201
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Pompura SL, Dominguez-Villar M. The PI3K/AKT signaling pathway in regulatory T-cell development, stability, and function. J Leukoc Biol 2018; 103:1065-1076. [PMID: 29357116 DOI: 10.1002/jlb.2mir0817-349r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 166] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2017] [Revised: 12/08/2017] [Accepted: 12/14/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The PI3K/AKT signaling pathway is an essential node in mammalian cells that controls cell growth, migration, proliferation, and metabolism. During the last decade, a number of works have demonstrated an important role for the PI3K/AKT pathway in regulatory T cell development, function, and stability. This review summarizes our current knowledge of how the PI3K/AKT pathway regulates thymic and peripheral Treg generation and function, with an emphasis on translation of these observations to therapies targeting Tregs in several pathologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saige L Pompura
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
- Department of Neurology, Human and Translational Immunology Program, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Margarita Dominguez-Villar
- Department of Neurology, Human and Translational Immunology Program, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
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202
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The IL-10-producing regulatory B cells (B10 cells) and regulatory T cell subsets in neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder. Neurol Sci 2018; 39:543-549. [PMID: 29349658 DOI: 10.1007/s10072-018-3248-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2017] [Accepted: 01/05/2018] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
B cells contribute to the pathogenesis of neuromyelitis optica (NMO) by producing Aquaporin 4-specific autoantibodies (AQP4-ab); on the other hand, there are certain B cells that suppress immune responses by producing regulatory cytokines, such as IL-10. In this study, we investigated the presence of IL-10-producing Breg cells among lymphocyte subsets. Twenty-two seropositive NMO spectrum disorder (NMOSD) patients (29 samples) and 13 healthy controls (HCs) (14 samples) were enrolled. All NMOSD patients have received one or more immunosuppressive drugs. The phenotype and frequency of B cell and T cell subsets in the peripheral blood were measured by flow cytometry. We defined Breg cells as IL-10-producing B (B10) cells, which are CD19+CD39+CD1d+IL-10+. The potential relations were evaluated between specific lymphocyte subsets and AQP4-ab intensity measured by the cell-based indirect immunofluorescence assay. The frequency of B10 cells was higher in patients with NMOSD regardless of the disease status than that in HCs (attack samples; p = 0.009 and remission samples; p < 0.001, respectively). In addition, the frequency of IL-17+ Treg cells among Treg cells was higher during remission than during an attack (uncorrected p = 0.032). Among the lymphocyte subsets, B10 cells alone showed a positive correlation with the intensity of AQP4-ab positivity (ρ [rho] = 0.402 and p = 0.031). It was suggested that the suppressive subsets including B10 and IL-17+ Treg cells might have important roles in controlling disease status in NMOSD. Further functional studies may help to elucidate the immunological role of B10 and IL-17+ Treg cells in NMOSD.
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203
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Donnelly C, Dykstra B, Mondal N, Huang J, Kaskow BJ, Griffin R, Sackstein R, Baecher-Allan C. Optimizing human Treg immunotherapy by Treg subset selection and E-selectin ligand expression. Sci Rep 2018; 8:420. [PMID: 29323143 PMCID: PMC5765004 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-17981-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2017] [Accepted: 12/04/2017] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
While human Tregs hold immense promise for immunotherapy, their biologic variability poses challenges for clinical use. Here, we examined clinically-relevant activities of defined subsets of freshly-isolated and culture-expanded human PBMC-derived Tregs. Unlike highly suppressive but plastic memory Tregs (memTreg), naïve Tregs (nvTreg) exhibited the greatest proliferation, suppressive capacity after stimulation, and Treg lineage fidelity. Yet, unlike memTregs, nvTregs lack Fucosyltransferase VII and display low sLeX expression, with concomitant poor homing capacity. In vitro nvTreg expansion augmented their suppressive function, but did not alter the nvTreg sLeX-l°w glycome. However, exofucosylation of the nvTreg surface yielded high sLeX expression, promoting endothelial adhesion and enhanced inhibition of xenogeneic aGVHD. These data indicate that the immature Treg glycome is under unique regulation and that adult PBMCs can be an ideal source of autologous-derived therapeutic Tregs, provided that subset selection and glycan engineering are engaged to optimize both their immunomodulation and tropism for inflammatory sites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Conor Donnelly
- Department of Dermatology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.,Program of Excellence in Glycosciences, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.,University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Brad Dykstra
- Department of Dermatology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.,Program of Excellence in Glycosciences, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.,Platelet Biogenesis, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Nandini Mondal
- Department of Dermatology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.,Program of Excellence in Glycosciences, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Junning Huang
- Ann Romney Center for Neurologic Disease, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Belinda J Kaskow
- Ann Romney Center for Neurologic Disease, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Russell Griffin
- Department of Dermatology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Robert Sackstein
- Department of Dermatology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA. .,Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA. .,Program of Excellence in Glycosciences, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.
| | - Clare Baecher-Allan
- Ann Romney Center for Neurologic Disease, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.,Department of Dermatology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
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204
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW We discuss new paradigms for understanding the immunopathology of multiple sclerosis through the recent development of high throughput genetic analysis, emergence of numerous candidate biomarkers, and the broadening of the treatment arsenal. RECENT FINDINGS The recent use of genome wide association studies provide new tools for a better understanding of multiple sclerosis etiology. Genome-wide association studies have identified many genes implicated in immune regulation and the next step will be to elucidate how those genetic variations influence immune cell function to drive disease development and progression. Furthermore, patient care has seen the emergence of new biomarkers for monitoring disease progression and response to treatment. Finally, the introduction of numerous immunomodulatory treatments will likely improve clinical outcome of multiple sclerosis patients in the future. SUMMARY Breakthroughs in the field of multiple sclerosis have led to a better understanding of the physiopathology of the disease, follow up, and treatment of the patients that develop relapsing remitting multiple sclerosis. The next challenge for multiple sclerosis will be to press forward to model and decipher multiple sclerosis progression, which will help both to develop therapeutics and generate knowledge about mechanisms of neurodegeneration.
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205
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Kimura K, Hohjoh H, Fukuoka M, Sato W, Oki S, Tomi C, Yamaguchi H, Kondo T, Takahashi R, Yamamura T. Circulating exosomes suppress the induction of regulatory T cells via let-7i in multiple sclerosis. Nat Commun 2018; 9:17. [PMID: 29295981 PMCID: PMC5750223 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-017-02406-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 158] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2017] [Revised: 11/17/2017] [Accepted: 11/29/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a T cell-mediated autoimmune disease of the central nervous system. Foxp3+ regulatory T (Treg) cells are reduced in frequency and dysfunctional in patients with MS, but the underlying mechanisms of this deficiency are unclear. Here, we show that induction of human IFN-γ−IL-17A−Foxp3+CD4+ T cells is inhibited in the presence of circulating exosomes from patients with MS. The exosomal miRNA profile of patients with MS differs from that of healthy controls, and let-7i, which is markedly increased in patients with MS, suppresses induction of Treg cells by targeting insulin like growth factor 1 receptor (IGF1R) and transforming growth factor beta receptor 1 (TGFBR1). Consistently, the expression of IGF1R and TGFBR1 on circulating naive CD4+ T cells is reduced in patients with MS. Thus, our study shows that exosomal let-7i regulates MS pathogenesis by blocking the IGF1R/TGFBR1 pathway. MiRNAs are small RNA molecules that can regulate gene expression. Here the authors show that expression of several exosomal miRNAs are altered in patients with multiple sclerosis, and that let-7i modulates regulatory T cell homeostasis to contribute to pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kimitoshi Kimura
- Department of Immunology, National Institute of Neuroscience, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, 4-1-1 Ogawahigashi, Kodaira, Tokyo, 187-8502, Japan.,Department of Neurology, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Yoshida-konoe-cho, Sakyo, Kyoto, 606-8501, Japan
| | - Hirohiko Hohjoh
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, National Institute of Neuroscience, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, 4-1-1 Ogawahigashi, Kodaira, Tokyo, 187-8502, Japan
| | - Masashi Fukuoka
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, National Institute of Neuroscience, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, 4-1-1 Ogawahigashi, Kodaira, Tokyo, 187-8502, Japan
| | - Wakiro Sato
- Department of Immunology, National Institute of Neuroscience, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, 4-1-1 Ogawahigashi, Kodaira, Tokyo, 187-8502, Japan.,Multiple Sclerosis Center, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, 4-1-1 Ogawahigashi, Kodaira, Tokyo, 187-8551, Japan
| | - Shinji Oki
- Department of Immunology, National Institute of Neuroscience, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, 4-1-1 Ogawahigashi, Kodaira, Tokyo, 187-8502, Japan
| | - Chiharu Tomi
- Department of Immunology, National Institute of Neuroscience, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, 4-1-1 Ogawahigashi, Kodaira, Tokyo, 187-8502, Japan
| | - Hiromi Yamaguchi
- Department of Immunology, National Institute of Neuroscience, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, 4-1-1 Ogawahigashi, Kodaira, Tokyo, 187-8502, Japan
| | - Takayuki Kondo
- Department of Neurology, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Yoshida-konoe-cho, Sakyo, Kyoto, 606-8501, Japan.,Department of Neurology, Kansai Medical University Medical Center, 10-15 Fumizono, Moriguchi, Osaka, 570-8507, Japan
| | - Ryosuke Takahashi
- Department of Neurology, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Yoshida-konoe-cho, Sakyo, Kyoto, 606-8501, Japan
| | - Takashi Yamamura
- Department of Immunology, National Institute of Neuroscience, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, 4-1-1 Ogawahigashi, Kodaira, Tokyo, 187-8502, Japan. .,Multiple Sclerosis Center, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, 4-1-1 Ogawahigashi, Kodaira, Tokyo, 187-8551, Japan.
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206
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The Secrets of T Cell Polarization. Oncoimmunology 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-62431-0_5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022] Open
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207
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Krebs CF, Panzer U. Plasticity and heterogeneity of Th17 in immune-mediated kidney diseases. J Autoimmun 2017; 87:61-68. [PMID: 29275837 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaut.2017.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2017] [Accepted: 12/04/2017] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Anti-neutrophil cytoplasmatic antibody (ANCA)-associated glomerulonephritis, anti-glomerular basement membrane (GBM) glomerulonephritis and lupus nephritis are the most common causes of rapid progressive glomerulonephritis (RPGN) in the Western world. These aggressive forms of autoimmune kidney diseases significantly contribute to end-stage renal disease and are associated with high morbidity and mortality. Moreover, patients show significant heterogeneity with respect to clinical outcome and response to therapy. T cell infiltration is a morphological hallmark of RPGN and it is a critical driver of kidney injury. Different CD4+ T cell subsets that are endowed with distinct regulatory and effector functions are involved in this detrimental inflammatory process. In particular, the identification and functional characterization of IL-17-expressing CD4+ Th17 cells have substantially advanced our understanding of organ-specific autoimmunity. In experimental models of crescentic and proliferative GN, including ANCA-associated GN, anti-GBM-GN and lupus nephritis, the Th17/IL-17 axis significantly contributes to renal tissue damage. In patients with ANCA-associated GN or lupus nephritis, IL-17 serum levels correlated with disease activity. Moreover, Th17 cells are present in the kidneys of these patients and represents a topic of intense ongoing clinical and basic research. Importantly, recent studies have challenged the view of CD4+ T cells subsets as terminally differentiated homogenous cells, showing that T cells, in particular Th17 cells, are much more flexible and heterogeneous than previously thought. However, analysis of Th17 cell fate in mouse models of autoimmune kidney disease revealed a high degree of stability within these cells, an observation that is in contrast to Th17 cells in other models of autoimmune diseases including experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Interestingly, anti-CD3 treatment interferes with stable Th17 cells and induces a potential regulatory phenotype in Th17 cells, highlighting the therapeutic potential of targeting pathogenic Th17 cells in autoimmunity. In this review, we discuss the current knowledge of Th17 cell plasticity and heterogeneity in autoimmune kidney diseases with a special focus on the underlying mechanisms of this process and debate if Th17 cell plasticity is beneficial or harmful to renal inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian F Krebs
- III. Department of Medicine, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Germany.
