diet-induced metabolic syndrome, the hypothalamus undergoes gliosis and angiogenesis, both of which potentially reflect ongoing inflammatory processes. This overview discusses current data suggesting a role for hypothalamic inflammation-like processes in diet-induced metabolic diseases and provides a perspective on how to unravel molecular mechanisms of "hypothalamic inflammation" in order to develop anti-obesity therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Jastroch
- Institute for Diabetes and Obesity, Helmholtz Centre for Health and Environment & Technische Universität München, Munich 85748, Germany
| | - Silke Morin
- Institute for Diabetes and Obesity, Helmholtz Centre for Health and Environment & Technische Universität München, Munich 85748, Germany
| | - Matthias H Tschöp
- Institute for Diabetes and Obesity, Helmholtz Centre for Health and Environment & Technische Universität München, Munich 85748, Germany
| | - Chun-Xia Yi
- Institute for Diabetes and Obesity, Helmholtz Centre for Health and Environment & Technische Universität München, Munich 85748, Germany.
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183
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Ke L, Guo W, Xu J, Zhang G, Wang W, Huang W. Ginsenoside Rb1 attenuates activated microglia-induced neuronal damage. Neural Regen Res 2014; 9:252-9. [PMID: 25206809 PMCID: PMC4146149 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.128217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/09/2014] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The microglia-mediated inflammatory reaction promotes neuronal damage under cerebral ischemia/hypoxia conditions. We therefore speculated that inhibition of hypoxia-induced microglial activation may alleviate neuronal damage. To test this hypothesis, we co-cultured ginsenoside Rb1, an active component of ginseng, and cortical neurons. Ginsenoside Rb1 protected neuronal morphology and structure in a single hypoxic culture system and in a hypoxic co-culture system with microglia, and reduced neuronal apoptosis and caspase-3 production. The protective effect was observable prior to placing in co-culture. Additionally, ginsenoside Rb1 inhibited levels of tumor necrosis factor-α in a co-culture system containing activated N9 microglial cells. Ginsenoside Rb1 also significantly decreased nitric oxide and superoxide production induced by N9 microglia. Our findings indicate that ginsenoside Rb1 attenuates damage to cerebral cortex neurons by downregulation of nitric oxide, superoxide, and tumor necrosis factor-α expression in hypoxia-activated microglia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lining Ke
- Department of Human Anatomy, Histology and Embryology, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Wei Guo
- Department of Human Anatomy, Histology and Embryology, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian Province, China
| | - Jianwen Xu
- Department of Human Anatomy, Histology and Embryology, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian Province, China
| | - Guodong Zhang
- Department of Human Anatomy, Histology and Embryology, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Wei Wang
- Department of Human Anatomy, Histology and Embryology, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian Province, China
| | - Wenhua Huang
- Department of Human Anatomy, Histology and Embryology, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China
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184
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Novrup HG, Bracchi-Ricard V, Ellman DG, Ricard J, Jain A, Runko E, Lyck L, Yli-Karjanmaa M, Szymkowski DE, Pearse DD, Lambertsen KL, Bethea JR. Central but not systemic administration of XPro1595 is therapeutic following moderate spinal cord injury in mice. J Neuroinflammation 2014; 11:159. [PMID: 25204558 PMCID: PMC4176557 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-014-0159-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2014] [Accepted: 08/23/2014] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Glial cell activation and overproduction of inflammatory mediators in the central nervous system (CNS) have been implicated in acute traumatic injuries to the CNS, including spinal cord injury (SCI). Elevated levels of the proinflammatory cytokine tumor necrosis factor (TNF), which exists in both a soluble (sol) and a transmembrane (tm) form, have been found in the lesioned cord early after injury. The contribution of solTNF versus tmTNF to the development of the lesion is, however, still unclear. Methods We tested the effect of systemically or centrally blocking solTNF alone, using XPro1595, versus using the drug etanercept to block both solTNF and tmTNF compared to a placebo vehicle following moderate SCI in mice. Functional outcomes were evaluated using the Basso Mouse Scale, rung walk test, and thermal hyperalgesia analysis. The inflammatory response in the lesioned cord was investigated using immunohistochemistry and western blotting analyses. Results We found that peripheral administration of anti-TNF therapies had no discernable effect on locomotor performances after SCI. In contrast, central administration of XPro1595 resulted in improved locomotor function, decreased anxiety-related behavior, and reduced damage to the lesioned spinal cord, whereas central administration of etanercept had no therapeutic effects. Improvements in XPro1595-treated mice were accompanied by increases in Toll-like receptor 4 and TNF receptor 2 (TNFR2) protein levels and changes in Iba1 protein expression in microglia/macrophages 7 and 28 days after SCI. Conclusions These studies suggest that, by selectively blocking solTNF, XPro1595 is neuroprotective when applied directly to the lesioned cord. This protection may be mediated via alteration of the inflammatory environment without suppression of the neuroprotective effects of tmTNF signaling through TNFR2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hans G Novrup
- Department of Neurobiology Research, Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, J.B. Winsloewsvej 21 St, 5000, Odense C, Denmark.
