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Khairnar A, Latta P, Drazanova E, Ruda-Kucerova J, Szabó N, Arab A, Hutter-Paier B, Havas D, Windisch M, Sulcova A, Starcuk Z, Rektorova I. Diffusion Kurtosis Imaging Detects Microstructural Alterations in Brain of α-Synuclein Overexpressing Transgenic Mouse Model of Parkinson’s Disease: A Pilot Study. Neurotox Res 2015; 28:281-9. [DOI: 10.1007/s12640-015-9537-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2014] [Accepted: 06/29/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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Abstract
Neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) collectively afflict more than 40 million people worldwide. The majority of these diseases lack therapies to slow or stop progression due in large part to the challenge of disentangling the simultaneous presentation of broad, multifaceted pathophysiologic changes. Present technologies and computational capabilities suggest an optimistic future for deconvolving these changes to identify novel mechanisms driving ND onset and progression. In particular, integration of highly multi-dimensional omic analytical techniques (e.g., microarray, mass spectrometry) with computational systems biology approaches provides a systematic methodology to elucidate new mechanisms driving NDs. In this review, we begin by summarizing the complex pathophysiology of NDs associated with protein aggregation, emphasizing the shared complex dysregulation found in all of these diseases, and discuss available experimental ND models. Next, we provide an overview of technological and computational techniques used in systems biology that are applicable to studying NDs. We conclude by reviewing prior studies that have applied these approaches to NDs and comment on the necessity of combining analysis from both human tissues and model systems to identify driving mechanisms. We envision that the integration of computational approaches with multiple omic analyses of human tissues, and mouse and in vitro models, will enable the discovery of new therapeutic strategies for these devastating diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Levi B Wood
- Cancer Research Institute, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02215, USA.
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Valera E, Mante M, Anderson S, Rockenstein E, Masliah E. Lenalidomide reduces microglial activation and behavioral deficits in a transgenic model of Parkinson's disease. J Neuroinflammation 2015; 12:93. [PMID: 25966683 PMCID: PMC4432827 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-015-0320-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2015] [Accepted: 05/05/2015] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Parkinson's disease (PD) is one of the most common causes of dementia and motor deficits in the elderly. PD is characterized by the abnormal accumulation of the synaptic protein alpha-synuclein (α-syn) and degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in substantia nigra, which leads to neurodegeneration and neuroinflammation. Currently, there are no disease modifying alternatives for PD; however, targeting neuroinflammation might be a viable option for reducing motor deficits and neurodegeneration. Lenalidomide is a thalidomide derivative designed for reduced toxicity and increased immunomodulatory properties. Lenalidomide has shown protective effects in an animal model of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and its mechanism of action involves modulation of cytokine production and inhibition of NF-κB signaling. METHODS In order to assess the effect of lenalidomide in an animal model of PD, mThy1-α-syn transgenic mice were treated with lenalidomide or the parent molecule thalidomide at 100 mg/kg for 4 weeks. RESULTS Lenalidomide reduced motor behavioral deficits and ameliorated dopaminergic fiber loss in the striatum. This protective action was accompanied by a reduction in microgliosis both in striatum and hippocampus. Central expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines was diminished in lenalidomide-treated transgenic animals, together with reduction in NF-κB activation. CONCLUSION These results support the therapeutic potential of lenalidomide for reducing maladaptive neuroinflammation in PD and related neuropathologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elvira Valera
- Department of Neurosciences, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA, 92093-0624, USA.
| | - Michael Mante
- Department of Neurosciences, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA, 92093-0624, USA.
| | - Scott Anderson
- Department of Neurosciences, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA, 92093-0624, USA.
| | - Edward Rockenstein
- Department of Neurosciences, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA, 92093-0624, USA.
| | - Eliezer Masliah
- Department of Neurosciences, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA, 92093-0624, USA. .,Department of Pathology, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA, 92093-0624, USA.
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Schreglmann SR, Regensburger M, Rockenstein E, Masliah E, Xiang W, Winkler J, Winner B. The temporal expression pattern of alpha-synuclein modulates olfactory neurogenesis in transgenic mice. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0126261. [PMID: 25961568 PMCID: PMC4427489 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0126261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2015] [Accepted: 03/31/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Adult neurogenesis mirrors the brain´s endogenous capacity to generate new neurons throughout life. In the subventricular zone/ olfactory bulb system adult neurogenesis is linked to physiological olfactory function and has been shown to be impaired in murine models of neuronal alpha-Synuclein overexpression. We analyzed the degree and temporo-spatial dynamics of adult olfactory bulb neurogenesis in transgenic mice expressing human wild-type alpha-Synuclein (WTS) under the murine Thy1 (mThy1) promoter, a model known to have a particularly high tg expression associated with impaired olfaction. Results Survival of newly generated neurons (NeuN-positive) in the olfactory bulb was unchanged in mThy1 transgenic animals. Due to decreased dopaminergic differentiation a reduction in new dopaminergic neurons within the olfactory bulb glomerular layer was present. This is in contrast to our previously published data on transgenic animals that express WTS under the control of the human platelet-derived growth factor β (PDGF) promoter, that display a widespread decrease in survival of newly generated neurons in regions of adult neurogenesis, resulting in a much more pronounced neurogenesis deficit. Temporal and quantitative expression analysis using immunofluorescence co-localization analysis and Western blots revealed that in comparison to PDGF transgenic animals, in mThy1 transgenic animals WTS is expressed from later stages of neuronal maturation only but at significantly higher levels both in the olfactory bulb and cortex. Conclusions The dissociation between higher absolute expression levels of alpha-Synuclein but less severe impact on adult olfactory neurogenesis in mThy1 transgenic mice highlights the importance of temporal expression characteristics of alpha-Synuclein on the maturation of newborn neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Martin Regensburger
- IZKF Junior Research Group III and BMBF Research Group Neuroscience, Interdisciplinary Center for Clinical Research, FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, Nikolaus-Fiebiger Center for Molecular Medicine, Erlangen, Germany
- Department of Neurology, FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Edward Rockenstein
- Department of Neurosciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, CA, United States of America
- Department of Pathology, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, CA, United States of America
| | - Eliezer Masliah
- Department of Neurosciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, CA, United States of America
- Department of Pathology, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, CA, United States of America
| | - Wei Xiang
- Institute of Biochemistry, Emil-Fischer-Zentrum, FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Jürgen Winkler
- Department of Molecular Neurology, FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Beate Winner
- IZKF Junior Research Group III and BMBF Research Group Neuroscience, Interdisciplinary Center for Clinical Research, FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, Nikolaus-Fiebiger Center for Molecular Medicine, Erlangen, Germany
- * E-mail:
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Drouin-Ouellet J, St-Amour I, Saint-Pierre M, Lamontagne-Proulx J, Kriz J, Barker RA, Cicchetti F. Toll-like receptor expression in the blood and brain of patients and a mouse model of Parkinson's disease. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 2015; 18:pyu103. [PMID: 25522431 PMCID: PMC4438545 DOI: 10.1093/ijnp/pyu103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Accumulating evidence supports a role for the immune system in the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease. Importantly, recent preclinical studies are now suggesting a specific contribution of inflammation to the α-synuclein-induced pathology seen in this condition. METHODS We used flow cytometry and western blots to detect toll-like receptor 2 and 4 expression in blood and brain samples of Parkinson's disease patients and mice overexpressing human α-synuclein. To further assess the effects of α-synuclein overexpression on the innate immune system, we performed a longitudinal study using Thy1.2-α-synuclein mice that expressed a bicistronic DNA construct (reporter genes luciferase and green fluorescent protein) under the transcriptional control of the murine toll-like receptor 2 promoter. RESULTS Here, we report increases in toll-like receptors 2 and 4 expression in circulating monocytes and of toll-like receptor 4 in B cells and in the caudate/putamen of Parkinson's disease patients. Monthly bioluminescence imaging of Thy1.2-α-synuclein mice showed increasing toll-like receptor 2 expression from 10 months of age, although no change in toll-like receptor 2 and 4 expression was observed in the blood and brain of these mice at 12 months of age. Dexamethasone treatment starting at 5 months of age for 1 month significantly decreased the microglial response in the brain of these mice and promoted functional recovery as observed using a wheel-running activity test. CONCLUSION Our results show that toll-like receptors 2 and 4 are modulated in the blood and brain of Parkinson's disease patients and that overexpression of α-synuclein leads to a progressive microglial response, the inhibition of which has a beneficial impact on some motor phenotypes of an animal model of α-synucleinopathy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janelle Drouin-Ouellet
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences, John van Geest Centre for Brain Repair, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom (Drs Drouin-Ouellet and Barker); Centre de recherche du CHU de Québec, Québec, QC, Canada (Dr St-Amour, Ms Saint-Pierre, Mr Lamontagne-Proulx, and Dr Cicchetti); Centre de Recherche de l'Institut Universitaire en Santé Mentale de Québec, Québec, QC, Canada (Dr Kriz); and Département de psychiatrie et neurosciences, Université Laval, Québec, QC, Canada (Drs Kriz and Cicchetti).