| | - Ulf Panzer
- III. Department of Medicine, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Germany
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208
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Bocian K, Kiernozek E, Domagała-Kulawik J, Korczak-Kowalska G, Stelmaszczyk-Emmel A, Drela N. Expanding Diversity and Common Goal of Regulatory T and B Cells. I: Origin, Phenotype, Mechanisms. Arch Immunol Ther Exp (Warsz) 2017; 65:501-520. [PMID: 28477096 PMCID: PMC5688216 DOI: 10.1007/s00005-017-0469-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2016] [Accepted: 03/14/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Immunosuppressive activity of regulatory T and B cells is critical to limit autoimmunity, excessive inflammation, and pathological immune response to conventional antigens or allergens. Both types of regulatory cells are intensively investigated, however, their development and mechanisms of action are still not completely understood. Both T and B regulatory cells represent highly differentiated populations in terms of phenotypes and origin, however, they use similar mechanisms of action. The most investigated CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells are characterized by the expression of Foxp3+ transcription factor, which is not sufficient to maintain their lineage stability and suppressive function. Currently, it is considered that specific epigenetic changes are critical for defining regulatory T cell stability in the context of their suppressive function. It is not yet known if similar epigenetic regulation determines development, lineage stability, and function of regulatory B cells. Phenotype diversity, confirmed or hypothetical developmental pathways, multiple mechanisms of action, and role of epigenetic changes in these processes are the subject of this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katarzyna Bocian
- Department of Immunology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland.
| | - Ewelina Kiernozek
- Department of Immunology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland.
| | | | - Grażyna Korczak-Kowalska
- Department of Immunology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
- Department of Clinical Immunology, Transplantation Institute, Medical University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Anna Stelmaszczyk-Emmel
- Department of Laboratory Diagnostics and Clinical Immunology of Developmental Age, Medical University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Nadzieja Drela
- Department of Immunology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
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209
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Muehling LM, Lawrence MG, Woodfolk JA. Pathogenic CD4 + T cells in patients with asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2017; 140:1523-1540. [PMID: 28442213 PMCID: PMC5651193 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaci.2017.02.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2016] [Revised: 02/07/2017] [Accepted: 02/20/2017] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Asthma encompasses a variety of clinical phenotypes that involve distinct T cell-driven inflammatory processes. Improved understanding of human T-cell biology and the influence of innate cytokines on T-cell responses at the epithelial barrier has led to new asthma paradigms. This review captures recent knowledge on pathogenic CD4+ T cells in asthmatic patients by drawing on observations in mouse models and human disease. In patients with allergic asthma, TH2 cells promote IgE-mediated sensitization, airway hyperreactivity, and eosinophilia. Here we discuss recent discoveries in the myriad molecular pathways that govern the induction of TH2 differentiation and the critical role of GATA-3 in this process. We elaborate on how cross-talk between epithelial cells, dendritic cells, and innate lymphoid cells translates to T-cell outcomes, with an emphasis on the actions of thymic stromal lymphopoietin, IL-25, and IL-33 at the epithelial barrier. New concepts on how T-cell skewing and epitope specificity are shaped by multiple environmental cues integrated by dendritic cell "hubs" are discussed. We also describe advances in understanding the origins of atypical TH2 cells in asthmatic patients, the role of TH1 cells and other non-TH2 types in asthmatic patients, and the features of T-cell pathogenicity at the single-cell level. Progress in technologies that enable highly multiplexed profiling of markers within a single cell promise to overcome barriers to T-cell discovery in human asthmatic patients that could transform our understanding of disease. These developments, along with novel T cell-based therapies, position us to expand the assortment of molecular targets that could facilitate personalized treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lyndsey M Muehling
- Allergy Division, Department of Medicine, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, Va
| | - Monica G Lawrence
- Allergy Division, Department of Medicine, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, Va
| | - Judith A Woodfolk
- Allergy Division, Department of Medicine, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, Va.
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210
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Ochando J, Braza MS. T follicular helper cells: a potential therapeutic target in follicular lymphoma. Oncotarget 2017; 8:112116-112131. [PMID: 29340116 PMCID: PMC5762384 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.22788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2017] [Accepted: 11/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Follicular lymphoma (FL), the most common indolent B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (B-NHL), is a germinal center (GC)-derived lymphoma. The mechanisms underlying B-cell differentiation/maturation in GCs could be also involved in their malignant transformation. Moreover, the non-malignant cell composition and architecture of the tumor microenvironment can influence FL development and outcome. Here, we review recent research advances on CD4 helper T cells in FL that highlight the pivotal role of T follicular helper (TFH) cells in a complex multicellular system where they interact with B cells during GC dynamics. After describing the mechanism of FL lymphomagenesis, we discuss the emerging evidence about TFH cell enrichment and involvement in FL tumorigenesis and in B-T cell interaction, TFH regulation by T follicular regulatory cells (TFR) and its potential effect on FL. Then, we provide an overview on the flexible interplay between the different CD4 T-cell subtypes and how this may be predicted in normal and pathologic contexts, according to the cell epigenetic state. Finally, we highlight the importance of targeting TFH cells in the clinic, summarize the main outstanding questions about TFH and TFR cells in FL, and describe strategies to potentiate FL therapy by taking into account TFH cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jordi Ochando
- Immunology Institute, Department of Oncological Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Mounia S Braza
- Immunology Institute, Department of Oncological Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA
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211
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Hellen IA, Steffen M, Stocker T, Christian S. Small but mighty: Platelets as central effectors of host defense. Thromb Haemost 2017; 117:651-661. [DOI: 10.1160/th16-12-0921] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2016] [Accepted: 01/19/2017] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
SummaryPlatelets actively participate in inflammatory processes and drive diseases such as atherosclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis and cancer metastasis. However, platelets also have anti-inflammatory and anti-infective properties, which have received less consideration in the past. In this review, we highlight recent findings on the role of platelets in host defense and describe regulatory pathways modulating immuneresponses. Furthermore, we discuss the role of platelets for the resolution of inflammation and tissue repair. These conceptual changes contribute to our understanding of platelet biology in disease.
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212
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McGovern JL, Wright GP, Stauss HJ. Engineering Specificity and Function of Therapeutic Regulatory T Cells. Front Immunol 2017; 8:1517. [PMID: 29176976 PMCID: PMC5686054 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2017.01517] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2017] [Accepted: 10/26/2017] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Adoptive therapy with polyclonal regulatory T cells (Tregs) has shown efficacy in suppressing detrimental immune responses in experimental models of autoimmunity and transplantation. The lack of specificity is a potential limitation of Treg therapy, as studies in mice have demonstrated that specificity can enhance the therapeutic potency of Treg. We will discuss that vectors encoding T cell receptors or chimeric antigen receptors provide an efficient gene-transfer platform to reliably produce Tregs of defined antigen specificity, thus overcoming the considerable difficulties of isolating low-frequency, antigen-specific cells that may be present in the natural Treg repertoire. The recent observations that Tregs can polarize into distinct lineages similar to the Th1, Th2, and Th17 subsets described for conventional T helper cells raise the possibility that Th1-, Th2-, and Th17-driven pathology may require matching Treg subsets for optimal therapeutic efficacy. In the future, genetic engineering may serve not only to enforce FoxP3 expression and a stable Treg phenotype but it may also enable the expression of particular transcription factors that drive differentiation into defined Treg subsets. Together, established and recently developed gene transfer and editing tools provide exciting opportunities to produce tailor-made antigen-specific Treg products with defined functional activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jenny L McGovern
- Institute of Immunity and Transplantation, UCL Division of Infection and Immunity, University College London, Royal Free Hospital, London, United Kingdom
| | - Graham P Wright
- School of Applied Science, Edinburgh Napier University, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Hans J Stauss
- Institute of Immunity and Transplantation, UCL Division of Infection and Immunity, University College London, Royal Free Hospital, London, United Kingdom
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213
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Liberal R, Grant CR, Muhammed Y, Graham J, Kalbasi A, Ma Y, Heneghan MA, Mieli-Vergani G, Vergani D, Longhi MS. Regulatory T-cell conditioning endows activated effector T cells with suppressor function in autoimmune hepatitis/autoimmune sclerosing cholangitis. Hepatology 2017; 66:1570-1584. [PMID: 28597951 PMCID: PMC5689077 DOI: 10.1002/hep.29307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2016] [Revised: 04/11/2017] [Accepted: 06/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Imbalance between T regulatory (Treg) and T effector (Teff) cells is likely to contribute to the induction and perpetuation of liver damage in autoimmune hepatitis (AIH) and autoimmune sclerosing cholangitis (AISC) either through inability of Tregs to restrain proliferation and effector cytokine production by responders or through conversion of Tregs into T helper type 1 (Th1) or type 17 (Th17) effector lymphocytes. We investigated the effect of Treg skewing on the phenotypic and functional properties of CD4+ CD127+ CD25high cells, an activated subset of Teff, in 32 patients with AIH and 20 with AISC and in 36 healthy subjects. In AIH/AISC we noted a substantial increase in peripheral blood-derived CD4+ CD127+ CD25high cells that display a Th1/Th17 phenotypic profile, as reflected by heightened interferon gamma and interleukin 17 (IL-17) production as well as by high levels of T-bet and related orphan receptor 3 expression, which is strongly correlated with disease activity. CD4+ CD127+ CD25high cells are unresponsive to low-dose IL-2 and in patients have marked proliferative ability, further enhanced by stimulation with IL-7. CD4+ CD127+ CD25high cells obtained from CD4+ cells exposed to Treg polarizing conditions display enhanced IL-10 production; up-regulate CD49b and LAG-3, markers of T regulatory 1 cells; and effectively suppress responder cell proliferation in both healthy subjects and AIH/AISC patients through a mechanism which is dependent on interferon gamma and IL-17. The suppressive function of CD4+ CD127+ CD25high cells is maintained upon proinflammatory challenge in healthy subjects but not in AIH/AISC. CONCLUSION Treg skewing confers activated Teff phenotypic and functional properties of T regulatory 1 cells in health and in AIH/AISC, though suppressive function is lost in patients upon proinflammatory challenge; protracted modulation of the inflammatory environment is required to attenuate the effector potential while boosting immunoregulatory properties in Teff. (Hepatology 2017;66:1570-1584).