| | - Valerie Bracchi-Ricard
- Department of Neurological Surgery, The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, 1095 NW 14th Ter R-48, Miami, FL, 33136, USA.
| | - Ditte G Ellman
- Department of Neurobiology Research, Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, J.B. Winsloewsvej 21 St, 5000, Odense C, Denmark.
| | - Jerome Ricard
- Department of Neurological Surgery, The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, 1095 NW 14th Ter R-48, Miami, FL, 33136, USA.
| | - Anjana Jain
- Department of Neurological Surgery, The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, 1095 NW 14th Ter R-48, Miami, FL, 33136, USA. .,Department of Biomedical Engineering, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, 100 Institute Road, Worcester, MA, 01609-2280, USA.
| | - Erik Runko
- Department of Neurological Surgery, The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, 1095 NW 14th Ter R-48, Miami, FL, 33136, USA.
| | - Lise Lyck
- Department of Neurobiology Research, Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, J.B. Winsloewsvej 21 St, 5000, Odense C, Denmark. .,Coloplast A/S, Holtedam 1, 3050, Humlebæk, Denmark, Denmark.
| | - Minna Yli-Karjanmaa
- Department of Neurobiology Research, Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, J.B. Winsloewsvej 21 St, 5000, Odense C, Denmark.
| | | | - Damien D Pearse
- Department of Neurological Surgery, The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, 1095 NW 14th Ter R-48, Miami, FL, 33136, USA.
| | - Kate L Lambertsen
- Department of Neurological Surgery, The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, 1095 NW 14th Ter R-48, Miami, FL, 33136, USA. .,Department of Neurobiology Research, Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, J.B. Winsloewsvej 21 St, 5000, Odense C, Denmark.
| | - John R Bethea
- Department of Neurological Surgery, The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, 1095 NW 14th Ter R-48, Miami, FL, 33136, USA. .,Department of Biology, Drexel University, 3245 Chestnut St., PISB 123, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA.
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185
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Bastien D, Lacroix S. Cytokine pathways regulating glial and leukocyte function after spinal cord and peripheral nerve injury. Exp Neurol 2014; 258:62-77. [PMID: 25017888 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2014.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2013] [Revised: 02/20/2014] [Accepted: 04/08/2014] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Injury to the nervous system causes the almost immediate release of cytokines by glial cells and neurons. These cytokines orchestrate a complex array of responses leading to microgliosis, immune cell recruitment, astrogliosis, scarring, and the clearance of cellular debris, all steps that affect neuronal survival and repair. This review will focus on cytokines released after spinal cord and peripheral nerve injury and the primary signalling pathways triggered by these inflammatory mediators. Notably, the following cytokine families will be covered: IL-1, TNF, IL-6-like, TGF-β, and IL-10. Whether interfering with cytokine signalling could lead to novel therapies will also be discussed. Finally, the review will address whether manipulating the above-mentioned cytokine families and signalling pathways could exert distinct effects in the injured spinal cord versus peripheral nerve.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominic Bastien
- Centre de recherche du Centre hospitalier universitaire de Québec-CHUL, Département de médecine moléculaire, Université Laval, Québec, QC, Canada
| | - Steve Lacroix
- Centre de recherche du Centre hospitalier universitaire de Québec-CHUL, Département de médecine moléculaire, Université Laval, Québec, QC, Canada..