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Francesca Cicchetti
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences, John van Geest Centre for Brain Repair, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom (Drs Drouin-Ouellet and Barker); Centre de recherche du CHU de Québec, Québec, QC, Canada (Dr St-Amour, Ms Saint-Pierre, Mr Lamontagne-Proulx, and Dr Cicchetti); Centre de Recherche de l'Institut Universitaire en Santé Mentale de Québec, Québec, QC, Canada (Dr Kriz); and Département de psychiatrie et neurosciences, Université Laval, Québec, QC, Canada (Drs Kriz and Cicchetti).
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Valadas JS, Vos M, Verstreken P. Therapeutic strategies in Parkinson's disease: what we have learned from animal models. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2014; 1338:16-37. [PMID: 25515068 DOI: 10.1111/nyas.12577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2014] [Revised: 09/30/2014] [Accepted: 10/13/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD), the second most common neurodegenerative disorder, is characterized by a loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra, as well as in other brain areas. The currently available dopamine replacement therapy provides merely symptomatic benefit and is ineffective because habituation and side effects arise relatively quickly. Studying the genetic forms of PD in animal models provides novel insight that allows targeting of specific aspects of this heterogenic disease more specifically. Among others, two important cellular deficits are associated with PD; these deficits relate to (1) synaptic transmission and vesicle trafficking, and (2) mitochondrial function, relating respectively to the dominant and recessive mutations in PD-causing genes. With increased knowledge of PD, the possibility of identifying an efficient, long-lasting treatment is becoming more conceivable, but this can only be done with an increased knowledge of the specific affected cellular mechanisms. This review discusses how discoveries in animal models of PD have clarified the therapeutic potential of pathways disrupted in PD, with a specific focus on synaptic transmission, vesicle trafficking, and mitochondrial function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jorge S Valadas
- VIB Center for the Biology of Disease; Department of Human Genetics, Leuven Research Institute for Neuroscience and Disease (LIND), KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
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208
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Moehle MS, West AB. M1 and M2 immune activation in Parkinson's Disease: Foe and ally? Neuroscience 2014; 302:59-73. [PMID: 25463515 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2014.11.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 144] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2014] [Revised: 10/03/2014] [Accepted: 11/06/2014] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's Disease (PD) is a chronic and progressive neurodegenerative disorder of unknown etiology. Autopsy findings, genetics, retrospective studies, and molecular imaging all suggest a role for inflammation in the neurodegenerative process. However, relatively little is understood about the causes and implications of neuroinflammation in PD. Understanding how inflammation arises in PD, in particular the activation state of cells of the innate immune system, may provide an exciting opportunity for novel neuroprotective therapeutics. We analyze the evidence of immune system involvement in PD susceptibility, specifically in the context of M1 and M2 activation states. Tracking and modulating these activation states may provide new insights into both PD etiology and therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- M S Moehle
- Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Department of Neurology, The University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, United States.
| | - A B West
- Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Department of Neurology, The University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, United States
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209
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Dzamko N, Geczy CL, Halliday GM. Inflammation is genetically implicated in Parkinson's disease. Neuroscience 2014; 302:89-102. [PMID: 25450953 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2014.10.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 157] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2014] [Revised: 10/11/2014] [Accepted: 10/14/2014] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Inflammation has long been associated with the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease (PD) but the extent to which it is a cause or consequence is sill debated. Over the past decade a number of genes have been implicated in PD. Relatively rare missense mutations in genes such as LRRK2, Parkin, SNCA and PINK1 are causative for familial PD whereas more common variation in genes, including LRRK2, SNCA and GBA, comprise risk factors for sporadic PD. Determining how the function of these genes and the proteins they encode are altered in PD has become a priority, as results will likely provide much needed insights into contributing causes. Accumulating evidence indicates that many of these genes function in pathways that regulate aspects of immunity, particularly inflammation, suggesting close associations between PD and immune homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Dzamko
- School of Medical Sciences, University of NSW, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia; Neuroscience Research Australia, Randwick, NSW 2031, Australia.
| | - C L Geczy
- School of Medical Sciences, University of NSW, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - G M Halliday
- School of Medical Sciences, University of NSW, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia; Neuroscience Research Australia, Randwick, NSW 2031, Australia.
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Abstract
Non-motor symptoms are a key component of Parkinson's disease, possibly representing a clinical biomarker of its premotor phase. The burden of non-motor symptoms can define a patient's health-related quality of life. Non-motor symptoms substantially increase the cost of care-requiring increased hospitalisation and treatment-and pose a major challenge to healthcare professionals. However, clinicians often regard non-motor symptoms and their management as peripheral to that of the motor symptoms. Here, we address the clinical issues and unmet needs of non-motor symptoms in Parkinson's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antoniya Todorova
- Department of Neurology, National Parkinson Foundation Centre of Excellence, King's College Hospital, and Kings College, London, UK
| | - Peter Jenner
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, King's College London, London, UK
| | - K Ray Chaudhuri
- Department of Neurology, National Parkinson Foundation Centre of Excellence, King's College Hospital, and Kings College, London, UK
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211
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Richter F, Fleming SM, Watson M, Lemesre V, Pellegrino L, Ranes B, Zhu C, Mortazavi F, Mulligan CK, Sioshansi PC, Hean S, De La Rosa K, Khanna R, Flanagan J, Lockhart DJ, Wustman BA, Clark SW, Chesselet MF. A GCase chaperone improves motor function in a mouse model of synucleinopathy. Neurotherapeutics 2014; 11:840-56. [PMID: 25037721 PMCID: PMC4391384 DOI: 10.1007/s13311-014-0294-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Mutation of the lysosomal hydrolase acid-β-glucosidase (GCase), which leads to reduced GCase activity, is one of the most frequent genetic risk factors for Parkinson's disease (PD) and promotes α-synuclein accumulation in the brain, a hallmark of PD and other synucleinopathies. Whether targeting GCase pharmacologically is a valid therapeutic strategy for sporadic PD in the absence of GCase mutation is unknown. We have investigated whether increasing the stability, trafficking, and activity of wild-type GCase could be beneficial in synucleinopathies by administering the pharmacological chaperone AT2101 (afegostat-tartrate, isofagomine) to mice that overexpress human wild-type α-synuclein (Thy1-aSyn mice). AT2101 administered orally for 4 months to Thy1-aSyn mice improved motor and nonmotor function, abolished microglial inflammatory response in the substantia nigra, reduced α-synuclein immunoreactivity in nigral dopaminergic neurons, and reduced the number of small α-synuclein aggregates, while increasing the number of large α-synuclein aggregates. These data support the further investigation of pharmacological chaperones that target GCase as a therapeutic approach for sporadic PD and other synucleinopathies, even in the absence of glucocerebrosidase mutations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franziska Richter
- />The David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, 710 Westwood Plaza, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1769 USA
| | - Sheila M. Fleming
- />The David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, 710 Westwood Plaza, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1769 USA
| | - Melanie Watson
- />The David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, 710 Westwood Plaza, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1769 USA
| | - Vincent Lemesre
- />The David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, 710 Westwood Plaza, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1769 USA