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodrigo Liberal
- Department of Liver Studies, Division of Transplantation Immunology & Mucosal Biology, MRC Centre for Transplantation, King’s College London, Faculty of Life Sciences & Medicine, London, UK,Gastroenterology Department, Centro Hospitalar São João, Faculty of Medicine of the University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Charlotte R Grant
- Department of Liver Studies, Division of Transplantation Immunology & Mucosal Biology, MRC Centre for Transplantation, King’s College London, Faculty of Life Sciences & Medicine, London, UK
| | - Yuksel Muhammed
- Department of Liver Studies, Division of Transplantation Immunology & Mucosal Biology, MRC Centre for Transplantation, King’s College London, Faculty of Life Sciences & Medicine, London, UK
| | - Jonathon Graham
- Department of Liver Studies, Division of Transplantation Immunology & Mucosal Biology, MRC Centre for Transplantation, King’s College London, Faculty of Life Sciences & Medicine, London, UK
| | - Alireza Kalbasi
- Division of Gastroenterology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, USA
| | - Yun Ma
- Department of Liver Studies, Division of Transplantation Immunology & Mucosal Biology, MRC Centre for Transplantation, King’s College London, Faculty of Life Sciences & Medicine, London, UK
| | - Michael A Heneghan
- Department of Liver Studies, Division of Transplantation Immunology & Mucosal Biology, MRC Centre for Transplantation, King’s College London, Faculty of Life Sciences & Medicine, London, UK
| | - Giorgina Mieli-Vergani
- Department of Liver Studies, Division of Transplantation Immunology & Mucosal Biology, MRC Centre for Transplantation, King’s College London, Faculty of Life Sciences & Medicine, London, UK,MowatLabs Paediatric Liver, GI & Nutrition Centre, King’s College London, Faculty of Life Sciences & Medicine, London, UK
| | - Diego Vergani
- Department of Liver Studies, Division of Transplantation Immunology & Mucosal Biology, MRC Centre for Transplantation, King’s College London, Faculty of Life Sciences & Medicine, London, UK
| | - Maria Serena Longhi
- Department of Liver Studies, Division of Transplantation Immunology & Mucosal Biology, MRC Centre for Transplantation, King’s College London, Faculty of Life Sciences & Medicine, London, UK,Division of Gastroenterology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, USA
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214
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In utero development of memory T cells. Semin Immunopathol 2017; 39:585-592. [DOI: 10.1007/s00281-017-0650-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2017] [Accepted: 08/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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215
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He X, Koenen HJ, Slaats JH, Joosten I. Stabilizing human regulatory T cells for tolerance inducing immunotherapy. Immunotherapy 2017; 9:735-751. [PMID: 28771099 DOI: 10.2217/imt-2017-0017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Many autoimmune diseases develop as a consequence of an altered balance between autoreactive immune cells and suppressive FOXP3+ Treg. Restoring this balance through amplification of Treg represents a promising strategy to treat disease. However, FOXP3+ Treg might become unstable especially under certain inflammatory conditions, and might transform into proinflammatory cytokine-producing cells. The issue of heterogeneity and instability of Treg has caused considerable debate in the field and has important implications for Treg-based immunotherapy. In this review, we discuss how Treg stability is defined and what the molecular mechanisms underlying the maintenance of FOXP3 expression and the regulation of Treg stability are. Also, we elaborate on current strategies used to stabilize human Treg for clinical purposes. This review focuses on human Treg, but considering that cell-intrinsic mechanisms to regulate Treg stability in mice and in humans might be similar, data derived from mice studies are also discussed in this paper.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuehui He
- Laboratory of Medical Immunology, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.,College of Computer Science, Qinghai Normal University, Xining, Qinghai, China
| | - Hans Jpm Koenen
- Laboratory of Medical Immunology, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Jeroen Hr Slaats
- Laboratory of Medical Immunology, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Irma Joosten
- Laboratory of Medical Immunology, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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216
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Mrad MF, El Ayoubi NK, Esmerian MO, Kazan JM, Khoury SJ. Effect of vitamin D replacement on immunological biomarkers in patients with multiple sclerosis. Clin Immunol 2017; 181:9-15. [DOI: 10.1016/j.clim.2017.05.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2017] [Revised: 05/19/2017] [Accepted: 05/19/2017] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
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217
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Abstract
Foxp3+ regulatory T cells (Tregs) play an indispensable role in controlling tolerance and immunity against self- and foreign antigens. The failure of Tregs to properly function is the direct cause of systemic and chronic inflammation as well as immune suppression. It is now evident that Tregs are highly heterogeneous populations depending on the surface phenotypes, cytokine profiles, and anatomical locations. Yet, our understanding of the cellular and molecular pathways underlying such heterogeneity is very limited. Furthermore, some Tregs lose the phenotype (and suppressive functions) and instead acquire pathogenicity. Since utilizing Tregs as a tool for immunotherapy is being implemented in many clinical settings, it is of utmost importance to understand the precise mechanisms by which the loss of Treg phenotype (and function) is prevented. In this review, both cellular and molecular factors involved in Treg heterogeneity and stability are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Booki Min
- Department of Immunology/NB30, Lerner Research Institute , Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Cleveland, Ohio
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218
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Lucca LE, Hafler DA. Co-inhibitory blockade while preserving tolerance: checkpoint inhibitors for glioblastoma. Immunol Rev 2017; 276:9-25. [PMID: 28258696 DOI: 10.1111/imr.12529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
The introduction of immunotherapy with checkpoint receptor blockade has changed the treatment of advanced cancers, at times inducing prolonged remission. Nevertheless, the success rate of the approach is variable across patients and different tumor types, and treatment is often accompanied by severe immune-related side effects, suggesting the importance of co-inhibitory pathway for both prevention of autoimmunity and failure of tumor rejection. A better understanding of how to uncouple anti-tumor activity from loss of self-tolerance is necessary to increase the therapeutic efficacy of checkpoint immunotherapy. In this review, we describe basic concepts of T-cell exhaustion that occur in cancer, highlighting the role of co-inhibitory receptors in contributing to this process while preventing immunopathology. By providing an overview of the current therapeutic success and immune-related burden of secondary effects of checkpoint immunotherapy, we illustrate the "double-edged sword" related to interference with immune-regulatory pathways. Finally, since achieving tumor rejection while preserving self-tolerance is particularly important for the central nervous system, we analyze the case for checkpoint immunotherapy in glioblastoma, the most common adult brain tumor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liliana E Lucca
- Departments of Neurology and Immunobiology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - David A Hafler
- Departments of Neurology and Immunobiology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
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219
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Pardo E, Cárcamo C, Uribe-San Martín R, Ciampi E, Segovia-Miranda F, Curkovic-Peña C, Montecino F, Holmes C, Tichauer JE, Acuña E, Osorio-Barrios F, Castro M, Cortes P, Oyanadel C, Valenzuela DM, Pacheco R, Naves R, Soza A, González A. Galectin-8 as an immunosuppressor in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis and a target of human early prognostic antibodies in multiple sclerosis. PLoS One 2017. [PMID: 28650992 PMCID: PMC5484466 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0177472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Galectin-8 (Gal-8) is a member of a glycan-binding protein family that regulates the immune system, among other functions, and is a target of antibodies in autoimmune disorders. However, its role in multiple sclerosis (MS), an autoimmune inflammatory disease of the central nervous system (CNS), remains unknown. We study the consequences of Gal-8 silencing on lymphocyte subpopulations and the development of experimental autoimmune encephalitis (EAE), to then assess the presence and clinical meaning of anti-Gal-8 antibodies in MS patients. Lgals8/Lac-Z knock-in mice lacking Gal-8 expression have higher polarization toward Th17 cells accompanied with decreased CCR6+ and higher CXCR3+ regulatory T cells (Tregs) frequency. These conditions result in exacerbated MOG35-55 peptide-induced EAE. Gal-8 eliminates activated Th17 but not Th1 cells by apoptosis and ameliorates EAE in C57BL/6 wild-type mice. β-gal histochemistry reflecting the activity of the Gal-8 promoter revealed Gal-8 expression in a wide range of CNS regions, including high expression in the choroid-plexus. Accordingly, we detected Gal-8 in human cerebrospinal fluid, suggesting a role in the CNS immune-surveillance circuit. In addition, we show that MS patients generate function-blocking anti-Gal-8 antibodies with pathogenic potential. Such antibodies block cell adhesion and Gal-8-induced Th17 apoptosis. Furthermore, circulating anti-Gal-8 antibodies associate with relapsing-remitting MS (RRMS), and not with progressive MS phenotypes, predicting clinical disability at diagnosis within the first year of follow-up. Our results reveal that Gal-8 has an immunosuppressive protective role against autoimmune CNS inflammation, modulating the balance of Th17 and Th1 polarization and their respective Tregs. Such a role can be counteracted during RRMS by anti-Gal-8 antibodies, worsening disease prognosis. Even though anti-Gal-8 antibodies are not specific for MS, our results suggest that they could be a potential early severity biomarker in RRMS.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Apoptosis/physiology
- Autoantibodies/immunology
- Brain/immunology
- Brain/metabolism
- Cell Adhesion/physiology
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/genetics
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/immunology
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/metabolism
- Female
- Galectins/genetics
- Galectins/immunology
- Galectins/metabolism
- Gene Silencing
- Humans
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Transgenic
- Multiple Sclerosis/genetics
- Multiple Sclerosis/immunology
- Multiple Sclerosis/metabolism
- Prognosis
- T-Lymphocytes, Regulatory/immunology
- T-Lymphocytes, Regulatory/metabolism
- Th17 Cells/immunology
- Th17 Cells/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- Evelyn Pardo
- Center for Aging and Regeneration (CARE), Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
- Anatomy and Developmental Biology Program, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Geroscience Center for Brain Health and Metabolism, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Claudia Cárcamo
- Departamento de Neurología, Facultad de Medicina, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Reinaldo Uribe-San Martín
- Departamento de Neurología, Facultad de Medicina, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Ethel Ciampi
- Departamento de Neurología, Facultad de Medicina, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Fabián Segovia-Miranda
- Center for Aging and Regeneration (CARE), Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Cristobal Curkovic-Peña
- Center for Aging and Regeneration (CARE), Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Fabián Montecino
- Center for Aging and Regeneration (CARE), Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Christopher Holmes
- Center for Aging and Regeneration (CARE), Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Juan Enrique Tichauer
- Instituto de Ciencias Biomédicas, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Eric Acuña
- Instituto de Ciencias Biomédicas, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | | | - Marjorie Castro
- Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad San Sebastián, Santiago, Chile
| | - Priscilla Cortes
- Center for Aging and Regeneration (CARE), Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
- Facultad de Ciencia, Universidad San Sebastián, Santiago, Chile
| | - Claudia Oyanadel
- Center for Aging and Regeneration (CARE), Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
- Fundación Ciencia & Vida, Santiago, Chile
- Facultad de Ciencia, Universidad San Sebastián, Santiago, Chile
| | | | - Rodrigo Pacheco
- Fundación Ciencia & Vida, Santiago, Chile
- Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago, Chile
| | - Rodrigo Naves
- Instituto de Ciencias Biomédicas, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Andrea Soza
- Center for Aging and Regeneration (CARE), Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
- Facultad de Ciencia, Universidad San Sebastián, Santiago, Chile
- * E-mail: (AG); (AS)
| | - Alfonso González
- Center for Aging and Regeneration (CARE), Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
- Facultad de Medicina, Universidad San Sebastián, Santiago, Chile
- * E-mail: (AG); (AS)
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220
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Abstract
Salt is a vital nutrient. Excess salt intake, however, has recently been blamed for triggering and/or worsening certain autoimmune diseases. In vitro, the cells involved in innate and adaptive immune responses exhibit an inflammatory profile when placed in hypertonic saline. More specifically, macrophages release increased amounts of proinflammatory cytokines, produce reactive oxygen species, and become capable of activating the inflammasome. T helper cells, via activation of serum and glucocorticoid-regulated kinase 1 (SGK1), overexpress IL-17A and IL-23R and differentiate into Th17 cells; whereas regulatory T cells lose the inhibitory capabilities needed to preserve self-tolerance. The data from animal models of autoimmune diseases and human patients are less consistent. SGK1 has been implicated in polarization toward the Th17 phenotype, which worsens conditions such as multiple sclerosis, systemic lupus erythematosus, autoimmune colitis, and transplant rejection. Observational epidemiological studies of patients with multiple sclerosis have demonstrated an association between excessive salt intake and a higher number of flares. Excessive salt intake is associated with a higher risk of developing rheumatoid arthritis, particularly in smokers. These data suggest that salt may stimulate certain immunological processes. Studies are therefore needed to assess the potential influence of dietary habits on the development and progression of autoimmune diseases.