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Dang Y, Xu Y, Wu W, Li W, Sun Y, Yang J, Zhu Y, Zhang C. Tetrandrine suppresses lipopolysaccharide-induced microglial activation by inhibiting NF-κB and ERK signaling pathways in BV2 cells. PLoS One 2014; 9:e102522. [PMID: 25115855 PMCID: PMC4130469 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0102522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2014] [Accepted: 06/19/2014] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Background and Objective Tetrandrine (TET) is a bisbenzylisoquinoline alkaloid extracted from Stephania tetrandra Moore. Recent studies have suggested that TET can reduce the inflammatory response in microglia, but the mechanisms remain unclear. The aim of this study is to investigate whether TET can inhibit lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced microglial activation and clarify its possible mechanisms. Study Design/Materials and Methods Cell viability assays and cell apoptosis assays were used to determine the working concentrations of TET. Then, BV2 cells were seeded and pretreated with TET for 2 h. LPS was then added and incubated for an additional 24 hours. qRT-PCR and ELISA were used to measure the mRNA or protein levels of IL1β and TNFα. Western blotting was utilized to quantify the expression of CD11b and cell signaling proteins. Results TET at optimal concentrations (0.1 µM, 0.5 µM or 1 µM) did not affect the cell viability. After TET pretreatment, the levels of IL1β and TNFα (both in transcription and translation) were significantly inhibited in a dose-dependent manner. Further studies indicated that phospho-p65, phospho-IKK, and phospho-ERK 1/2 expression were also suppressed by TET. Conclusions Our results indicate that TET can effectively suppress microglial activation and inhibit the production of IL1β and TNFα by regulating the NF-kB and ERK signaling pathways. Together with our previous studies, we suggest that TET would be a promising candidate to effectively suppress overactivated microglia and alleviate neurodegeneration in glaucoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yalong Dang
- Department of Ophthalmology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou City, Henan Province, People's Republic of China
- Clinical Stem Cell Research Center, Peking University Third Hospital, Beijing, People's Republic of China
- Department of Ophthalmology, Peking University Third Hospital, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Yongsheng Xu
- Clinical Stem Cell Research Center, Peking University Third Hospital, Beijing, People's Republic of China
- Department of Ophthalmology, Peking University Third Hospital, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Wentao Wu
- Clinical Stem Cell Research Center, Peking University Third Hospital, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Weiyi Li
- Clinical Stem Cell Research Center, Peking University Third Hospital, Beijing, People's Republic of China
- Department of Ophthalmology, Peking University Third Hospital, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Yanran Sun
- Department of Ophthalmology, Peking University Third Hospital, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Jing Yang
- Department of Ophthalmology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou City, Henan Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Yu Zhu
- Department of Ophthalmology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou City, Henan Province, People's Republic of China
- * E-mail: (YZ); (CZ)
| | - Chun Zhang
- Clinical Stem Cell Research Center, Peking University Third Hospital, Beijing, People's Republic of China
- Department of Ophthalmology, Peking University Third Hospital, Beijing, People's Republic of China
- * E-mail: (YZ); (CZ)
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187
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Lambertsen KL, Østergaard K, Clausen BH, Hansen S, Stenvang J, Thorsen SB, Meldgaard M, Kristensen BW, Hansen PB, Sorensen GL, Finsen B. No effect of ablation of surfactant protein-D on acute cerebral infarction in mice. J Neuroinflammation 2014; 11:123. [PMID: 25038795 PMCID: PMC4110550 DOI: 10.1186/1742-2094-11-123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2014] [Accepted: 07/03/2014] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Crosstalk between the immune system in the brain and the periphery may contribute to the long-term outcome both in experimental and clinical stroke. Although, the immune defense collectin surfactant protein-D (SP-D) is best known for its role in pulmonary innate immunity, SP-D is also known to be involved in extrapulmonary modulation of inflammation in mice. We investigated whether SP-D affected cerebral ischemic infarction and ischemia-induced inflammatory responses in mice. Methods The effect of SP-D was studied by comparing the size of ischemic infarction and the inflammatory and astroglial responses in SP-D knock out (KO) and wild type (WT) mice subjected to permanent middle cerebral artery occlusion. SP-D mRNA production was assessed in isolated cerebral arteries and in the whole brain by PCR, and SP-D protein in normal appearing and ischemic human brain by immunohistochemistry. Changes in plasma SP-D and TNF were assessed by ELISA and proximity ligation assay, respectively. Results Infarct volumetric analysis showed that ablation of SP-D had no effect on ischemic infarction one and five days after induction of ischemia. Further, ablation of SP-D had no effect on the ischemia-induced increase in TNF mRNA production one day after induction of ischemia; however the TNF response to the ischemic insult was affected at five days. SP-D mRNA was not detected in parenchymal brain cells in either naïve mice or in mice subjected to focal cerebral ischemia. However, SP-D mRNA was detected in middle cerebral artery cells in WT mice and SP-D protein in vascular cells both in normal appearing and ischemic human brain tissue. Measurements of the levels of SP-D and TNF in plasma in mice suggested that levels were unaffected by the ischemic insult. Microglial-leukocyte and astroglial responses were comparable in SP-D KO and WT mice. Conclusions SP-D synthesis in middle cerebral artery cells is consistent with SP-D conceivably leaking into the infarcted area and affecting local cytokine production. However, there was no SP-D synthesis in parenchymal brain cells and ablation of SP-D had no effect on ischemic cerebral infarction.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Bente Finsen
- Department of Neurobiology Research, Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, JB Winsloewsvej 25, 2, DK-5000 Odense C, Denmark.