| | - Lee Pellegrino
- />Amicus Therapeutics, 1 Cedar Brook Drive, Cranbury, NJ 08512 USA
| | - Brian Ranes
- />Amicus Therapeutics, 1 Cedar Brook Drive, Cranbury, NJ 08512 USA
| | - Chunni Zhu
- />The David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, 710 Westwood Plaza, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1769 USA
| | - Farzad Mortazavi
- />The David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, 710 Westwood Plaza, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1769 USA
| | - Caitlin K. Mulligan
- />The David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, 710 Westwood Plaza, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1769 USA
| | - Pedrom C. Sioshansi
- />The David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, 710 Westwood Plaza, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1769 USA
| | - Sindalana Hean
- />The David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, 710 Westwood Plaza, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1769 USA
| | - Krystal De La Rosa
- />The David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, 710 Westwood Plaza, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1769 USA
| | - Richie Khanna
- />Amicus Therapeutics, 1 Cedar Brook Drive, Cranbury, NJ 08512 USA
| | - John Flanagan
- />Amicus Therapeutics, 1 Cedar Brook Drive, Cranbury, NJ 08512 USA
| | | | - Brandon A. Wustman
- />Amicus Therapeutics, 11099 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037 USA
| | - Sean W. Clark
- />Amicus Therapeutics, 1 Cedar Brook Drive, Cranbury, NJ 08512 USA
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Reducing C-terminal-truncated alpha-synuclein by immunotherapy attenuates neurodegeneration and propagation in Parkinson's disease-like models. J Neurosci 2014; 34:9441-54. [PMID: 25009275 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.5314-13.2014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 234] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) and dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) are common neurodegenerative disorders of the aging population, characterized by progressive and abnormal accumulation of α-synuclein (α-syn). Recent studies have shown that C-terminus (CT) truncation and propagation of α-syn play a role in the pathogenesis of PD/DLB. Therefore, we explored the effect of passive immunization against the CT of α-syn in the mThy1-α-syn transgenic (tg) mouse model, which resembles the striato-nigral and motor deficits of PD. Mice were immunized with the new monoclonal antibodies 1H7, 5C1, or 5D12, all directed against the CT of α-syn. CT α-syn antibodies attenuated synaptic and axonal pathology, reduced the accumulation of CT-truncated α-syn (CT-α-syn) in axons, rescued the loss of tyrosine hydroxylase fibers in striatum, and improved motor and memory deficits. Among them, 1H7 and 5C1 were most effective at decreasing levels of CT-α-syn and higher-molecular-weight aggregates. Furthermore, in vitro studies showed that preincubation of recombinant α-syn with 1H7 and 5C1 prevented CT cleavage of α-syn. In a cell-based system, CT antibodies reduced cell-to-cell propagation of full-length α-syn, but not of the CT-α-syn that lacked the 118-126 aa recognition site needed for antibody binding. Furthermore, the results obtained after lentiviral expression of α-syn suggest that antibodies might be blocking the extracellular truncation of α-syn by calpain-1. Together, these results demonstrate that antibodies against the CT of α-syn reduce levels of CT-truncated fragments of the protein and its propagation, thus ameliorating PD-like pathology and improving behavioral and motor functions in a mouse model of this disease.
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Bobela W, Zheng L, Schneider BL. Overview of Mouse Models of Parkinson's Disease. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014; 4:121-39. [DOI: 10.1002/9780470942390.mo140092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Wojciech Bobela
- Brain Mind Institute, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL); Lausanne Switzerland
- These authors contributed equally to this work
| | - Lu Zheng
- Brain Mind Institute, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL); Lausanne Switzerland
- These authors contributed equally to this work
| | - Bernard L. Schneider
- Brain Mind Institute, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL); Lausanne Switzerland
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Magen I, Ostritsky R, Richter F, Zhu C, Fleming SM, Lemesre V, Stewart AJ, Morimoto BH, Gozes I, Chesselet MF. Intranasal NAP (davunetide) decreases tau hyperphosphorylation and moderately improves behavioral deficits in mice overexpressing α-synuclein. Pharmacol Res Perspect 2014; 2:e00065. [PMID: 25505609 PMCID: PMC4186425 DOI: 10.1002/prp2.65] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2014] [Accepted: 07/07/2014] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Genome-wide association studies have identified strong associations between the risk of developing Parkinson's disease (PD) and polymorphisms in the genes encoding α-synuclein and the microtubule-associated protein tau. However, the contribution of tau and its phosphorylated form (p-tau) to α-synuclein-induced pathology and neuronal dysfunction remains controversial. We have assessed the effects of NAP (davunetide), an eight-amino acid peptide that decreases tau hyperphosphorylation, in mice overexpressing wild-type human α-synuclein (Thy1-aSyn mice), a model that recapitulates aspects of PD. We found that the p-tau/tau level increased in a subcortical tissue block that includes the striatum and brain stem, and in the cerebellum of the Thy1-aSyn mice compared to nontransgenic controls. Intermittent intranasal NAP administration at 2 μg/mouse per day, 5 days a week, for 24 weeks, starting at 4 weeks of age, significantly decreased the ratio of p-tau/tau levels in the subcortical region while a higher dose of 15 μg/mouse per day induced a decrease in p-tau/tau levels in the cerebellum. Both NAP doses reduced hyperactivity, improved habituation to a novel environment, and reduced olfactory deficits in the Thy1-aSyn mice, but neither dose improved the severe deficits of motor coordination observed on the challenging beam and pole, contrasting with previous data obtained with continuous daily administration of the drug. The data reveal novel effects of NAP on brain p-tau/tau and behavioral outcomes in this model of synucleinopathy and suggest that sustained exposure to NAP may be necessary for maximal benefits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iddo Magen
- Department of Neurology, The David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA 710 Westwood Plaza, Los Angeles, California, 90095-1769 ; Department of Human Molecular Genetics and Biochemistry, Sackler School of Medicine, Adams Super Center for Brain Studies and Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel Aviv University Tel Aviv, 69978, Israel
| | - Regina Ostritsky
- Department of Human Molecular Genetics and Biochemistry, Sackler School of Medicine, Adams Super Center for Brain Studies and Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel Aviv University Tel Aviv, 69978, Israel
| | - Franziska Richter
- Department of Neurology, The David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA 710 Westwood Plaza, Los Angeles, California, 90095-1769
| | - Chunni Zhu
- Department of Neurology, The David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA 710 Westwood Plaza, Los Angeles, California, 90095-1769
| | - Sheila M Fleming
- Department of Neurology, The David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA 710 Westwood Plaza, Los Angeles, California, 90095-1769
| | - Vincent Lemesre
- Department of Neurology, The David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA 710 Westwood Plaza, Los Angeles, California, 90095-1769
| | - Alistair J Stewart
- Allon Therapeutics Inc. Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, V6B 2S2 ; Paladin Labs Inc. 100 Blvd Alexis Nihon, Suite 600, St Laurent, Quebec, Canada, H4M 2P2
| | - Bruce H Morimoto
- Allon Therapeutics Inc. Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, V6B 2S2 ; Celerion 621 Rose St, Lincoln, Nebraska, 68502
| | - Illana Gozes
- Department of Human Molecular Genetics and Biochemistry, Sackler School of Medicine, Adams Super Center for Brain Studies and Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel Aviv University Tel Aviv, 69978, Israel
| | - Marie-Françoise Chesselet
- Department of Neurology, The David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA 710 Westwood Plaza, Los Angeles, California, 90095-1769
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Delenclos M, Carrascal L, Jensen K, Romero-Ramos M. Immunolocalization of human alpha-synuclein in the Thy1-aSyn ("Line 61") transgenic mouse line. Neuroscience 2014; 277:647-64. [PMID: 25090921 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2014.07.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2014] [Revised: 07/02/2014] [Accepted: 07/03/2014] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Alpha-synuclein (a-syn) is the major component of the intracytoplasmic inclusions known as Lewy bodies (LB), which constitute the hallmark of Parkinson's disease (PD). Mice overexpressing human a-syn under the Thy-1 promoter (ASO) show slow neurodegeneration and some behavioral deficits similar to those seen in human PD patients. Here, we describe a whole-brain distribution of human a-syn in adult ASO mice. We find that the human a-syn is ubiquitously distributed in the brain including the cerebellar cortex, but the intensity and sub-cellular localization of the staining differed in the various regions of the central nervous system. Among particular CNS areas with human a-syn immunoreactivity, we describe staining patterns in the olfactory bulb, cortex, hippocampus, thalamic region, brainstem nuclei and cerebellar cortex. This immunohistochemical study provides an anatomical map of the human a-syn distribution in ASO mice. Our data show that human a-syn, although not present at levels that were detectable by immunostaining in dopaminergic neurons of substantia nigra or noradrenergic neurons of locus coeruleus, was highly expressed in other PD relevant regions of the brain in different neuronal subtypes. These data will help to relate a-syn expression to the phenotypic manifestations observed in this widely used mouse line.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Delenclos