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221
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Abstract
Since their ‘re-discovery’ more than two decades ago, FOXP3+ regulatory T cells (Tregs) have been an important subject of investigation in the biomedical field and our understanding of the mechanisms that drive their phenotype and function in health and disease has advanced tremendously. During the past few years it has become clear that Tregs are not a terminally differentiated population but show some degree of plasticity, and can, under specific environmental conditions, acquire the phenotype of effector T cells. In particular, recent works have highlighted the acquisition of a Th1-like phenotype by Tregs in several pathological environments. In this review we give an update on the concept of Treg plasticity and the advances in defining the molecular mechanisms that underlie the generation of Th1-like Tregs during an immune response and in different disease settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Kitz
- Departments of Neurology and Immunobiology, Yale School of Medicine, 300 George Street, New Haven, CT, 06519, USA
| | - Margarita Dominguez-Villar
- Department of Neurology, Human and Translational Immunology Program, Yale School of Medicine, 300 George Street, New Haven, CT, 06519, USA.
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222
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Zeng W, Liu Z, Liu X, Zhang S, Khanniche A, Zheng Y, Ma X, Yu T, Tian F, Liu XR, Fan J, Lin Y. Distinct Transcriptional and Alternative Splicing Signatures of Decidual CD4 + T Cells in Early Human Pregnancy. Front Immunol 2017; 8:682. [PMID: 28659920 PMCID: PMC5466981 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2017.00682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2017] [Accepted: 05/26/2017] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Decidual CD4+ T (dCD4 T) cells are crucial for the maternal-fetal immune tolerance required for a healthy pregnancy outcome. However, their molecular and functional characteristics are not well elucidated. In this study, we performed the first analysis of transcriptional and alternative splicing (AS) landscapes for paired decidual and peripheral blood CD4+ T (pCD4 T) cells in human early pregnancy using high throughput mRNA sequencing. Our data showed that dCD4 T cells are endowed with a unique transcriptional signature when compared to pCD4 T cells: dCD4 T cells upregulate 1,695 genes enriched in immune system process whereas downregulate 1,011 genes mainly related to mRNA catabolic process and the ribosome. Moreover, dCD4 T cells were observed to be at M phase, and show increased activation, proliferation, and cytokine production, as well as display an effector-memory phenotype and a heterogenous nature containing Th1, Th17, and Treg cell subsets. However, dCD4 T cells undergo a comparable number of upregulated and downregulated AS events, both of which are enriched in the genes related to cellular metabolic process. And the changes at the AS event level do not reflect measurable differences at the gene expression level in dCD4 T cells. Collectively, our findings provide a comprehensive portrait of the unique transcriptional signature and AS profile of CD4+ T cells in human decidua and help us gain more understanding of the functional characteristic of these cells during early pregnancy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weihong Zeng
- Institute of Embryo-Fetal Original Adult Disease Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, The International Peace Maternity & Child Health Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Zhicui Liu
- Department of Dermatology, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Xinmei Liu
- Institute of Embryo-Fetal Original Adult Disease Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, The International Peace Maternity & Child Health Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Siming Zhang
- Institute of Embryo-Fetal Original Adult Disease Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, The International Peace Maternity & Child Health Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Asma Khanniche
- Shanghai Institute of Immunology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Ying Zheng
- Out-patient Operating Room, The International Peace Maternity and Child Health Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiaoling Ma
- Institute of Embryo-Fetal Original Adult Disease Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, The International Peace Maternity & Child Health Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Tiantian Yu
- Institute of Embryo-Fetal Original Adult Disease Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, The International Peace Maternity & Child Health Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Fuju Tian
- Institute of Embryo-Fetal Original Adult Disease Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, The International Peace Maternity & Child Health Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiao-Rui Liu
- Institute of Embryo-Fetal Original Adult Disease Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, The International Peace Maternity & Child Health Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Jianxia Fan
- Institute of Embryo-Fetal Original Adult Disease Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, The International Peace Maternity & Child Health Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Yi Lin
- Institute of Embryo-Fetal Original Adult Disease Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, The International Peace Maternity & Child Health Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
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223
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Overacre-Delgoffe AE, Chikina M, Dadey RE, Yano H, Brunazzi EA, Shayan G, Horne W, Moskovitz JM, Kolls JK, Sander C, Shuai Y, Normolle DP, Kirkwood JM, Ferris RL, Delgoffe GM, Bruno TC, Workman CJ, Vignali DAA. Interferon-γ Drives T reg Fragility to Promote Anti-tumor Immunity. Cell 2017; 169:1130-1141.e11. [PMID: 28552348 PMCID: PMC5509332 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2017.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 410] [Impact Index Per Article: 58.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2016] [Revised: 03/22/2017] [Accepted: 05/02/2017] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Regulatory T cells (Tregs) are a barrier to anti-tumor immunity. Neuropilin-1 (Nrp1) is required to maintain intratumoral Treg stability and function but is dispensable for peripheral immune tolerance. Treg-restricted Nrp1 deletion results in profound tumor resistance due to Treg functional fragility. Thus, identifying the basis for Nrp1 dependency and the key drivers of Treg fragility could help to improve immunotherapy for human cancer. We show that a high percentage of intratumoral NRP1+ Tregs correlates with poor prognosis in melanoma and head and neck squamous cell carcinoma. Using a mouse model of melanoma where Nrp1-deficient (Nrp1-/-) and wild-type (Nrp1+/+) Tregs can be assessed in a competitive environment, we find that a high proportion of intratumoral Nrp1-/- Tregs produce interferon-γ (IFNγ), which drives the fragility of surrounding wild-type Tregs, boosts anti-tumor immunity, and facilitates tumor clearance. We also show that IFNγ-induced Treg fragility is required for response to anti-PD1, suggesting that cancer therapies promoting Treg fragility may be efficacious.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abigail E Overacre-Delgoffe
- Department of Immunology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA; Department of Immunology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105, USA
| | - Maria Chikina
- Department of Computational and Systems Biology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA
| | - Rebekah E Dadey
- Department of Immunology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Hiroshi Yano
- Department of Immunology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Erin A Brunazzi
- Department of Immunology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Gulidanna Shayan
- Tumor Microenvironment Center, University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute, Pittsburgh, PA 15232, USA
| | - William Horne
- Richard King Mellon Foundation Institute for Pediatric Research, Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh of University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, PA 15224, USA
| | - Jessica M Moskovitz
- Tumor Microenvironment Center, University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute, Pittsburgh, PA 15232, USA; Department of Otolaryngology, University of Pittsburgh and University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Jay K Kolls
- Department of Immunology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA; Richard King Mellon Foundation Institute for Pediatric Research, Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh of University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, PA 15224, USA
| | - Cindy Sander
- Division of Hematology-Oncology, Department of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, PA 15232, USA
| | - Yongli Shuai
- UPCI Biostatistics Facility, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Daniel P Normolle
- UPCI Biostatistics Facility, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - John M Kirkwood
- Department of Immunology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA; Division of Hematology-Oncology, Department of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, PA 15232, USA
| | - Robert L Ferris
- Department of Immunology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA; Tumor Microenvironment Center, University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute, Pittsburgh, PA 15232, USA; Department of Otolaryngology, University of Pittsburgh and University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Greg M Delgoffe
- Department of Immunology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA; Department of Immunology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105, USA; Tumor Microenvironment Center, University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute, Pittsburgh, PA 15232, USA
| | - Tullia C Bruno
- Department of Immunology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA; Tumor Microenvironment Center, University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute, Pittsburgh, PA 15232, USA
| | - Creg J Workman
- Department of Immunology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA; Department of Immunology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105, USA
| | - Dario A A Vignali
- Department of Immunology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA; Department of Immunology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105, USA; Tumor Microenvironment Center, University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute, Pittsburgh, PA 15232, USA.