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188
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Zanier ER, Pischiutta F, Riganti L, Marchesi F, Turola E, Fumagalli S, Perego C, Parotto E, Vinci P, Veglianese P, D’Amico G, Verderio C, De Simoni MG. Bone marrow mesenchymal stromal cells drive protective M2 microglia polarization after brain trauma. Neurotherapeutics 2014; 11:679-95. [PMID: 24965140 PMCID: PMC4121458 DOI: 10.1007/s13311-014-0277-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 127] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Microglia/macrophages (M) are major contributors to postinjury inflammation, but they may also promote brain repair in response to specific environmental signals that drive classic (M1) or alternative (M2) polarization. We investigated the activation and functional changes of M in mice with traumatic brain injuries and receiving intracerebroventricular human bone marrow mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) or saline infusion. MSCs upregulated Ym1 and Arginase-1 mRNA (p < 0.001), two M2 markers of protective M polarization, at 3 and 7 d postinjury, and increased the number of Ym1(+) cells at 7 d postinjury (p < 0.05). MSCs reduced the presence of the lysosomal activity marker CD68 on the membrane surface of CD11b-positive M (p < 0.05), indicating reduced phagocytosis. MSC-mediated induction of the M2 phenotype in M was associated with early and persistent recovery of neurological functions evaluated up to 35 days postinjury (p < 0.01) and reparative changes of the lesioned microenvironment. In vitro, MSCs directly counteracted the proinflammatory response of primary murine microglia stimulated by tumor necrosis factor-α + interleukin 17 or by tumor necrosis factor-α + interferon-γ and induced M2 proregenerative traits, as indicated by the downregulation of inducible nitric oxide synthase and upregulation of Ym1 and CD206 mRNA (p < 0.01). In conclusion, we found evidence that MSCs can drive the M transcriptional environment and induce the acquisition of an early, persistent M2-beneficial phenotype both in vivo and in vitro. Increased Ym1 expression together with reduced in vivo phagocytosis suggests M selection by MSCs towards the M2a subpopulation, which is involved in growth stimulation and tissue repair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisa R. Zanier
- />Department of Neuroscience, IRCCS, Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri, 20156 Milan, Italy
| | - Francesca Pischiutta
- />Department of Neuroscience, IRCCS, Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri, 20156 Milan, Italy
| | - Loredana Riganti
- />CNR Institute of Neuroscience, 20129 Milan, Italy
- />Department of Biotechnology and Translational Medicine, University of Milan, 20129 Milan, Italy
| | - Federica Marchesi
- />Department of Neuroscience, IRCCS, Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri, 20156 Milan, Italy
| | - Elena Turola
- />CNR Institute of Neuroscience, 20129 Milan, Italy
- />Department of Biotechnology and Translational Medicine, University of Milan, 20129 Milan, Italy
| | - Stefano Fumagalli
- />Department of Neuroscience, IRCCS, Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri, 20156 Milan, Italy
- />Department of Pathophysiology and Transplantation, IRCCS Ca’ Granda – Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, 20122 Milan, Italy
| | - Carlo Perego
- />Department of Neuroscience, IRCCS, Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri, 20156 Milan, Italy
| | - Emanuela Parotto
- />Department of Neuroscience, IRCCS, Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri, 20156 Milan, Italy
- />Institute of Anesthesia and Intensive Care, University of Padova, 35128 Padova, Italy
| | - Paola Vinci
- />Centro Ricerca Tettamanti, Clinica Pediatrica Università Milano-Bicocca, Ospedale San Gerardo/Fondazione MBBM, 20900 Monza, Italy
| | - Pietro Veglianese
- />Department of Neuroscience, IRCCS, Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri, 20156 Milan, Italy
| | - Giovanna D’Amico
- />Centro Ricerca Tettamanti, Clinica Pediatrica Università Milano-Bicocca, Ospedale San Gerardo/Fondazione MBBM, 20900 Monza, Italy
| | - Claudia Verderio
- />CNR Institute of Neuroscience, 20129 Milan, Italy
- />Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, 20089 Rozzano, Milan Italy
| | - Maria-Grazia De Simoni
- />Department of Neuroscience, IRCCS, Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri, 20156 Milan, Italy
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189
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Reduced inflammatory phenotype in microglia derived from neonatal rat spinal cord versus brain. PLoS One 2014; 9:e99443. [PMID: 24914808 PMCID: PMC4051776 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0099443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2013] [Accepted: 05/15/2014] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Microglia are the primary immune cells of the central nervous system (CNS). Membrane bound sensors on their processes monitor the extracellular environment and respond to perturbations of the CNS such as injury or infection. Once activated, microglia play a crucial role in determining neuronal survival. Recent studies suggest that microglial functional response properties vary across different regions of the CNS. However, the activation profiles of microglia derived from the spinal cord have not been evaluated against brain microglia in vitro. Here, we studied the morphological properties and secretion of inflammatory and trophic effectors by microglia derived from the brain or spinal cord of neonatal rats under basal culture conditions and after activation with lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Our results demonstrate that spinal microglia assume a less inflammatory phenotype after LPS activation, with reduced release of the inflammatory effectors tumor necrosis factor alpha, interleukin-1 beta, and nitric oxide, a less amoeboid morphology, and reduced phagocytosis relative to brain-derived microglia. Phenotypic differences between brain and spinal microglia are an important consideration when evaluating anti-inflammatory or immunomodulatory therapies for brain versus spinal injury.