- Synaptic Physiology Laboratory, Department of Biomedicine, Ole Worms Alle 4, Aarhus University, 8000 C, Denmark; CNS Disease Modeling Group, Department of Biomedicine, Ole Worms Alle 3, Aarhus University, Aarhus 8000 C, Denmark
| | - L Carrascal
- Synaptic Physiology Laboratory, Department of Biomedicine, Ole Worms Alle 4, Aarhus University, 8000 C, Denmark
| | - K Jensen
- Synaptic Physiology Laboratory, Department of Biomedicine, Ole Worms Alle 4, Aarhus University, 8000 C, Denmark; The Lundbeck Foundation Research Center MIND, Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus 8000 C, Denmark
| | - M Romero-Ramos
- CNS Disease Modeling Group, Department of Biomedicine, Ole Worms Alle 3, Aarhus University, Aarhus 8000 C, Denmark; AU IDEAS Center NEURODIN, Aarhus University, Aarhus 8000 C, Denmark.
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216
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Lee KW, Woo JM, Im JY, Park ES, He L, Ichijo H, Junn E, Mouradian MM. Apoptosis signal-regulating kinase 1 modulates the phenotype of α-synuclein transgenic mice. Neurobiol Aging 2014; 36:519-26. [PMID: 25219466 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2014.07.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2014] [Revised: 07/12/2014] [Accepted: 07/26/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
α-Synuclein is a key pathogenic protein in α-synucleinopathies including Parkinson's disease, and its overexpression and aggregation in model systems are associated with a neuroinflammatory response and increased oxidative stress. Apoptosis signal-regulating kinase 1 (ASK1) is activated upon stress signaling events such as oxidative stress and is a central player linking oxidative stress with neuroinflammation. Here, we demonstrate that overexpression of human α-synuclein activates ASK1 in both PC12 cells and in the brains of α-synuclein transgenic mice. Deleting ASK1 in mice mitigates the neuronal damage and neuroinflammation induced by α-synuclein and improves performance of the animals on the rotarod. ASK1 deletion does not impact the aggregation profile or phosphorylation state of α-synuclein in the mouse brain. These results collectively implicate ASK1 in the cascade of events triggered by α-synuclein overexpression, likely because of the inflammatory response and oxidative stress that lead to ASK1 activation. These conclusions raise the possibility that potent antioxidants and anti-inflammatory agents may ameliorate the phenotype of α-synucleinopathies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kang-Woo Lee
- Center for Neurodegenerative and Neuroimmunologic Diseases, Department of Neurology, Rutgers - Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, NJ, USA
| | - Jong-Min Woo
- Center for Neurodegenerative and Neuroimmunologic Diseases, Department of Neurology, Rutgers - Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, NJ, USA
| | - Joo-Young Im
- Center for Neurodegenerative and Neuroimmunologic Diseases, Department of Neurology, Rutgers - Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, NJ, USA
| | - Eun S Park
- Center for Neurodegenerative and Neuroimmunologic Diseases, Department of Neurology, Rutgers - Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, NJ, USA
| | - Liqiang He
- Center for Neurodegenerative and Neuroimmunologic Diseases, Department of Neurology, Rutgers - Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, NJ, USA
| | - Hidenori Ichijo
- Laboratory of Cell Signaling, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Japan
| | - Eunsung Junn
- Center for Neurodegenerative and Neuroimmunologic Diseases, Department of Neurology, Rutgers - Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, NJ, USA
| | - M Maral Mouradian
- Center for Neurodegenerative and Neuroimmunologic Diseases, Department of Neurology, Rutgers - Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, NJ, USA.
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217
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Genetic animal models of dystonia: common features and diversities. Prog Neurobiol 2014; 121:91-113. [PMID: 25034123 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2014.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2014] [Revised: 06/06/2014] [Accepted: 07/03/2014] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Animal models are pivotal for studies of pathogenesis and treatment of disorders of the central nervous system which in its complexity cannot yet be modeled in vitro or using computer simulations. The choice of a specific model to test novel therapeutic strategies for a human disease should be based on validity of the model for the approach: does the model reflect symptoms, pathogenesis and treatment response present in human patients? In the movement disorder dystonia, prior to the availability of genetically engineered mice, spontaneous mutants were chosen based on expression of dystonic features, including abnormal muscle contraction, movements and postures. Recent discovery of a number of genes and gene products involved in dystonia initiated research on pathogenesis of the disorder, and the creation of novel models based on gene mutations. Here we present a review of current models of dystonia, with a focus on genetic rodent models, which will likely be first choice in the future either for pathophysiological or for preclinical drug testing or both. In order to help selection of a model depending on expression of a specific feature of dystonia, this review is organized by symptoms and current knowledge of pathogenesis of dystonia. We conclude that albeit there is increasing need for research on pathogenesis of the disease and development of improved models, current models do replicate features of dystonia and are useful tools to develop urgently demanded treatment for this debilitating disorder.
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218
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Region specific mitochondrial impairment in mice with widespread overexpression of alpha-synuclein. Neurobiol Dis 2014; 70:204-13. [PMID: 25016198 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2014.06.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2014] [Revised: 06/17/2014] [Accepted: 06/22/2014] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is characterized by the progressive degeneration of nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons leading to motor deficits. The mechanisms underlying the preferential vulnerability of nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons in PD remain poorly understood. Recent evidence supports a role for mitochondrial dysfunction and increased oxidative stress in PD pathogenesis. Genetic and pathological studies also point to alpha-synuclein as a critical factor in both familial and sporadic forms of the disease; alpha-synuclein pathology affects mitochondrial function but is widespread in PD brain, raising the question of its role in the greater vulnerability of nigrostriatal neurons in PD. We have examined mitochondrial function and oxidative damage in mice overexpressing human wild type alpha-synuclein broadly throughout the nervous system under the Thy1 promoter (Thy1-aSyn mice) between 4 and 8months of age. Similar levels of alpha-synuclein accumulation in mitochondria were detected in the ventral midbrain, striatum and cortex of Thy1-aSyn mice. However, analysis of mitochondrial respiration using Seahorse XF analyzer showed defects in mitochondrial respiratory complexes I, II, IV and V specifically in the midbrain, and IV and V in the striatum, of Thy1-aSyn mice compared to wild type littermates; mitochondrial complex I activity assay by ELISA confirmed a 40% inhibition specifically in the ventral midbrain. Mitochondrial dysfunction can contribute to oxidative stress and we observed a 40% increase in 4-hydroxynenal and 2-fold increase in malondialdehyde levels, indicative of a high level of lipid peroxidation, specifically in the ventral midbrain of Thy1-aSyn mice. The levels of peroxiredoxin 2, a neuronal antioxidant enzyme that is involved in removal of H2O2 and other toxic peroxides were decreased in the midbrain whereas its oxidized form increased 4-fold, suggesting that antioxidant defenses were compromised in this region. In contrast, peroxiredoxin 2 increased in the striatum and cortex, which may contribute to their protection in the presence of high levels of alpha-synuclein. Thus, in mice over-expressing alpha-synuclein, mitochondrial dysfunction occurred preferentially in nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons many months before striatal dopamine loss occurs at 14months of age. This may contribute to a higher level of oxidative stress that overwhelms antioxidant defense in these neurons, leading to their increased vulnerability in PD.