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224
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Takahashi R, Nakatsukasa H, Shiozawa S, Yoshimura A. SOCS1 Is a Key Molecule That Prevents Regulatory T Cell Plasticity under Inflammatory Conditions. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2017; 199:149-158. [PMID: 28550203 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1600441] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2016] [Accepted: 04/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
We previously showed that regulatory T cells (Tregs) from T cell-specific Socs1-deficient mice (Socs1fl/flLck-Cre+ mice) easily convert into Th1- or Th17-like cells (ex-Tregs), which lose Foxp3 expression and suppressive functions in vivo. Because Tregs in Socs1fl/flLck-Cre+ mice are constantly exposed to a large amount of inflammatory cytokines produced by non-Tregs in vivo, in this study we analyzed Treg-specific Socs1-deficient mice (Socs1fl/flFoxp3YFP-Cre mice). These mice developed dermatitis, splenomegaly, and lymphadenopathy that were much milder than those in Socs1fl/flLck-Cre+ mice. A fate mapping study revealed that Socs1 deficiency accelerated the conversion of Tregs to Foxp3-IFN-γ+ ex-Tregs in the tumor microenvironment and suppressed tumor growth. When transferred into Rag2-/- mice, Tregs from Socs1fl/flLck-Cre+ mice easily lost Foxp3 expression, whereas those from Socs1fl/flFoxp3YFP-Cre mice maintained Foxp3 expression. Although Tregs from Socs1fl/flLck-Cre+ mice produced IFN-γ after a 3-d culture in response to anti-CD3/CD28 Ab stimulation in vitro, Tregs from Socs1fl/flFoxp3YFP-Cre mice did not. This finding suggested that the inflammatory conditions in Socs1fl/flLck-Cre+ mice modified the born nature of Socs1-deficient Tregs. To investigate this mechanism, Tregs from Socs1fl/flFoxp3YFP-Cre mice were cultured with APCs from Socs1fl/flLck-Cre+ mice. These APCs facilitated STAT4 phosphorylation, IFN-γ production, and loss of Foxp3 expression in Tregs from Socs1fl/flFoxp3YFP-Cre mice in an IL-12-dependent manner. The results indicate that Socs1-deficient Tregs tend to convert into ex-Tregs under the inflammatory conditions in which APCs are highly activated, and that SOCS1 could be a useful target for enhancement of anti-tumor immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reiko Takahashi
- Department of Immunology, Research Institute, Nozaki Tokushukai, Daitou, Osaka 574-0074, Japan; .,Rheumatic Disease Unit, Department of Medicine, Kyushu University Beppu Hospital, Beppu 874-0838, Japan; and.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Keio University School of Medicine, Shinjuku-Ku, Tokyo 160-8582, Japan
| | - Hiroko Nakatsukasa
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Keio University School of Medicine, Shinjuku-Ku, Tokyo 160-8582, Japan
| | - Shunichi Shiozawa
- Rheumatic Disease Unit, Department of Medicine, Kyushu University Beppu Hospital, Beppu 874-0838, Japan; and
| | - Akihiko Yoshimura
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Keio University School of Medicine, Shinjuku-Ku, Tokyo 160-8582, Japan
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225
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Duffy SS, Keating BA, Perera CJ, Moalem-Taylor G. The role of regulatory T cells in nervous system pathologies. J Neurosci Res 2017; 96:951-968. [DOI: 10.1002/jnr.24073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2017] [Revised: 03/28/2017] [Accepted: 04/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Samuel S. Duffy
- School of Medical Sciences; University of New South Wales UNSW; Sydney Australia
| | - Brooke A. Keating
- School of Medical Sciences; University of New South Wales UNSW; Sydney Australia
| | - Chamini J. Perera
- School of Medical Sciences; University of New South Wales UNSW; Sydney Australia
| | - Gila Moalem-Taylor
- School of Medical Sciences; University of New South Wales UNSW; Sydney Australia
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226
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Jones A, Hawiger D. Peripherally Induced Regulatory T Cells: Recruited Protectors of the Central Nervous System against Autoimmune Neuroinflammation. Front Immunol 2017; 8:532. [PMID: 28536579 PMCID: PMC5422564 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2017.00532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2017] [Accepted: 04/21/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Defects in regulatory T cells (Treg cells) aggravate multiple sclerosis (MS) after its onset and the absence of Treg cell functions can also exacerbate the course of disease in an animal model of MS. However, autoimmune neuroinflammation in many MS models can be acutely provoked in healthy animals leading to an activation of encephalitogenic T cells despite the induction of immune tolerance in the thymus including thymically produced (t)Treg cells. In contrast, neuroinflammation can be ameliorated or even completely prevented by the antigen-specific Treg cells formed extrathymically in the peripheral immune system (pTreg cells) during tolerogenic responses to relevant neuronal antigens. This review discusses the specific roles of Treg cells in blocking neuroinflammation, examines the impact of peripheral tolerance and dendritic cells on a relevant regulation of neuroinflammation, and explores some of the most recent advances in elucidation of specific mechanisms of the conversion and function of pTreg cells including the roles of CD5 and Hopx in these processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Jones
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Daniel Hawiger
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
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227
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Angerami MT, Suarez GV, Vecchione MB, Laufer N, Ameri D, Ben G, Perez H, Sued O, Salomón H, Quiroga MF. Expansion of CD25-Negative Forkhead Box P3-Positive T Cells during HIV and Mycobacterium tuberculosis Infection. Front Immunol 2017; 8:528. [PMID: 28536578 PMCID: PMC5422469 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2017.00528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2016] [Accepted: 04/19/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB) and HIV alter the immune system, and coinfected (HIV-TB) individuals usually present deregulations of T-lymphocytic immune response. We previously observed an increased frequency of “unconventional” CD4+CD25−FoxP3+ Treg (uTreg) population during HIV-TB disease. Therefore, we aimed to explore the phenotype and function of uTreg and conventional CD4+CD25+FoxP3+ Treg subsets (cTreg) in this context. We evaluated the expression of CD39, programmed cell death protein 1 (PD1), glucocorticoid-induced tumor necrosis factor receptor (GITR), and the effector/memory distribution by flow cytometry in cTreg and uTreg. Also, IL-10, TGF-β, IFN-γ production, and the suppressor capacity of uTregs were analyzed in cocultures with effector lymphocytes and compared with the effect of regulatory T cells (Tregs). We found diminished expression of CD39 and higher levels of PD1 on uTreg compared to cTreg in both HIV-TB and healthy donors (HD). In addition, uTreg and cTreg showed differences in maturation status in both HIV-TB and HD groups, due to the expansion of effector memory uTregs. Interestingly, both HIV-TB and HD showed a pronounced production of IFN-γ in uTreg population, though no significant differences were observed for IL-10 and TGF-β production between uTreg and cTreg. Moreover, IFN-γ+ cells were restricted to the CD39− uTreg population. Finally, when the suppressor capacity was evaluated, both uTreg and cTreg inhibited polyclonal T cell-proliferation and IFN-γ production in a similar extent. These findings suggest that uTregs, which are expanded during HIV-TB coinfection, exert regulatory functions in a similar way to cTregs despite an altered surface expression of Treg characteristic markers and differences in cytokine production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matías T Angerami
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas en Retrovirus y Sida (INBIRS), Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Guadalupe V Suarez
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas en Retrovirus y Sida (INBIRS), Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - María B Vecchione
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas en Retrovirus y Sida (INBIRS), Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Natalia Laufer
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas en Retrovirus y Sida (INBIRS), Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Diego Ameri
- Hospital Juan A. Fernández, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Graciela Ben
- Hospital Juan A. Fernández, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Hector Perez
- Hospital Juan A. Fernández, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Omar Sued
- Área de Investigaciones Médicas, Fundación Huésped, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Horacio Salomón
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas en Retrovirus y Sida (INBIRS), Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - María F Quiroga
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas en Retrovirus y Sida (INBIRS), Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
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228
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Okada M, Kanamori M, Someya K, Nakatsukasa H, Yoshimura A. Stabilization of Foxp3 expression by CRISPR-dCas9-based epigenome editing in mouse primary T cells. Epigenetics Chromatin 2017; 10:24. [PMID: 28503202 PMCID: PMC5422987 DOI: 10.1186/s13072-017-0129-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2016] [Accepted: 04/26/2017] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Epigenome editing is expected to manipulate transcription and cell fates and to elucidate the gene expression mechanisms in various cell types. For functional epigenome editing, assessing the chromatin context-dependent activity of artificial epigenetic modifier is required. Results In this study, we applied clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)-dCas9-based epigenome editing to mouse primary T cells, focusing on the Forkhead box P3 (Foxp3) gene locus, a master transcription factor of regulatory T cells (Tregs). The Foxp3 gene locus is regulated by combinatorial epigenetic modifications, which determine the Foxp3 expression. Foxp3 expression is unstable in transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β)-induced Tregs (iTregs), while stable in thymus-derived Tregs (tTregs). To stabilize Foxp3 expression in iTregs, we introduced dCas9-TET1CD (dCas9 fused to the catalytic domain (CD) of ten-eleven translocation dioxygenase 1 (TET1), methylcytosine dioxygenase) and dCas9-p300CD (dCas9 fused to the CD of p300, histone acetyltransferase) with guide RNAs (gRNAs) targeted to the Foxp3 gene locus. Although dCas9-TET1CD induced partial demethylation in enhancer region called conserved non-coding DNA sequences 2 (CNS2), robust Foxp3 stabilization was not observed. In contrast, dCas9-p300CD targeted to the promoter locus partly maintained Foxp3 transcription in cultured and primary T cells even under inflammatory conditions in vitro. Furthermore, dCas9-p300CD promoted expression of Treg signature genes and enhanced suppression activity in vitro. Conclusions Our results showed that artificial epigenome editing modified the epigenetic status and gene expression of the targeted loci, and engineered cellular functions in conjunction with endogenous epigenetic modification, suggesting effective usage of these technologies, which help elucidate the relationship between chromatin states and gene expression. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13072-017-0129-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masahiro Okada
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Keio University School of Medicine, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8582 Japan
| | - Mitsuhiro Kanamori
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Keio University School of Medicine, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8582 Japan
| | - Kazue Someya
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Keio University School of Medicine, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8582 Japan
| | - Hiroko Nakatsukasa
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Keio University School of Medicine, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8582 Japan
| | - Akihiko Yoshimura
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Keio University School of Medicine, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8582 Japan
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229
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Amarnath S, Laurence A, Zhu N, Cunha R, Eckhaus MA, Taylor S, Foley JE, Ghosh M, Felizardo TC, Fowler DH. Tbet is a critical modulator of FoxP3 expression in autoimmune graft- versus-host disease. Haematologica 2017; 102:1446-1456. [PMID: 28473623 PMCID: PMC5541878 DOI: 10.3324/haematol.2016.155879] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2016] [Accepted: 05/03/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
CD4+ T-helper subsets drive autoimmune chronic graft-versus-host disease, a major complication after allogeneic bone marrow transplantation. However, it remains unclear how specific T-helper subsets contribute to chronic graft-versus-host disease. T-helper type 1 cells are one of the major disease-mediating T-cell subsets and require interferon-γ signaling and Tbet expression for their function. Regulatory T cells on the other hand can inhibit T-helper type 1 cell-mediated responses. Using an established murine model that isolates the autoimmune component of graft-versus-host disease, we hypothesized that T-helper type 1 cells would restrict FoxP3-driven regulatory T cells. Upon transfer into immune-deficient syngeneic hosts, alloreactive Tbx21−/−CD4+ T cells led to marked increases in FoxP3+ cells and reduced clinical evidence of autoimmunity. To evaluate whether peripheral induction contributed to regulatory T-cell predominance, we adoptively transferred Tbx21−/− T cells that consisted of fate mapping for FoxP3: recipients of flow-purified effector cells that were Foxp3− and Tbx21−/− had enhanced T-regulatory-cell predominance during autoimmune graft-versus-host disease. These data directly demonstrated that peripheral T-regulatory-cell induction was inhibited by Tbet. Finally, Tbx21−/− T-regulatory cells cross-regulated autoimmune wild-type T-effector-cell cytokine production in vivo. The Tbet pathway therefore directly impairs T-regulatory-cell reconstitution and is consequently a feasible target in efforts to prevent autoimmune graft-versus-host disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shoba Amarnath
- Institute of Cellular Medicine, Newcastle University, Newcastle Upon Tyne, UK, USA
| | - Arian Laurence
- Institute of Cellular Medicine, Newcastle University, Newcastle Upon Tyne, UK, USA
| | - Nathaniel Zhu
- Experimental Transplantation Immunology Branch, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Renato Cunha
- Experimental Transplantation Immunology Branch, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Michael A Eckhaus