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190
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Seifert HA, Pennypacker KR. Molecular and cellular immune responses to ischemic brain injury. Transl Stroke Res 2014; 5:543-53. [PMID: 24895236 DOI: 10.1007/s12975-014-0349-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2013] [Revised: 05/19/2014] [Accepted: 05/21/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Despite extensive research into stroke pathology, there have not been any major recent advancements in stroke therapeutics. Animal models of cerebral ischemia and clinical data have been used to investigate the progressive neural injury that occurs after an initial ischemic insult. This has lead researchers to focus more on the peripheral immune response that is generated as a result of cerebral ischemia. The therapies that have been developed as a result of this research thus far have proven ineffective in clinical trials. The failure of these therapeutics in clinical trials is thought to be due to the broad immunosuppression elicited as a result of the treatments and the cerebral ischemia itself. Emerging evidence indicates a more selective modulation of the immune system following stroke could be beneficial. The spleen has been shown to exacerbate neural injury following experimental stroke and would provide a strong therapeutic target. Selecting facets of the immune system to target would allow the protective and regenerative properties of the immune response to remain intact while blunting the pro-inflammatory response generated towards the injured brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hilary A Seifert
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Physiology, School of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, 12901 Bruce B Downs Blvd., MDC Box 8, Tampa, FL, 33612, USA
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191
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Mouihate A. TLR4-mediated brain inflammation halts neurogenesis: impact of hormonal replacement therapy. Front Cell Neurosci 2014; 8:146. [PMID: 24904290 PMCID: PMC4034512 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2014.00146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2014] [Accepted: 05/07/2014] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Experimental and epidemiological data show that the severity and the duration of brain inflammation are attenuated in females compared to males. This attenuated brain inflammation is ascribed to 17β-estradiol. However, several studies suggest that 17β-estradiol is also endowed with proinflammatory properties. The aim of the present study is to assess the effect of hormonal replacement therapies on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced brain inflammation and its consequent effect on newly born neurons. Bilaterally ovariectomized rats received intrastriatal injection of LPS (250 ng/μl) and were subsequently given daily subcutaneous injections of either vehicle, 17β-estradiol (25 μg/kg) or 17β-estradiol and progesterone (5 mg/kg). Microglial activation and newly born neurons in the rostral migratory stream were monitored using double immunofluorescence. Nuclear factor κB (NFκB) signaling pathway and its target inflammatory proteins were assessed by either western blot [cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and interleukin-6 (IL-6)] or enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay [tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α)]. LPS-induced activation of microglia, promoted NFκB signaling pathway and enhanced the production of proinflammatory proteins (TNF-α and COX-2). These proinflammatory responses were not attenuated by 17β-estradiol injection. Supplementation of 17β-estradiol with progesterone significantly dampened these proinflammatory processes. Interestingly, LPS-induced brain inflammation dampened the number of newly born neurons in the rostral migratory stream. Administration of combined 17β-estradiol and progesterone resulted in a significantly higher number of newly born neurons when compared to those seen in rats given either vehicle or 17β-estradiol alone. These data strongly suggest that combined 17β-estradiol and progesterone, and not 17β-estradiol alone, rescues neurogenesis from the deleterious effect of brain inflammation likely via the inhibition of the signaling pathways leading to the activation of proinflammatory genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdeslam Mouihate
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Health Sciences Centre, Kuwait University Safat, Kuwait
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192
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Peruzzotti-Jametti L, Donegá M, Giusto E, Mallucci G, Marchetti B, Pluchino S. The role of the immune system in central nervous system plasticity after acute injury. Neuroscience 2014; 283:210-221. [PMID: 24785677 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2014.04.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2014] [Revised: 04/21/2014] [Accepted: 04/21/2014] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Acute brain injuries cause rapid cell death that activates bidirectional crosstalk between the injured brain and the immune system. In the acute phase, the damaged CNS activates resident and circulating immune cells via the local and systemic release of soluble mediators. This early immune activation is necessary to confine the injured tissue and foster the clearance of cellular debris, thus bringing the inflammatory reaction to a close. In the chronic phase, a sustained immune activation has been described in many CNS disorders, and the degree of this prolonged response has variable effects on spontaneous brain regenerative processes. The challenge for treating acute CNS damage is to understand how to optimally engage and modify these immune responses, thus providing new strategies that will compensate for tissue lost to injury. Herein we have reviewed the available information regarding the role and function of the innate and adaptive immune responses in influencing CNS plasticity during the acute and chronic phases of after injury. We have examined how CNS damage evolves along the activation of main cellular and molecular pathways that are associated with intrinsic repair, neuronal functional plasticity and facilitation of tissue reorganization.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Matteo Donegá