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219
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Richter F, Gao F, Medvedeva V, Lee P, Bove N, Fleming SM, Michaud M, Lemesre V, Patassini S, De La Rosa K, Mulligan CK, Sioshansi PC, Zhu C, Coppola G, Bordet T, Pruss RM, Chesselet MF. Chronic administration of cholesterol oximes in mice increases transcription of cytoprotective genes and improves transcriptome alterations induced by alpha-synuclein overexpression in nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons. Neurobiol Dis 2014; 69:263-75. [PMID: 24844147 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2014.05.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2014] [Revised: 05/02/2014] [Accepted: 05/06/2014] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Cholesterol-oximes TRO19622 and TRO40303 target outer mitochondrial membrane proteins and have beneficial effects in preclinical models of neurodegenerative diseases leading to their advancement to clinical trials. Dopaminergic neurons degenerate in Parkinson's disease (PD) and are prone to oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction. In order to provide insights into the neuroprotective potential of TRO19622 and TRO40303 for dopaminergic neurons in vivo, we assessed their effects on gene expression in laser captured nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons of wildtype mice and of mice that over-express alpha-synuclein, a protein involved in both familial and sporadic forms of PD (Thy1-aSyn mice). Young mice were fed the drugs in food pellets or a control diet from 1 to 4months of age, approximately 10months before the appearance of striatal dopamine loss in this model. Unbiased weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) of transcriptional changes revealed effects of cholesterol oximes on transcripts related to mitochondria, cytoprotection and anti-oxidant response in wild-type and transgenic mice, including increased transcription of stress defense (e.g. Prdx1, Prdx2, Glrx2, Hspa9, Pink1, Drp1, Trak1) and dopamine-related (Th, Ddc, Gch1, Dat, Vmat2, Drd2, Chnr6a) genes. Even at this young age transgenic mice showed alterations in transcripts implicated in mitochondrial function and oxidative stress (e.g. Bcl-2, Bax, Casp3, Nos2), and both drugs normalized about 20% of these alterations. Young Thy1-aSyn mice exhibit motor deficits that differ from parkinsonism and are established before the onset of treatment; these deficits were not improved by cholesterol oximes. However, high doses of TRO40303 improved olfaction and produced the same effects as dopamine agonists on a challenging beam test, specifically an increase in footslips, an observation congruent with its effects on transcripts involved in dopamine synthesis. High doses of TRO19622 increased alpha-synuclein aggregates in the substantia nigra; this effect, not seen with TRO40303 was inconsistent and may represent a protective mechanism as in other neurodegenerative diseases. Overall, the results suggest that cholesterol oximes, while not improving early effects of alpha-synuclein overexpression on motor behavior or pathology, may ameliorate the function and resilience of dopaminergic neurons in vivo and support further studies of neuroprotection in models with dopaminergic cell loss.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franziska Richter
- Department of Neurology, The David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, 710 Westwood Plaza, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1769, USA
| | - Fuying Gao
- Department of Psychiatry, Semel Institute for Neuroscience and Human Behavior, The David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, 710 Westwood Plaza, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1769, USA
| | - Vera Medvedeva
- Department of Neurology, The David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, 710 Westwood Plaza, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1769, USA
| | - Patrick Lee
- Department of Neurology, The David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, 710 Westwood Plaza, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1769, USA
| | - Nicholas Bove
- Department of Neurology, The David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, 710 Westwood Plaza, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1769, USA
| | - Sheila M Fleming
- Department of Neurology, The David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, 710 Westwood Plaza, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1769, USA
| | - Magali Michaud
- Trophos S.A. Parc Scientifique de Luminy, Case 931, 13288 Marseille Cedex 9, France
| | - Vincent Lemesre
- Department of Neurology, The David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, 710 Westwood Plaza, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1769, USA
| | - Stefano Patassini
- Department of Neurology, The David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, 710 Westwood Plaza, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1769, USA
| | - Krystal De La Rosa
- Department of Neurology, The David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, 710 Westwood Plaza, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1769, USA
| | - Caitlin K Mulligan
- Department of Neurology, The David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, 710 Westwood Plaza, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1769, USA
| | - Pedrom C Sioshansi
- Department of Neurology, The David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, 710 Westwood Plaza, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1769, USA
| | - Chunni Zhu
- Department of Neurology, The David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, 710 Westwood Plaza, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1769, USA
| | - Giovanni Coppola
- Department of Neurology, The David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, 710 Westwood Plaza, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1769, USA; Department of Psychiatry, Semel Institute for Neuroscience and Human Behavior, The David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, 710 Westwood Plaza, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1769, USA
| | - Thierry Bordet
- Trophos S.A. Parc Scientifique de Luminy, Case 931, 13288 Marseille Cedex 9, France
| | - Rebecca M Pruss
- Trophos S.A. Parc Scientifique de Luminy, Case 931, 13288 Marseille Cedex 9, France
| | - Marie-Françoise Chesselet
- Department of Neurology, The David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, 710 Westwood Plaza, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1769, USA.