- Division of Veterinary Resources, Office of Research Services, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Samuel Taylor
- Experimental Transplantation Immunology Branch, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Jason E Foley
- Experimental Transplantation Immunology Branch, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Monalisa Ghosh
- Experimental Transplantation Immunology Branch, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Tania C Felizardo
- Experimental Transplantation Immunology Branch, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Daniel H Fowler
- Experimental Transplantation Immunology Branch, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
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230
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Duurland CL, Brown CC, O'Shaughnessy RFL, Wedderburn LR. CD161 + Tconv and CD161 + Treg Share a Transcriptional and Functional Phenotype despite Limited Overlap in TCRβ Repertoire. Front Immunol 2017; 8:103. [PMID: 28321213 PMCID: PMC5337494 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2017.00103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2016] [Accepted: 01/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Human regulatory T cells (Treg) are important in immune regulation, but can also show plasticity in specific settings. CD161 is a lectin-like receptor and its expression identifies an effector-like Treg population. Here, we determined how CD161+ Treg relate to CD161+ conventional T cells (Tconv). Transcriptional profiling identified a shared transcriptional signature between CD161+ Tconv and CD161+ Treg, which is associated with T helper (Th)1 and Th17 cells, and tissue homing, including high expression of gut-homing receptors. Upon retinoic acid (RA) exposure, CD161+ T cells were more enriched for CCR9+ and integrin α4+β7+ cells than CD161- T cells. In addition, CD161+ Tconv and CD161+ Treg were enriched at the inflamed site in autoimmune arthritis, and both CD161+ and CD161- Treg from the inflamed site were suppressive in vitro. CD161+ T cells from the site of autoimmune arthritis showed a diminished gut-homing phenotype and blunted response to RA suggesting prior imprinting by RA in the gut or at peripheral sites rather than during synovial inflammation. TCRβ repertoires of CD161+ and CD161- Tconv and Treg from blood showed limited overlap whereas there was clear overlap between CD161+ and CD161- Tconv, and CD161+ and CD161- Treg from the inflamed site suggesting that the inflamed environment may alter CD161 levels, potentially contributing to disease pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chantal L Duurland
- Infection, Inflammation and Rheumatology Section, Infection, Immunity and Inflammation Programme, UCL Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, University College London (UCL) , London , UK
| | - Chrysothemis C Brown
- Infection, Inflammation and Rheumatology Section, Infection, Immunity and Inflammation Programme, UCL Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, University College London (UCL) , London , UK
| | - Ryan F L O'Shaughnessy
- Immunobiology Section, Infection, Immunity and Inflammation Programme, UCL Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, University College London (UCL) , London , UK
| | - Lucy R Wedderburn
- Infection, Inflammation and Rheumatology Section, Infection, Immunity and Inflammation Programme, UCL Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, University College London (UCL), London, UK; Arthritis Research UK Centre for Adolescent Rheumatology, UCL Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, University College London (UCL), London, UK; UK National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) GOSH Biomedical Research Centre, London, UK
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231
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Liu ZZ, Sun GQ, Hu XH, Kwak-Kim J, Liao AH. The transdifferentiation of regulatory T and Th17 cells in autoimmune/inflammatory diseases and its potential implications in pregnancy complications. Am J Reprod Immunol 2017; 78. [DOI: 10.1111/aji.12657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2016] [Accepted: 01/31/2017] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Zhao-Zhao Liu
- Family Planning Research Institute; Center for Reproductive Medicine; Tongji Medical College; Huazhong University of Science and Technology; Wuhan China
| | - Guo-Qiang Sun
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology; Maternal and Child Health Hospital of Hubei Province; Wuhan China
| | - Xiao-Hui Hu
- Family Planning Research Institute; Center for Reproductive Medicine; Tongji Medical College; Huazhong University of Science and Technology; Wuhan China
| | - Joanne Kwak-Kim
- Reproductive Medicine; Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology; Department of Microbiology and Immunology; Chicago Medical School at Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science; Vernon Hills IL USA
| | - Ai-Hua Liao
- Family Planning Research Institute; Center for Reproductive Medicine; Tongji Medical College; Huazhong University of Science and Technology; Wuhan China
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232
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Local Delivery of the Toll-Like Receptor 9 Ligand CpG Downregulates Host Immune and Inflammatory Responses, Ameliorating Established Leishmania (Viannia) panamensis Chronic Infection. Infect Immun 2017; 85:IAI.00981-16. [PMID: 28052994 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00981-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2016] [Accepted: 12/26/2016] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Infection by Leishmania (Viannia) panamensis, the predominant etiologic agent for cutaneous leishmaniasis in Colombia, is characterized by a chronic mixed inflammatory response. Current treatment options are plagued by toxicity, lengthy treatment regimens, and growing evidence of drug resistance. Immunotherapy, modulating the immune system to mount a protective response, may provide an alternate therapeutic approach. We investigated the ability of the Toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9) ligand CpG to modulate established disease in the L (V) panamensis mouse model. Treatment of established infection with a high dose (50 μg) of CpG ameliorated disease and lowered parasite burden. Interestingly, immediately after treatment there was a significant increase in transforming growth factor β (TGF-β) and concomitantly an increase in T regulatory cell (Treg) function. Although a general reduction in cell-mediated immune cytokine and chemokine (gamma interferon [IFN-γ], interleukin 10 [IL-10], IL-13, IL-6, granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor [GM-CSF], IL-4, and MIP-1α) responses of the treated mice was observed, certain chemokines (RANTES, monocyte chemoattractant protein 1[MCP-1], and IP-10) were increased. Further, in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from patients with cutaneous leishmaniasis, CpG treatment similarly exhibited a dose-response effect on the production of IFN-γ, IL-17, IL-10, and IL-13, with reductions observed at higher doses. To further understand the underlying mechanisms and cell populations driving the CpG mediated response, we examined the ex vivo dose effects mediated by the TLR9+ cell populations (dendritic cells, macrophages, and B cells) found to accumulate labeled CpG in vivo Notably, B cells altered the production of IL-17, IL-13, and IFN-γ, supporting a role for B cells functioning as antigen-presenting cells (APCs) and/or regulatory cells during infection. Interestingly, B cells have been previously demonstrated as a primary type of APC in patients infected with L (V) panamensis and thus may be useful targets of immunotherapy. Collectively, our results show that CpG-induced immune regulation leads to a dampening of the host immune response and healing in the mouse model, and it may provide an alternate approach to treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis caused by L (V) panamensis.
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233
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IL‐10‐producing, ST2‐expressing Foxp3
+
T cells in multiple sclerosis brain lesions. Immunol Cell Biol 2017; 95:484-490. [DOI: 10.1038/icb.2017.3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2016] [Revised: 12/19/2016] [Accepted: 12/27/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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234
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Terzieva VI, Popova DN, Elenkov II. IFN-γ Attenuates Spontaneous Lymphocyte Proliferation by Fuelling Regulatory T Cells in HIV-1-Infected Patients. Viral Immunol 2017; 30:157-166. [PMID: 28051930 DOI: 10.1089/vim.2016.0075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
HIV infection is characterized by a high degree of immune activation. It has an impact on CD4 cell count and populations' distribution and function. T regulatory cells (Tregs) were found to play a controversial role in the course of infection because of their beneficial effect on the degree of immune activation and unfavorable influence on the antigen-specific responses. The goal of the present work was to study the relationship among interferon-γ (IFN-γ), spontaneous lymphocyte proliferation, and regulatory T cells in HIV patients receiving therapy. Three lymphocyte populations, isolated after a stepwise magnetic separation from 17 individuals, were investigated-peripheral blood lymphocytes, CD4+CD45RA- (CD4+TM), and CD4+CD45RA-CD25- (TMCD25depl.) cells. The spontaneous, phytohemagglutinin (PHA) and HIV-1p24Ag-stimulated IFN-γ production and the spontaneous lymphocyte proliferation were evaluated. The potential of Tregs to establish a productive infection was determined by measurement of free HIV-1p24 antigen. Two types of constellations among subsets were found. In the first one (in 11 subjects), the spontaneous INF-γ inversely correlated with the spontaneous proliferation in all fractions (r = -0.9, p < 0.001). Conversely, in the second group (six subjects), no associations between the selected parameters were observed. The overall increase in p24-stimulated IFN-γ from TMCD25depl. cells was weak. Four samples: one in Tregs and three in TMCD25depl. cells were positive for the free p24 antigen. No association with the CD4+ T cell count, percentage of Tregs, and stage of infection was determined. In conclusion, our results demonstrate that IFN-γ could impact the proliferative capacity of non-Treg cells by fuelling Tregs. Furthermore, Tregs may control the spontaneous lymphocyte proliferation, but are less powerful in the suppression of Ag-specific IFN-γ production from non-Treg lymphocytes. The direct viral influence on Treg functions should be also considered.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Ivaylo I Elenkov
- 3 Hospital for Infectious Diseases "Prof. I. Kirov ," Sofia, Bulgaria
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235
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Jörg S, Grohme DA, Erzler M, Binsfeld M, Haghikia A, Müller DN, Linker RA, Kleinewietfeld M. Environmental factors in autoimmune diseases and their role in multiple sclerosis. Cell Mol Life Sci 2016; 73:4611-4622. [PMID: 27491297 PMCID: PMC5097114 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-016-2311-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2016] [Revised: 07/04/2016] [Accepted: 07/18/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
An increase in autoimmune diseases poses a socioeconomic challenge worldwide. Predisposing genetic risk has been identified, yet environmental factors make up a significant part of the risk in disease initiation and propagation. Next to improved hygiene and a gross reduction of infections, changes in dietary habits are one of the most evident Western lifestyle factors potentially associated with the increase in autoimmune diseases. Growing evidence suggests that particularly a typical 'Western diet', rich in saturated fat and salt and related pathologies can have a profound impact on local and systemic immune responses under physiologic and autoimmune conditions such as in multiple sclerosis (MS). In this review, we discuss recent findings on environmental factors influencing autoimmunity with an emphasis on the impact of 'Western diet' on immune homeostasis and gut microbiota in MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefanie Jörg
- University Hospital Erlangen at the Friedrich-Alexander-University (FAU) Erlangen-Nuremberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Diana A Grohme
- Translational Immunology, Department of Clinical Pathobiochemistry, Medical Faculty Carl Gustav Carus, TU Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Melanie Erzler
- Translational Immunology, Department of Clinical Pathobiochemistry, Medical Faculty Carl Gustav Carus, TU Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Marilene Binsfeld
- VIB Laboratory of Translational Immunomodulation & Hasselt University, Diepenbeek, Belgium
| | - Aiden Haghikia
- Department of Neurology, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Dominik N Müller
- Experimental and Clinical Research Center, An Institutional Cooperation Between the Charité Medical Faculty and the Max-Delbruck Center for Molecular Medicine, Berlin, Germany
| | - Ralf A Linker
- University Hospital Erlangen at the Friedrich-Alexander-University (FAU) Erlangen-Nuremberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Markus Kleinewietfeld
- Translational Immunology, Department of Clinical Pathobiochemistry, Medical Faculty Carl Gustav Carus, TU Dresden, Dresden, Germany.
- Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden (CRTD), Dresden, Germany.
- VIB Laboratory of Translational Immunomodulation & Hasselt University, Diepenbeek, Belgium.
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236
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USP21 prevents the generation of T-helper-1-like Treg cells. Nat Commun 2016; 7:13559. [PMID: 27857073 PMCID: PMC5120220 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms13559] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2016] [Accepted: 10/14/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
FOXP3+ Regulatory T (Treg) cells play a key role in the maintenance of immune homeostasis and tolerance. Disruption of Foxp3 expression results in the generation of instable Treg cells and acquisition of effector T-cell-like function. Here we report that the E3 deubiquitinase USP21 prevents the depletion of FOXP3 at the protein level and restricts the generation of T-helper-1-like Treg cells. Mice depleted of Usp21 specifically in Treg cells display immune disorders characterized by spontaneous T-cell activation and excessive T-helper type 1 (Th1) skewing of Treg cells into Th1-like Treg cells. USP21 stabilizes FOXP3 protein by mediating its deubiquitination and maintains the expression of Treg signature genes. Our results demonstrate how USP21 prevents FOXP3 protein depletion and controls Treg lineage stability in vivo. The immunosuppressive role of regulatory T (Treg) cells largely depends on their virtue of expressing the transcription factor FOXP3. Here the authors show that the E3 deubiquitinase USP21 stabilizes FOXP3 by mediating its deubiquitination and helps to maintain the expression of Treg signature genes and Treg lineage stability in mice.