- John van Geest Centre for Brain Repair, Dept of Clinical Neurosciences
| | - Elena Giusto
- John van Geest Centre for Brain Repair, Dept of Clinical Neurosciences
| | - Giulia Mallucci
- John van Geest Centre for Brain Repair, Dept of Clinical Neurosciences.,Department of Brain and Behavioural sciences, National Neurological Institute C. Mondino, 27100 Pavia, Italy
| | - Bianca Marchetti
- Department of Clinical and Molecular Biomedicine, Pharmacology Section, Medical School, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy.,OASI Institute for Research and Care on Mental Retardation and Brain Aging, Neuropharmacology Section, 94018 Troina, Italy
| | - Stefano Pluchino
- John van Geest Centre for Brain Repair, Dept of Clinical Neurosciences.,NIHR Biomedical Research Centre.,Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Stem Cell Institute, University of Cambridge, CB2 0PY, UK
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193
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Dendrou CA, Bell JI, Fugger L. A clinical conundrum: the detrimental effect of TNF antagonists in multiple sclerosis. Pharmacogenomics 2014; 14:1397-404. [PMID: 24024893 DOI: 10.2217/pgs.13.140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Although TNF antagonists are efficacious in treating a range of autoimmune conditions, they exacerbate or even promote multiple sclerosis (MS)--a clinical finding that has been a conundrum for over a decade and has been a source of debate regarding the role of these drugs and of TNF signaling in the development of demyelinating disease. Recent work investigating the functional consequences of MS-associated genetic variation in the gene encoding TNFR1 has demonstrated that genetic risk drives the production of a novel, endogenous TNF antagonist. This mirrors the clinical experience with the drugs and indicates that the net effect of TNF function in MS development is a protective one, warranting a re-evaluation of the studies that have contributed to our understanding of TNF signaling in inflammation, immunoregulation and neuroprotection, to determine how future research can be directed towards targeting this pathway for therapeutic benefit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Calliope A Dendrou
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 9DS, UK
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194
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Gertig U, Hanisch UK. Microglial diversity by responses and responders. Front Cell Neurosci 2014; 8:101. [PMID: 24744702 PMCID: PMC3978327 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2014.00101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2014] [Accepted: 03/19/2014] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Microglia are the principal resident innate immune cells of the CNS. Their contributions to the normal development of the CNS, the maintenance and plasticity of neuronal networks and the safeguarding of proper functionality are becoming more and more evident. Microglia also survey the tissue homeostasis to respond rapidly to exogenous and endogenous threats, primarily with a protective outcome. However, excessive acute activation, chronic activity or an improper adaptation of their functional performance can foster neuropathologies. A key to the versatile response behavior of these cells is their ability to commit to reactive phenotypes, which reveal enormous complexity. Yet the respective profiles of induced genes and installed functions may build up on heterogeneous contributions of cellular subsets. Here, we discuss findings and concepts that consider the variety of microglial activities and response options as being based-at least in part-on a diversity of the engaged cells. Whether it is the production of proinflammatory cytokines, clearance of tissue debris, antigen presentation or the ability to sense neurotransmitters, microglial cells present with an unanticipated heterogeneity of their constitutive and inducible features. While the organizational principles of this heterogeneity are still largely unknown, functional implications are already perceptible.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ulla Gertig
- Institute of Neuropathology, University of Göttingen Göttingen, Germany
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195
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Staszewski O, Prinz M. Glial epigenetics in neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration. Cell Tissue Res 2014; 356:609-16. [PMID: 24652504 DOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1815-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2013] [Accepted: 01/14/2014] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Epigenetic regulation shapes the differentiation and response to stimuli of all tissues and cells beyond what genetics would dictate. Epigenetic regulation acts through covalent modifications of DNA and histones while leaving the nucleotide code intact. However, these chromatin modifications are known to be vital components of the regulation of cell fate and response. With regards to the central nervous system (CNS), little is known about how epigenetic regulation shapes the function of neural cell types. The focus of research so far has been on epigenetic regulation of neuronal function and the role of epigenetics in tumorigenesis. However, the glial cell compartment, which makes up 90 % of all CNS cells, has so far received scant attention as to how epigenetics shape their differentiation and function. Here, we highlight current knowledge about epigenetic changes in glial cells occurring during CNS injury, neuroinflammatory conditions and neurodegenerative disease. This review offers an overview of the current understanding of epigenetic regulation in glial cells in CNS disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ori Staszewski
- Institute of Neuropathology, University of Freiburg, Breisacher Str. 64, D-79106, Freiburg, Germany