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220
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Sanchez G, Varaschin RK, Büeler H, Marcogliese PC, Park DS, Trudeau LE. Unaltered striatal dopamine release levels in young Parkin knockout, Pink1 knockout, DJ-1 knockout and LRRK2 R1441G transgenic mice. PLoS One 2014; 9:e94826. [PMID: 24733019 PMCID: PMC3986353 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0094826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2013] [Accepted: 03/19/2014] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is one of the most prevalent neurodegenerative brain diseases; it is accompanied by extensive loss of dopamine (DA) neurons of the substantia nigra that project to the putamen, leading to impaired motor functions. Several genes have been associated with hereditary forms of the disease and transgenic mice have been developed by a number of groups to produce animal models of PD and to explore the basic functions of these genes. Surprisingly, most of the various mouse lines generated such as Parkin KO, Pink1 KO, DJ-1 KO and LRRK2 transgenic have been reported to lack degeneration of nigral DA neuron, one of the hallmarks of PD. However, modest impairments of motor behavior have been reported, suggesting the possibility that the models recapitulate at least some of the early stages of PD, including early dysfunction of DA axon terminals. To further evaluate this possibility, here we provide for the first time a systematic comparison of DA release in four different mouse lines, examined at a young age range, prior to potential age-dependent compensations. Using fast scan cyclic voltammetry in striatal sections prepared from young, 6–8 weeks old mice, we examined sub-second DA overflow evoked by single pulses and action potential trains. Unexpectedly, none of the models displayed any dysfunction of DA overflow or reuptake. These results, compatible with the lack of DA neuron loss in these models, suggest that molecular dysfunctions caused by the absence or mutation of these individual genes are not sufficient to perturb the function and survival of mouse DA neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gonzalo Sanchez
- Departments of pharmacology and neurosciences, Central Nervous System Research Group, Faculty of Medicine, Université de Montréal, Montreal, Canada
| | - Rafael K. Varaschin
- Departments of pharmacology and neurosciences, Central Nervous System Research Group, Faculty of Medicine, Université de Montréal, Montreal, Canada
| | - Hansruedi Büeler
- School of Life Sciences and Technology, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, China
| | - Paul C. Marcogliese
- Department of cellular and molecular medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada
| | - David S. Park
- Department of cellular and molecular medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada
| | - Louis-Eric Trudeau
- Departments of pharmacology and neurosciences, Central Nervous System Research Group, Faculty of Medicine, Université de Montréal, Montreal, Canada
- * E-mail:
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221
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Grant LM, Richter F, Miller JE, White SA, Fox CM, Zhu C, Chesselet MF, Ciucci MR. Vocalization deficits in mice over-expressing alpha-synuclein, a model of pre-manifest Parkinson's disease. Behav Neurosci 2014; 128:110-21. [PMID: 24773432 PMCID: PMC4079049 DOI: 10.1037/a0035965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Communication and swallowing deficits are common in Parkinson's disease (PD). Evidence indicates that voice and speech dysfunction manifest early, prior to motor deficits typically associated with striatal dopamine loss. Unlike deficits in the extremities, cranial sensorimotor deficits are refractory to standard dopamine-related pharmacological and surgical interventions, thus the mechanisms underlying vocal deficits are unclear. Although neurotoxin models have provided some insight, they typically model nigrostriatal dopamine depletion and are therefore limited. Widespread alpha-synuclein (aSyn) pathology is common to familial and sporadic PD, and transgenic mouse models based on aSyn overexpression present a unique opportunity to explore vocalization deficits in relation to extrastriatal, nondopaminergic pathologies. Specifically, mice overexpressing human wild-type aSyn under a broad neuronal promoter (Thy1-aSyn) present early, progressive motor and nonmotor deficits starting at 2-3 months, followed by parkinsonism with dopamine loss at 14 months. We recorded ultrasonic vocalizations from Thy1-aSyn mice and wild-type (WT) controls at 2-3, 6-7, and 9 months. Thy1-aSyn mice demonstrated early, progressive vocalization deficits compared with WT. Duration and intensity of calls were significantly reduced and call profile was altered in the Thy1-aSyn mice, particularly at 2-3 months. Call rate trended toward a more drastic decrease with age in the Thy1-aSyn mice compared with WT. Alpha-synuclein pathology is present in the periaqueductal gray and may underlie the manifestation of vocalization deficits. These results indicate that aSyn overexpression can induce vocalization deficits at an early age in mice and provides a new model for studying the mechanisms underlying cranial sensorimotor deficits and treatment interventions for PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura M Grant
- Department of Surgery, Division of Otolaryngology- Head & Neck Surgery, University of Wisconsin
| | | | | | | | - Cynthia M Fox
- National Center for Voice and Speech, University of Colorado
| | - Chunni Zhu
- Department of Neurology, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA
| | | | - Michelle R Ciucci
- Department of Surgery, Division of Otolaryngology-Head & Neck Surgery, University of Wisconsin
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222
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Joers V, Emborg ME. Modeling and imaging cardiac sympathetic neurodegeneration in Parkinson's disease. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF NUCLEAR MEDICINE AND MOLECULAR IMAGING 2014; 4:125-159. [PMID: 24753981 PMCID: PMC3992208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2013] [Accepted: 02/02/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is currently recognized as a multisystem disorder affecting several components of the central and peripheral nervous system. This new understanding of PD helps explain the complexity of the patients' symptoms while challenges researchers to identify new diagnostic and therapeutic strategies. Cardiac neurodegeneration and dysautonomia affect PD patients and are associated with orthostatic hypotension, fatigue, and abnormal control of electrical heart activity. They can seriously impact daily life of PD patients, as these symptoms do not respond to classical anti-parkinsonian medications and can be worsened by them. New diagnostic tools and therapies aiming to prevent cardiac neurodegeneration and dysautonomia are needed. In this manuscript we critically review the relationship between the cardiovascular and nervous system in normal and PD conditions, current animal models of cardiac dysautonomia and the application of molecular imaging methods to visualize cardiac neurodegeneration. Our goal is to highlight current progress in the development of tools to understand cardiac neurodegeneration and dysautonomia and monitor the effects of novel therapies aiming for global neuroprotection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valerie Joers
- Preclinical Parkinson’s Research Program, Wisconsin National Primate Research Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison1220 Capitol Court, Madison, WI 53715, USA
- Neuroscience Training Program, University of Wisconsin-MadisonMadison, WI 53715, USA
| | - Marina E Emborg
- Preclinical Parkinson’s Research Program, Wisconsin National Primate Research Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison1220 Capitol Court, Madison, WI 53715, USA
- Neuroscience Training Program, University of Wisconsin-MadisonMadison, WI 53715, USA
- Department of Medical Physics, 1111 Highland Avenue, University of Wisconsin-MadisonMadison WI 53705, USA
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223
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Next-generation active immunization approach for synucleinopathies: implications for Parkinson's disease clinical trials. Acta Neuropathol 2014; 127:861-79. [PMID: 24525765 DOI: 10.1007/s00401-014-1256-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 175] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2013] [Revised: 01/28/2014] [Accepted: 02/01/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Immunotherapeutic approaches are currently in the spotlight for their potential as disease-modifying treatments for neurodegenerative disorders. The discovery that α-synuclein (α-syn) can transmit from cell to cell in a prion-like fashion suggests that immunization might be a viable option for the treatment of synucleinopathies. This possibility has been bolstered by the development of next-generation active vaccination technology with short peptides-AFFITOPEs(®) (AFF)- that do not elicit an α-syn-specific T cell response. This approach allows for the production of long term, sustained, more specific, non-cross reacting antibodies suitable for the treatment of synucleinopathies, such as Parkinson's disease (PD). In this context, we screened a large library of peptides that mimic the C-terminus region of α-syn and discovered a novel set of AFF that identified α-syn oligomers. Next, the peptide that elicited the most specific response against α-syn (AFF 1) was selected for immunizing two different transgenic (tg) mouse models of PD and Dementia with Lewy bodies, the PDGF- and the mThy1-α-syn tg mice. Vaccination with AFF 1 resulted in high antibody titers in CSF and plasma, which crossed into the CNS and recognized α-syn aggregates. Active vaccination with AFF 1 resulted in decreased accumulation of α-syn oligomers in axons and synapses, accompanied by reduced degeneration of TH fibers in the caudo-putamen nucleus and by improvements in motor and memory deficits in both in vivo models. Clearance of α-syn involved activation of microglia and increased anti-inflammatory cytokine expression, further supporting the efficacy of this novel active vaccination approach for synucleinopathies.