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237
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Hirsch CS, Baseke J, Kafuluma JL, Nserko M, Mayanja-Kizza H, Toossi Z. Expansion and productive HIV-1 infection of Foxp3 positive CD4 T cells at pleural sites of HIV/TB co-infection. JOURNAL OF CLINICAL & EXPERIMENTAL IMMUNOLOGY 2016; 1:http://www.opastonline.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/expansion-and-productive-hiv-1-infection-of-foxp3-positive-cd4-t-cells-at-pleural-sites-of-hivtb-co-infection-jcei-16-007.pdf. [PMID: 28124031 PMCID: PMC5258182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND CD4 T-cells expressing Foxp3 are expanded systemically during active tuberculosis (TB) regardless of HIV-1 co-infection. Foxp3+ CD4 T cells are targets of HIV-1 infection. However, expansion of HIV-1 infected Foxp3+ CD4 T cells at sites of HIV/TB co-infection, and whether they contribute to promotion of HIV-1 viral activity is not known. METHODS Pleural fluid mononuclear cells (PFMC) from HIV/TB co-infected patients with pleural TB were characterized by immune-staining and FACS analysis for surface markers CD4, CD127, CCR5, CXCR4, HLA-DR and intracellular expression of Foxp3, HIVp24, IFN-γ and Bcl-2. Whole PFMC and bead separated CD4+CD25+CD127- T cells were assessed for HIV-1 LTR strong stop (SS) DNA by real-time PCR, which represents viral DNA post cell entry and initiation of reverse transcription. RESULTS High numbers of HIV-1 p24 positive Foxp3+ and Foxp3+CD127- CD4 T cells were identified in PFMC from HIV/TB co-infected subjects. CD4+Foxp3+CD127- T cells displayed high expression of the cellular activation marker, HLA-DR. Further, expression of the HIV-1 co-receptors, CCR5 and CXCR4, were higher on CD4+Foxp3+T cells compared to CD4+Foxp3- T cells. Purified CD4+CD25+CD127- T cells isolated from PFMC of HIV/TB co-infected patients, were over 90% CD4+Foxp3+T cells, and exhibited higher HIV-1 SS DNA as compared to whole PFMC, and as compared to CD4+CD25+CD127- T cells from an HIV-infected subject with pleural mesothelioma. HIV-1 p24+ Foxp3+ CD4+T cells from HIV/TB patients higher in Bcl-2 expression as compared to both HIV-1 p24+ Foxp3- CD4 T cells, and Foxp3+ CD4+T cells without HIV-p24 expression. CONCLUSION Foxp3+ CD4 T cells in PFMC from HIV/TB co-infected subjects are predisposed to productive HIV-1 infection and have survival advantage as compared to Foxp3 negative CD4 T cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina S Hirsch
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland OH
| | - Joy Baseke
- Joint Clinical Research Center, Kampala, Uganda
| | - John Lusiba Kafuluma
- Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda, National Tuberculosis and Leprosy Program, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Mary Nserko
- Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda, National Tuberculosis and Leprosy Program, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Harriet Mayanja-Kizza
- Joint Clinical Research Center, Kampala, Uganda
- Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda, National Tuberculosis and Leprosy Program, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Zahra Toossi
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland OH
- Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Cleveland, OH
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Trojan K, Unterrainer C, Aly M, Zhu L, Weimer R, Bulut N, Morath C, Opelz G, Daniel V. IFNy+ and IFNy- Treg subsets with stable and unstable Foxp3 expression in kidney transplant recipients with good long-term graft function. Transpl Immunol 2016; 39:S0966-3274(16)30124-1. [PMID: 27989714 DOI: 10.1016/j.trim.2016.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2016] [Revised: 10/25/2016] [Accepted: 10/27/2016] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Treg are a heterogenous cell population. In the present study we attempted to identify Treg subsets that might contribute to stable and good long-term graft function. METHOD Lymphocyte and Treg subsets were studied in 136 kidney transplant recipients with good long-term graft function and in 52 healthy control individuals using eight-color-fluorescence flow cytometry. Foxp3 TSDR methylation status was investigated in enriched IFNy+ and IFNy- Treg preparations using high resolution melt analysis. RESULTS Compared with healthy controls, patients showed strong associations of IFNy secreting Helios+ and Helios- Treg with Treg that co-expressed perforin and/or CTLA4 (CD152; p<0.01). Moreover they showed associations of IFNy-Helios+ Treg with Treg that produced TGFβ and/or perforin and of IFNy-Helios- Treg with TGFβ production (all p<0.01). Only in patients, but not in healthy controls, were IFNy- Helios+ and Helios- Treg associated with higher CD45+, CD3+, (CD4+), CD19+ lymphocyte counts (p<0.001). In addition IFNy-Helios+ Treg were associated with CD16+56+ lymphocytes (p<0.001). Enriched IFNy- Treg from female but not male patients showed an association of Foxp3 methylation with higher total Treg and higher Helios+IFNy-, CXCR3+Lselectin+ (CD183+CD62L+), CXCR3-Lselectin+ and CD28+HLADR+ Treg subsets (p<0.01). Enriched IFNy+ Treg from male patients showed an association of demethylated Foxp3 with total Treg and IL10-TFGβ+ Treg counts, and in enriched IFNy- Treg an association of methylated Foxp3 with APO1/FasR+FasL+ (CD95+CD178+) Treg (p<0.01). CONCLUSIONS Kidney recipients with good long-term graft function possess IFNy+ and IFNy- Treg with stable and unstable Foxp3 expression in the blood. They co-express CD28, HLADR, CTLA4, CXCR3, Lselectin, TGFβ, perforin and FasL and might contribute to the establishment and maintenance of good long-term graft function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karina Trojan
- Transplantation-Immunology, Institute of Immunology, University Hospital Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 305, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany.
| | - Christian Unterrainer
- Transplantation-Immunology, Institute of Immunology, University Hospital Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 305, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany.
| | - Mostafa Aly
- Transplantation-Immunology, Institute of Immunology, University Hospital Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 305, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany.
| | - Li Zhu
- Transplantation-Immunology, Institute of Immunology, University Hospital Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 305, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany.
| | - Rolf Weimer
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Giessen, Klinikstrasse 33, D-35385 Giessen, Germany.
| | - Nuray Bulut
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Giessen, Klinikstrasse 33, D-35385 Giessen, Germany.
| | - Christian Morath
- Department of Nephrology, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany.
| | - Gerhard Opelz
- Transplantation-Immunology, Institute of Immunology, University Hospital Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 305, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany.
| | - Volker Daniel
- Transplantation-Immunology, Institute of Immunology, University Hospital Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 305, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany.
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239
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The emergence of neuroepidemiology, neurovirology and neuroimmunology: the legacies of John F. Kurtzke and Richard ‘Dick’ T. Johnson. J Neurol 2016; 264:817-828. [DOI: 10.1007/s00415-016-8293-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2016] [Revised: 09/19/2016] [Accepted: 09/20/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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240
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Metabolic control of immune tolerance in health and autoimmunity. Semin Immunol 2016; 28:491-504. [PMID: 27720234 DOI: 10.1016/j.smim.2016.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2016] [Revised: 09/23/2016] [Accepted: 09/30/2016] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The filed that links immunity and metabolism is rapidly expanding. The adipose tissue, by secreting a series of immune regulators called adipokines, represents the common mediator linking metabolic processes and immune system functions. The dysregulation of adipokine secretion, occurring in obese individuals or in conditions of malnutrition or dietary restriction, affects the activity of immune cells resulting in inflammatory autoimmune responses or increased susceptibility to infectious diseases. Alterations of cell metabolism that characterize several autoimmune diseases strongly support the idea that the immune tolerance is also regulated by metabolic pathways. The comprehension of the molecular mechanisms underlying these alterations may lead to the development of novel therapeutic strategies to control immune cell differentiation and function in conditions of autoimmunity.
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241
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Cantaert T, Schickel JN, Bannock JM, Ng YS, Massad C, Delmotte FR, Yamakawa N, Glauzy S, Chamberlain N, Kinnunen T, Menard L, Lavoie A, Walter JE, Notarangelo LD, Bruneau J, Al-Herz W, Kilic SS, Ochs HD, Cunningham-Rundles C, van der Burg M, Kuijpers TW, Kracker S, Kaneko H, Sekinaka Y, Nonoyama S, Durandy A, Meffre E. Decreased somatic hypermutation induces an impaired peripheral B cell tolerance checkpoint. J Clin Invest 2016; 126:4289-4302. [PMID: 27701145 DOI: 10.1172/jci84645] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2015] [Accepted: 08/30/2016] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Patients with mutations in AICDA, which encodes activation-induced cytidine deaminase (AID), display an impaired peripheral B cell tolerance. AID mediates class-switch recombination (CSR) and somatic hypermutation (SHM) in B cells, but the mechanism by which AID prevents the accumulation of autoreactive B cells in blood is unclear. Here, we analyzed B cell tolerance in AID-deficient patients, patients with autosomal dominant AID mutations (AD-AID), asymptomatic AICDA heterozygotes (AID+/-), and patients with uracil N-glycosylase (UNG) deficiency, which impairs CSR but not SHM. The low frequency of autoreactive mature naive B cells in UNG-deficient patients resembled that of healthy subjects, revealing that impaired CSR does not interfere with the peripheral B cell tolerance checkpoint. In contrast, we observed decreased frequencies of SHM in memory B cells from AD-AID patients and AID+/- subjects, who were unable to prevent the accumulation of autoreactive mature naive B cells. In addition, the individuals with AICDA mutations, but not UNG-deficient patients, displayed Tregs with defective suppressive capacity that correlated with increases in circulating T follicular helper cells and enhanced cytokine production. We conclude that SHM, but not CSR, regulates peripheral B cell tolerance through the production of mutated antibodies that clear antigens and prevent sustained interleukin secretions that interfere with Treg function.
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242
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Massoud AH, Charbonnier LM, Lopez D, Pellegrini M, Phipatanakul W, Chatila TA. An asthma-associated IL4R variant exacerbates airway inflammation by promoting conversion of regulatory T cells to TH17-like cells. Nat Med 2016; 22:1013-22. [PMID: 27479084 PMCID: PMC5014738 DOI: 10.1038/nm.4147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2016] [Accepted: 06/15/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Mechanisms by which regulatory T (Treg) cells fail to control inflammation in asthma remain poorly understood. We show that a severe asthma-associated polymorphism in the gene encoding the interleukin (IL)-4 receptor alpha chain (Il4ra(R576)) promotes conversion of induced Treg (iTreg) cells toward a T helper 17 (TH17) cell fate. This skewing is mediated by the recruitment by IL-4Rα(R576) of the growth-factor-receptor-bound protein 2 (GRB2) adaptor protein, which drives IL-17 expression by activating a pathway that involves extracellular-signal-regulated kinase, IL-6 and the transcription factor STAT3. Treg cell-specific deletion of genes that regulate TH17 cell differentiation, including Il6ra and RAR-related orphan receptor gamma (Rorc), but not of Il4 or Il13, prevented exacerbated airway inflammation in mice expressing Il4ra(R576) (hereafter referred to as Il4ra(R576) mice). Furthermore, treatment of Il4ra(R576) mice with a neutralizing IL-6-specific antibody prevented iTreg cell reprogramming into TH17-like cells and protected against severe airway inflammation. These findings identify a previously unknown mechanism for the development of mixed TH2-TH17 cell inflammation in genetically prone individuals and point to interventions that stabilize iTreg cells as potentially effective therapeutic strategies.