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196
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Low PC, Manzanero S, Mohannak N, Narayana VK, Nguyen TH, Kvaskoff D, Brennan FH, Ruitenberg MJ, Gelderblom M, Magnus T, Kim HA, Broughton BRS, Sobey CG, Vanhaesebroeck B, Stow JL, Arumugam TV, Meunier FA. PI3Kδ inhibition reduces TNF secretion and neuroinflammation in a mouse cerebral stroke model. Nat Commun 2014; 5:3450. [PMID: 24625684 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms4450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2013] [Accepted: 02/13/2014] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Stroke is a major cause of death worldwide and the leading cause of permanent disability. Although reperfusion is currently used as treatment, the restoration of blood flow following ischaemia elicits a profound inflammatory response mediated by proinflammatory cytokines such as tumour necrosis factor (TNF), exacerbating tissue damage and worsening the outcomes for stroke patients. Phosphoinositide 3-kinase delta (PI3Kδ) controls intracellular TNF trafficking in macrophages and therefore represents a prospective target to limit neuroinflammation. Here we show that PI3Kδ inhibition confers protection in ischaemia/reperfusion models of stroke. In vitro, restoration of glucose supply following an episode of glucose deprivation potentiates TNF secretion from primary microglia-an effect that is sensitive to PI3Kδ inhibition. In vivo, transient middle cerebral artery occlusion and reperfusion in kinase-dead PI3Kδ (p110δ(D910A/D910A)) or wild-type mice pre- or post-treated with the PI3Kδ inhibitor CAL-101, leads to reduced TNF levels, decreased leukocyte infiltration, reduced infarct size and improved functional outcome. These data identify PI3Kδ as a potential therapeutic target in ischaemic stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pei Ching Low
- 1] Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia [2]
| | - Silvia Manzanero
- 1] School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia [2]
| | - Nika Mohannak
- Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Vinod K Narayana
- Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Tam H Nguyen
- Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - David Kvaskoff
- Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Faith H Brennan
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Marc J Ruitenberg
- 1] Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia [2] School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Mathias Gelderblom
- Department of Neurology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Tim Magnus
- Department of Neurology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Hyun Ah Kim
- Vascular Biology and Immunopharmacology Group, Department of Pharmacology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Brad R S Broughton
- Vascular Biology and Immunopharmacology Group, Department of Pharmacology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Christopher G Sobey
- Vascular Biology and Immunopharmacology Group, Department of Pharmacology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Bart Vanhaesebroeck
- UCL Cancer Institute, Paul O'Gorman Building, University College London, 72 Huntley Street London WC1E 6DD, UK
| | - Jennifer L Stow
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Thiruma V Arumugam
- 1] School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia [2]
| | - Frédéric A Meunier
- Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
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197
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Gu Y, Chen J, Shen J. Herbal medicines for ischemic stroke: combating inflammation as therapeutic targets. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol 2014; 9:313-39. [PMID: 24562591 DOI: 10.1007/s11481-014-9525-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2013] [Accepted: 01/27/2014] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Stroke is a debilitating disease for which limited therapeutic approaches are available currently. Thus, there is an urgent need for developing novel therapies for stroke. Astrocytes, endothelial cells and pericytes constitute a neurovascular network for metabolic requirement of neurons. During ischemic stroke, these cells contribute to post-ischemic inflammation at multiple stages of ischemic cascades. Upon ischemia onset, activated resident microglia and astrocytes, and infiltrated immune cells release multiple inflammation factors including cytokines, chemokines, enzymes, free radicals and other small molecules, not only inducing brain damage but affecting brain repair. Recent progress indicates that anti-inflammation is an important therapeutic strategy for stroke. Given a long history with direct experience in the treatment of human subjects, Traditional Chinese Medicine and its related natural compounds are recognized as important sources for drug discovery. Last decade, a great progress has been made to identify active compounds from herbal medicines with the properties of modulating post-ischemic inflammation for neuroprotection. Herein, we discuss the inflammatory pathway in early stage and secondary response to injured tissues after stroke from initial artery occlusion to brain repair, and review the active ingredients from natural products with anti-inflammation and neuroprotection effects as therapeutic agents for ischemic stroke. Further studies on the post-ischemic inflammatory mechanisms and corresponding drug candidates from herbal medicine may lead to the development of novel therapeutic strategies in stroke treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yong Gu
- School of Chinese Medicine, LKS Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, 10 Sassoon Road, Pokfulam, Hong Kong, SAR, China
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198
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Shieh CH, Heinrich A, Serchov T, van Calker D, Biber K. P2X7-dependent, but differentially regulated release of IL-6, CCL2, and TNF-α in cultured mouse microglia. Glia 2014; 62:592-607. [PMID: 24470356 DOI: 10.1002/glia.22628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 153] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2013] [Revised: 12/20/2013] [Accepted: 12/23/2013] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