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224
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Assous M, Had-Aissouni L, Gubellini P, Melon C, Nafia I, Salin P, Kerkerian-Le-Goff L, Kachidian P. Progressive Parkinsonism by acute dysfunction of excitatory amino acid transporters in the rat substantia nigra. Neurobiol Dis 2014; 65:69-81. [PMID: 24480091 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2014.01.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2013] [Revised: 01/10/2014] [Accepted: 01/14/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is characterized by the progressive degeneration of substantia nigra (SN) dopamine neurons, involving a multifactorial cascade of pathogenic events. Here we explored the hypothesis that dysfunction of excitatory amino acid transporters (EAATs) might be involved. Acutely-induced dysfunction of EAATs in the rat SN, by single unilateral injection of their substrate inhibitor l-trans-pyrrolidine-2,4-dicarboxylate (PDC), triggers a neurodegenerative process mimicking several PD features. Dopamine neurons are selectively affected, consistent with their sustained excitation by PDC measured by slice electrophysiology. The anti-oxidant N-acetylcysteine and the NMDA receptor antagonists ifenprodil and memantine provide neuroprotection. Besides oxidative stress and NMDA receptor-mediated excitotoxicity, glutathione depletion and neuroinflammation characterize the primary insult. Most interestingly, the degeneration progresses overtime with unilateral to bilateral and caudo-rostral evolution. Transient adaptive changes in dopamine function markers in SN and striatum accompany cell loss and axonal dystrophy, respectively. Motor deficits appear when neuron loss exceeds 50% in the most affected SN and striatal dopamine tone is dramatically reduced. These findings outline a functional link between EAAT dysfunction and several PD pathogenic mechanisms/pathological hallmarks, and provide a novel acutely-triggered model of progressive Parkinsonism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maxime Assous
- Aix-Marseille Université, CNRS, IBDML, UMR7288, 13009, Case 907, Parc Scientifique de Luminy, 13009 Marseille, France
| | - Laurence Had-Aissouni
- Aix-Marseille Université, CNRS, IBDML, UMR7288, 13009, Case 907, Parc Scientifique de Luminy, 13009 Marseille, France
| | - Paolo Gubellini
- Aix-Marseille Université, CNRS, IBDML, UMR7288, 13009, Case 907, Parc Scientifique de Luminy, 13009 Marseille, France
| | - Christophe Melon
- Aix-Marseille Université, CNRS, IBDML, UMR7288, 13009, Case 907, Parc Scientifique de Luminy, 13009 Marseille, France
| | - Imane Nafia
- Fluofarma, 2 Rue Robert Escarpit, 33607, Pessac, France
| | - Pascal Salin
- Aix-Marseille Université, CNRS, IBDML, UMR7288, 13009, Case 907, Parc Scientifique de Luminy, 13009 Marseille, France
| | - Lydia Kerkerian-Le-Goff
- Aix-Marseille Université, CNRS, IBDML, UMR7288, 13009, Case 907, Parc Scientifique de Luminy, 13009 Marseille, France.
| | - Philippe Kachidian
- Aix-Marseille Université, CNRS, IBDML, UMR7288, 13009, Case 907, Parc Scientifique de Luminy, 13009 Marseille, France.
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225
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Lobb CJ, Zaheer AK, Smith Y, Jaeger D. In vivo electrophysiology of nigral and thalamic neurons in alpha-synuclein-overexpressing mice highlights differences from toxin-based models of parkinsonism. J Neurophysiol 2013; 110:2792-805. [PMID: 24068758 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00441.2013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Numerous studies have suggested that alpha-synuclein plays a prominent role in both familial and idiopathic Parkinson's disease (PD). Mice in which human alpha-synuclein is overexpressed (ASO) display progressive motor deficits and many nonmotor features of PD. However, it is unclear what in vivo pathophysiological mechanisms drive these motor deficits. It is also unknown whether previously proposed pathophysiological features (i.e., increased beta oscillations, bursting, and synchronization) described in toxin-based, nigrostriatal dopamine-depletion models are also present in ASO mice. To address these issues, we first confirmed that 5- to 6-mo-old ASO mice have robust motor dysfunction, despite the absence of significant nigrostriatal dopamine degeneration. In the same animals, we then recorded simultaneous single units and local field potentials (LFPs) in the substantia nigra pars reticulata (SNpr), the main basal ganglia output nucleus, and one of its main thalamic targets, the ventromedial nucleus, as well as LFPs in the primary motor cortex in anesthetized ASO mice and their age-matched, wild-type littermates. Neural activity was examined during slow wave activity and desynchronized cortical states, as previously described in 6-hydroxydopamine-lesioned rats. In contrast to toxin-based models, we found a small decrease, rather than an increase, in beta oscillations in the desynchronized state. Similarly, synchronized burst firing of nigral neurons observed in toxin-based models was not observed in ASO mice. Instead, we found more subtle changes in pauses of SNpr firing compared with wild-type control mice. Our results suggest that the pathophysiology underlying motor dysfunction in ASO mice is distinctly different from striatal dopamine-depletion models of parkinsonism.
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Affiliation(s)
- C J Lobb
- Department of Biology, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia
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Subramaniam SR, Chesselet MF. Mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress in Parkinson's disease. Prog Neurobiol 2013; 106-107:17-32. [PMID: 23643800 PMCID: PMC3742021 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2013.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 520] [Impact Index Per Article: 47.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2013] [Revised: 04/13/2013] [Accepted: 04/22/2013] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a movement disorder that is characterized by the progressive degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in substantia nigra pars compacta resulting in dopamine deficiency in the striatum. Although majority of the PD cases are sporadic several genetic mutations have also been linked to the disease thus providing new opportunities to study the pathology of the illness. Studies in humans and various animal models of PD reveal that mitochondrial dysfunction might be a defect that occurs early in PD pathogenesis and appears to be a widespread feature in both sporadic and monogenic forms of PD. The general mitochondrial abnormalities linked with the disease include mitochondrial electron transport chain impairment, alterations in mitochondrial morphology and dynamics, mitochondrial DNA mutations and anomaly in calcium homeostasis. Mitochondria are vital organelles with multiple functions and their dysfunction can lead to a decline in energy production, generation of reactive oxygen species and induction of stress-induced apoptosis. In this review, we give an outline of mitochondrial functions that are affected in the pathogenesis of sporadic and familial PD, and hence provide insights that might be valuable for focused future research to exploit possible mitochondrial targets for neuroprotective interventions in PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sudhakar Raja Subramaniam
- Department of Neurology, David Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA, 710 Westwood Plaza, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1769, USA
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Hansen C, Björklund T, Petit GH, Lundblad M, Murmu RP, Brundin P, Li JY. A novel α-synuclein-GFP mouse model displays progressive motor impairment, olfactory dysfunction and accumulation of α-synuclein-GFP. Neurobiol Dis 2013; 56:145-55. [PMID: 23643841 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2013.04.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2012] [Revised: 03/27/2013] [Accepted: 04/23/2013] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Compelling evidence suggests that accumulation and aggregation of alpha-synuclein (α-syn) contribute to the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease (PD). Here, we describe a novel Bacterial Artificial Chromosome (BAC) transgenic model, in which we have expressed wild-type human α-syn fused to green fluorescent protein (GFP), under control of the mouse α-syn promoter. We observed a widespread and high expression of α-syn-GFP in multiple brain regions, including the dopaminergic neurons of the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc) and the ventral tegmental area, the olfactory bulb as well as in neocortical neurons. With increasing age, transgenic mice exhibited reductions in amphetamine-induced locomotor activity in the open field, impaired rotarod performance and a reduced striatal dopamine release, as measured by amperometry. In addition, they progressively developed deficits in an odor discrimination test. Western blot analysis revealed that α-syn-GFP and phospho-α-syn levels increased in multiple brain regions, as the mice grew older. Further, we observed, by immunohistochemical staining for phospho-α-syn and in vivo by two-photon microscopy, the formation of α-syn aggregates as the mice aged. The latter illustrates that the model can be used to track α-syn aggregation in vivo. In summary, this novel BAC α-syn-GFP model mimics a unique set of aspects of PD progression combined with the possibility of tracking α-syn aggregation in neocortex of living mice. Therefore, this α-syn-GFP-mouse model can provide a powerful tool that will facilitate the study of α-syn biology and its involvement in PD pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Hansen
- Neural Plasticity and Repair Unit, Wallenberg Neuroscience Center, Department of Experimental Medical Science, BMC A10, 221 84 Lund, Sweden.
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Sanchez-Guajardo V, Barnum C, Tansey M, Romero-Ramos M. Neuroimmunological processes in Parkinson's disease and their relation to α-synuclein: microglia as the referee between neuronal processes and peripheral immunity. ASN Neuro 2013; 5:113-39. [PMID: 23506036 PMCID: PMC3639751 DOI: 10.1042/an20120066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 171] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2012] [Revised: 03/15/2013] [Accepted: 03/19/2013] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The role of neuroinflammation and the adaptive immune system in PD (Parkinson's disease) has been the subject of intense investigation in recent years, both in animal models of parkinsonism and in post-mortem PD brains. However, how these processes relate to and modulate α-syn (α-synuclein) pathology and microglia activation is still poorly understood. Specifically, how the peripheral immune system interacts, regulates and/or is induced by neuroinflammatory processes taking place during PD is still undetermined. We present herein a comprehensive review of the features and impact that neuroinflamation has on neurodegeneration in different animal models of nigral cell death, how this neuroinflammation relates to microglia activation and the way microglia respond to α-syn in vivo. We also discuss a possible role for the peripheral immune system in animal models of parkinsonism, how these findings relate to the state of microglia activation observed in these animal models and how these findings compare with what has been observed in humans with PD. Together, the available data points to the need for development of dual therapeutic strategies that modulate microglia activation to change not only the way microglia interact with the peripheral immune system, but also to modulate the manner in which microglia respond to encounters with α-syn. Lastly, we discuss the immune-modulatory strategies currently under investigation in animal models of parkinsonism and the degree to which one might expect their outcomes to translate faithfully to a clinical setting.
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Key Words
- lymphocytes
- m1/m2 phenotype
- microglia
- neuroinflammation
- parkinson’s disease
- α-synuclein
- 6-ohda, 6-hydroxydopamine
- ad, alzheimer’s disease
- apc, antigen-presenting cell
- α-syn, α-synuclein
- bbb, brain–blood barrier
- bcg, bacille calmette–guérin
- bm, bone marrow
- cfa, complete freund’s adjuvant
- cm, conditioned media
- cns, central nervous system
- cox, cyclooxygenase
- cr, complement receptor
- csf, cerebrospinal fluid
- da, dopamine
- eae, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis
- ga, galatiramer acetate
- gdnf, glial-derived neurotrophic factor
- gfp, green fluorescent protein
- hla-dr, human leucocyte antigen type dr
- ifnγ, interferon γ
- igg, immunoglobulin g
- il, interleukin
- inos, inducible nitric oxide synthase
- lamp, lysosome-associated membrane protein
- lb, lewy body
- lps, lipopolysaccharide
- mhc, major histocompatibility complex
- mptp, 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine
- nfκb, nuclear factor κb
- nk, natural killer
- no, nitric oxide
- pd, parkinson’s disease
- pet, positron-emission tomography
- prp, prion protein
- raav, recombinant adeno-associated virus
- rns, reactive nitrogen species
- ros, reactive oxygen species
- sn, substantia nigra
- snp, single nucleotide polymorphism
- tcr, t-cell receptor
- tgfβ, tumour growth factor β
- th, tyrosine hydroxylase
- th1, t helper 1
- tlr, toll-like receptor
- tnf, tumour necrosis factor
- treg, regulatory t-cell
- vip, vasoactive intestinal peptide
- wt, wild-type
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Affiliation(s)
- Vanesa Sanchez-Guajardo
- *CNS Disease Modeling Group, Department of Biomedicine, Ole Worms Allé 3,
Aarhus University, DK-8000 Aarhus C, Denmark
| | - Christopher J. Barnum
- †Department of Physiology, Emory University, School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA
30233, U.S.A
| | - Malú G. Tansey
- †Department of Physiology, Emory University, School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA
30233, U.S.A
| | - Marina Romero-Ramos
- *CNS Disease Modeling Group, Department of Biomedicine, Ole Worms Allé 3,
Aarhus University, DK-8000 Aarhus C, Denmark
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Pradhan S, Andreasson K. Commentary: Progressive inflammation as a contributing factor to early development of Parkinson's disease. Exp Neurol 2013; 241:148-55. [DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2012.12.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2012] [Revised: 12/08/2012] [Accepted: 12/13/2012] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Béraud D, Hathaway HA, Trecki J, Chasovskikh S, Johnson DA, Johnson JA, Federoff HJ, Shimoji M, Mhyre TR, Maguire-Zeiss KA. Microglial activation and antioxidant responses induced by the Parkinson's disease protein α-synuclein. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol 2012; 8:94-117. [PMID: 23054368 PMCID: PMC3582877 DOI: 10.1007/s11481-012-9401-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 132] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2012] [Accepted: 09/06/2012] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is the second most common age-related neurodegenerative disorder typified by tremor, rigidity, akinesia and postural instability due in part to the loss of dopamine within the nigrostriatal system. The pathologic features of this disorder include the loss of substantia nigra dopamine neurons and attendant striatal terminals, the presence of large protein-rich neuronal inclusions containing fibrillar α-synuclein and increased numbers of activated microglia. Evidence suggests that both misfolded α-synuclein and oxidative stress play an important role in the pathogenesis of sporadic PD. Here we review evidence that α-synuclein activates glia inducing inflammation and that Nrf2-directed phase-II antioxidant enzymes play an important role in PD. We also provide new evidence that the expression of antioxidant enzymes regulated in part by Nrf2 is increased in a mouse model of α-synuclein overexpression. We show that misfolded α-synuclein directly activates microglia inducing the production and release of the proinflammatory cytokine, TNF-α, and increasing antioxidant enzyme expression. Importantly, we demonstrate that the precise structure of α-synuclein is important for induction of this proinflammatory pathway. This complex α-synuclein-directed glial response highlights the importance of protein misfolding, oxidative stress and inflammation in PD and represents a potential locus for the development of novel therapeutics focused on induction of the Nrf2-directed antioxidant pathway and inhibition of protein misfolding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dawn Béraud
- Department of Neuroscience, Georgetown University Medical Center, NRB EP08, 3970 Reservoir Road NW, Washington, DC 20057, USA
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Combined exposure to Maneb and Paraquat alters transcriptional regulation of neurogenesis-related genes in mice models of Parkinson's disease. Mol Neurodegener 2012; 7:49. [PMID: 23017109 PMCID: PMC3502617 DOI: 10.1186/1750-1326-7-49] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2012] [Accepted: 09/24/2012] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Parkinson's disease (PD) is a multifactorial disease where environmental factors act on genetically predisposed individuals. Although only 5% of PD manifestations are associated with specific mutations, majority of PD cases are of idiopathic origin, where environment plays a prominent role. Concurrent exposure to Paraquat (PQ) and Maneb (MB) in rural workers increases the risk for PD and exposure of adult mice to MB/PQ results in dopamine fiber loss and decreased locomotor activity. While PD is characterized by neuronal loss in the substantia nigra, we previously showed that accumulation of α-synuclein in the limbic system contributes to neurodegeneration by interfering with adult neurogenesis. Results We investigated the effect of pesticides on adult hippocampal neurogenesis in two transgenic models: Line 61, expressing the human wild type SNCA gene and Line LRRK2(G2019S), expressing the human LRRK2 gene with the mutation G2019S. Combined exposure to MB/PQ resulted in significant reduction of neuronal precursors and proliferating cells in non-transgenic animals, and this effect was increased in transgenic mice, in particular for Line 61, suggesting that α-synuclein accumulation and environmental toxins have a synergistic effect. We further investigated the transcription of 84 genes with direct function on neurogenesis. Overexpresion of α-synuclein resulted in the downregulation of 12% of target genes, most of which were functionally related to cell differentiation, while LRRK2 mutation had a minor impact on gene expression. MB/PQ also affected transcription in non-transgenic backgrounds, but when transgenic mice were exposed to the pesticides, profound alterations in gene expression affecting 27% of the studied targets were observed in both transgenic lines. Gene enrichment analysis showed that 1:3 of those genes were under the regulation of FoxF2 and FoxO3A, suggesting a primary role of these proteins in the response to genetic and environmental cues. Conclusions We report that adult neurogenesis is highly susceptible to multiple “risk factors” for PD, including α-synuclein accumulation, LRRK2 G2019 mutation and exposure to environmental toxins. We identified specific groups of genes that are responsive to each stressor, while uncovering a novel function for Fox transcription factors in PD.
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