ATP is an important regulator of microglia and its effects on microglial cytokine release are currently discussed as important contributors in a variety of brain diseases. We here analyzed the effects of ATP on the production of six inflammatory mediators (IL-6, IL-10, CCL2, IFN-γ, TNF-α, and IL-12p70) in cultured mouse primary microglia. Stimulation of P2X7 receptor by ATP (1 mM) or BzATP (500 µM) evoked the mRNA expression and release of proinflammatory cytokines IL-6, TNF-α, and the chemokine CCL2 in WT cells but not in P2X7(-/-) cells. The effects of ATP and BzATP were inhibited by the nonselective P2 receptor antagonists PPADs and suramin. Various selective P2X7 receptor antagonists blocked the P2X7-dependent release of IL-6 and CCL2, but, surprisingly, had no effect on BzATP-induced release of TNF-α in microglia. Calcium measurements confirmed that P2X7 is the main purine receptor activated by BzATP in microglia and showed that all P2X7 antagonists were functional. It is also presented that pannexin-1 hemichannel function and potential P2X4/P2X7 heterodimers are not involved in P2X7-dependent release of IL-6, CCL2, and TNF-α in microglia. How P2X7-specific antagonists only affect P2X7-dependent IL-6 and CCL2 release, but not TNF-α release is at the moment unclear, but indicates that the P2X7-dependent release of cytokines in microglia is differentially regulated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chu-Hsin Shieh
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Hospital of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany; Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
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199
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Sheridan GK, Murphy KJ. Neuron-glia crosstalk in health and disease: fractalkine and CX3CR1 take centre stage. Open Biol 2013; 3:130181. [PMID: 24352739 PMCID: PMC3877844 DOI: 10.1098/rsob.130181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 252] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
An essential aspect of normal brain function is the bidirectional interaction and communication between neurons and neighbouring glial cells. To this end, the brain has evolved ligand-receptor partnerships that facilitate crosstalk between different cell types. The chemokine, fractalkine (FKN), is expressed on neuronal cells, and its receptor, CX(3)CR1, is predominantly expressed on microglia. This review focuses on several important functional roles for FKN/CX(3)CR1 in both health and disease of the central nervous system. It has been posited that FKN is involved in microglial infiltration of the brain during development. Microglia, in turn, are implicated in the developmental synaptic pruning that occurs during brain maturation. The abundance of FKN on mature hippocampal neurons suggests a homeostatic non-inflammatory role in mechanisms of learning and memory. There is substantial evidence describing a role for FKN in hippocampal synaptic plasticity. FKN, on the one hand, appears to prevent excess microglial activation in the absence of injury while promoting activation of microglia and astrocytes during inflammatory episodes. Thus, FKN appears to be neuroprotective in some settings, whereas it contributes to neuronal damage in others. Many progressive neuroinflammatory disorders that are associated with increased microglial activation, such as Alzheimer's disease, show disruption of the FKN/CX(3)CR1 communication system. Thus, targeting CX(3)CR1 receptor hyperactivation with specific antagonists in such neuroinflammatory conditions may eventually lead to novel neurotherapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Graham K Sheridan
- Department of Physiology, Development and Neuroscience, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3DY, UK
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Ortega FJ, Vukovic J, Rodríguez MJ, Bartlett PF. Blockade of microglial KATP -channel abrogates suppression of inflammatory-mediated inhibition of neural precursor cells. Glia 2013; 62:247-58. [PMID: 24311472 DOI: 10.1002/glia.22603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2013] [Revised: 11/06/2013] [Accepted: 11/08/2013] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Microglia positively affect neural progenitor cell physiology through the release of inflammatory mediators or trophic factors. We demonstrated previously that reactive microglia foster K(ATP) -channel expression and that blocking this channel using glibenclamide administration enhances striatal neurogenesis after stroke. In this study, we investigated whether the microglial K(ATP) -channel directly influences the activation of neural precursor cells (NPCs) from the subventricular zone using transgenic Csf1r-GFP mice. In vitro exposure of NPCs to lipopolysaccharide and interferon-gamma resulted in a significant decrease in precursor cell number. The complete removal of microglia from the culture or exposure to enriched microglia culture also decreased the precursor cell number. The addition of glibenclamide rescued the negative effects of enriched microglia on neurosphere formation and promoted a ∼20% improvement in precursor cell number. Similar results were found using microglial-conditioned media from isolated microglia. Using primary mixed glial and pure microglial cultures, glibenclamide specifically targeted reactive microglia to restore neurogenesis and increased the microglial production of the chemokine monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1). These findings provide the first direct evidence that the microglial K(ATP) -channel is a regulator of the proliferation of NPCs under inflammatory conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco J Ortega
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Unit, School of Medicine, University of Barcelona, Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS) and Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Barcelona, Spain; Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
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