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MESH Headings
- Adolescent
- Adult
- Animals
- Antibodies, Neutralizing/pharmacology
- Asthma/genetics
- Asthma/immunology
- Case-Control Studies
- Cell Differentiation/drug effects
- Cell Differentiation/immunology
- Child
- Disease Models, Animal
- Female
- Flow Cytometry
- GRB2 Adaptor Protein/immunology
- Gene Expression Profiling
- Humans
- Immunoblotting
- Immunoprecipitation
- Inflammation/immunology
- Interleukin-13/immunology
- Interleukin-17/immunology
- Interleukin-4 Receptor alpha Subunit/genetics
- Interleukin-4 Receptor alpha Subunit/immunology
- Interleukin-6/immunology
- Lung/immunology
- Male
- Mice
- Middle Aged
- Nuclear Receptor Subfamily 1, Group F, Member 3/genetics
- Nuclear Receptor Subfamily 1, Group F, Member 3/immunology
- Polymorphism, Genetic
- Real-Time Polymerase Chain Reaction
- Receptors, Cell Surface/genetics
- Receptors, Interleukin-6/genetics
- Receptors, Interleukin-6/immunology
- Respiratory Hypersensitivity/immunology
- Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction
- STAT3 Transcription Factor/immunology
- T-Lymphocytes, Regulatory/drug effects
- T-Lymphocytes, Regulatory/immunology
- Th17 Cells/drug effects
- Th17 Cells/immunology
- Young Adult
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Affiliation(s)
- Amir Hossein Massoud
- Division of Immunology, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Louis-Marie Charbonnier
- Division of Immunology, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - David Lopez
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Matteo Pellegrini
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Wanda Phipatanakul
- Division of Immunology, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Talal A Chatila
- Division of Immunology, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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243
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Laroni A, Armentani E, Kerlero de Rosbo N, Ivaldi F, Marcenaro E, Sivori S, Gandhi R, Weiner HL, Moretta A, Mancardi GL, Uccelli A. Dysregulation of regulatory CD56 bright NK cells/T cells interactions in multiple sclerosis. J Autoimmun 2016; 72:8-18. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jaut.2016.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2016] [Revised: 04/15/2016] [Accepted: 04/19/2016] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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244
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Kavrochorianou N, Markogiannaki M, Haralambous S. IFN-β differentially regulates the function of T cell subsets in MS and EAE. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev 2016; 30:47-54. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cytogfr.2016.03.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2016] [Accepted: 03/21/2016] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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245
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Clinical potential of DNA methylation in organ transplantation. J Heart Lung Transplant 2016; 35:843-50. [DOI: 10.1016/j.healun.2016.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2015] [Revised: 02/18/2016] [Accepted: 02/26/2016] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
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246
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Kitz A, de Marcken M, Gautron AS, Mitrovic M, Hafler DA, Dominguez-Villar M. AKT isoforms modulate Th1-like Treg generation and function in human autoimmune disease. EMBO Rep 2016; 17:1169-83. [PMID: 27312110 DOI: 10.15252/embr.201541905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2015] [Accepted: 05/13/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Foxp3(+) regulatory T cells (Tregs) exhibit plasticity, which dictates their function. Secretion of the inflammatory cytokine IFNγ, together with the acquisition of a T helper 1 (Th1)-like effector phenotype as observed in cancer, infection, and autoimmune diseases, is associated with loss of Treg suppressor function through an unknown mechanism. Here, we describe the signaling events driving the generation of human Th1-Tregs. Using a genome-wide gene expression approach and pathway analysis, we identify the PI3K/AKT/Foxo1/3 signaling cascade as the major pathway involved in IFNγ secretion by human Tregs. Furthermore, we describe the opposing roles of AKT isoforms in Th1-Treg generation ex vivo Finally, we employ multiple sclerosis as an in vivo model with increased but functionally defective Th1-Tregs. We show that the PI3K/AKT/Foxo1/3 pathway is activated in ex vivo-isolated Tregs from untreated relapsing-remitting MS patients and that blockade of the pathway inhibits IFNγ secretion and restores the immune suppressive function of Tregs. These data define a fundamental pathway regulating the function of human Tregs and suggest a novel treatment paradigm for autoimmune diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Kitz
- Departments of Neurology and Immunobiology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Marine de Marcken
- Departments of Neurology and Immunobiology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Anne-Sophie Gautron
- Departments of Neurology and Immunobiology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Mitja Mitrovic
- Departments of Neurology and Immunobiology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - David A Hafler
- Departments of Neurology and Immunobiology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
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247
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Nosko A, Kluger MA, Diefenhardt P, Melderis S, Wegscheid C, Tiegs G, Stahl RAK, Panzer U, Steinmetz OM. T-Bet Enhances Regulatory T Cell Fitness and Directs Control of Th1 Responses in Crescentic GN. J Am Soc Nephrol 2016; 28:185-196. [PMID: 27297951 DOI: 10.1681/asn.2015070820] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2015] [Accepted: 04/05/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Th1 cells are central pathogenic mediators of crescentic GN (cGN). Mechanisms responsible for Th1 cell downregulation, however, remain widely unknown. Recently, it was proposed that activation of the Th1-characteristic transcription factor T-bet optimizes Foxp3+ regulatory T (Treg) cells to counteract Th1-type inflammation. Because very little is known about the role of T-bet+ Treg1 cells in inflammatory diseases, we studied the function of these cells in the nephrotoxic nephritis (NTN) model of cGN. The percentage of Treg1 cells progressively increased in kidneys of nephritic wild-type mice during the course of NTN, indicating their functional importance. Notably, naïve Foxp3CrexT-betfl/fl mice, lacking Treg1 cells, showed spontaneous skewing toward Th1 immunity. Furthermore, absence of Treg1 cells resulted in aggravated NTN with selectively dysregulated renal and systemic Th1 responses. Detailed analyses of Treg cells from Foxp3CrexT-betfl/fl mice revealed unaltered cytokine production and suppressive capacity. However, in competitive cotransfer experiments, wild-type Treg cells outcompeted T-bet-deficient Treg cells in terms of population expansion and expression levels of Foxp3, indicating that T-bet expression is crucial for general Treg fitness. Additionally, T-bet-deficient Treg cells lacked expression of the Th1-characteristic trafficking receptor CXCR3, which correlated with significant impairment of renal Treg infiltration. In summary, our data indicate a new subtype of Treg cells in cGN. These Treg1 cells are characterized by activation of the transcription factor T-bet, which enhances the overall fitness of these cells and optimizes their capacity to downregulate Th1 responses by inducing chemokine receptor CXCR3 expression.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Claudia Wegscheid
- Institut für experimentelle Immunologie und Hepatologie, Universitätsklinikum Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Gisa Tiegs
- Institut für experimentelle Immunologie und Hepatologie, Universitätsklinikum Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
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248
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Keil M, Sonner JK, Lanz TV, Oezen I, Bunse T, Bittner S, Meyer HV, Meuth SG, Wick W, Platten M. General control non-derepressible 2 (GCN2) in T cells controls disease progression of autoimmune neuroinflammation. J Neuroimmunol 2016; 297:117-26. [PMID: 27397084 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2016.05.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2016] [Revised: 05/17/2016] [Accepted: 05/19/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (MS)(2) is characterized by phases of acute neuroinflammation followed by spontaneous remission. Termination of inflammation is accompanied by an influx of regulatory T cells (Tregs).(3) The molecular mechanisms responsible for directing Tregs into the inflamed CNS tissue, however, are incompletely understood. In an MS mouse model we show that the stress kinase general control non-derepressible 2 (GCN2),(4) expressed in T cells, contributes to the resolution of autoimmune neuroinflammation. Failure to recover from acute inflammation was associated with reduced frequencies of CNS-infiltrating Tregs. GCN2 deficient Tregs displayed impaired migration to a CCL2 gradient. These data suggest an important contribution of the T cell stress response to the resolution of autoimmune neuroinflammation.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Annexin A5/metabolism
- Astrocytes/metabolism
- Brain/cytology
- Cell Movement/physiology
- Cytokines/metabolism
- Cytokines/pharmacology
- Disease Models, Animal
- Disease Progression
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/immunology
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/physiopathology
- Endothelial Cells/physiology
- Female
- Flow Cytometry
- Male
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Transgenic
- Myelin-Oligodendrocyte Glycoprotein/toxicity
- Peptide Fragments/toxicity
- Protein Serine-Threonine Kinases/genetics
- Protein Serine-Threonine Kinases/metabolism
- Statistics, Nonparametric
- T-Lymphocytes, Regulatory/drug effects
- T-Lymphocytes, Regulatory/physiology
- Time Factors
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Affiliation(s)
- Melanie Keil
- DKTK Clinical Cooperation Unit Neuroimmunology and Brain Tumor Immunology, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Im Neuenheimer Feld 280, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany.
| | - Jana K Sonner
- DKTK Clinical Cooperation Unit Neuroimmunology and Brain Tumor Immunology, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Im Neuenheimer Feld 280, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany.
| | - Tobias V Lanz
- DKTK Clinical Cooperation Unit Neuroimmunology and Brain Tumor Immunology, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Im Neuenheimer Feld 280, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany; Department of Neurology and National Center of Tumor Diseases (NCT), University Hospital Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 460, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany.
| | - Iris Oezen
- DKTK Clinical Cooperation Unit Neuroimmunology and Brain Tumor Immunology, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Im Neuenheimer Feld 280, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany.
| | - Theresa Bunse
- DKTK Clinical Cooperation Unit Neuroimmunology and Brain Tumor Immunology, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Im Neuenheimer Feld 280, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany.
| | - Stefan Bittner
- Department of Neurology, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg-University Mainz, Langenbeckstr. 1, 55131 Mainz, Germany.
| | - Hannah V Meyer
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory, European Bioinformatics Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge CB10 1SD, UK.
| | - Sven G Meuth
- Department of Neurology, University of Muenster, Albert-Schweitzer-Campus 1, 48149 Muenster, Germany.
| | - Wolfgang Wick
- Department of Neurology and National Center of Tumor Diseases (NCT), University Hospital Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 460, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany; DKTK Clinical Cooperation Unit Neurooncology, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Im Neuenheimer Feld 280, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany.
| | - Michael Platten
- DKTK Clinical Cooperation Unit Neuroimmunology and Brain Tumor Immunology, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Im Neuenheimer Feld 280, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany; Department of Neurology and National Center of Tumor Diseases (NCT), University Hospital Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 460, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany.
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249
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Zar A, Ahmadi F, Miri M, Abedi HA, Salesi M. Cytokine Pattern is Affected by Training Intensity in Women Futsal Players. Immune Netw 2016; 16:109-15. [PMID: 27162527 PMCID: PMC4853496 DOI: 10.4110/in.2016.16.2.109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2015] [Revised: 02/22/2016] [Accepted: 03/14/2016] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
To find the relation between exercise and cytokines, we examined the effect of the training intensity on the levels of cytokines, including interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), interlukine-4 (IL-4) and interlukine-4/interferon-gamma ratio (IL-4/IFN-γ ratio) in female Futsal players. Twelve well-trained female college Futsal players aged 19~22 participated in this study. The athletes completed 30-min of running at 60~65% maximal heart rate [moderate-intensity exercise], and 30-min of running at 75~80% maximal heart rate [high-intensity exercise]. peripheral blood samples were collected 24 h before and 24 h and 48 h after each of the exercise bouts. finding showed that The 30-min bout of moderate-intensity exercise induced a significant increase in IFN-γ (p=0.01) and significant decreases in IL-4 (p=0.001) and IL-4/IFN-γ ratio (p=0.003). And also, 30-min of running at 75~80% maximal heart rate induced increase in IFN-γ (p=0.07) and decreased in IL-4 (p=0.01) and IL-4/IFN-γ ratio (p=0.06) that these changes not significantly. In summary, exercise intensity can effect on the magnitude of changes in cytokines. It seems that moderate intensity exercise enhances cytokine pattern in female college Futsal players.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdossaleh Zar
- Department of Physical Education and Sport Science, Jahrom University, Jahrom 74135-111, Iran
| | - Fatemeh Ahmadi
- Department of Physical Education and Sport Science, Jahrom University, Jahrom 74135-111, Iran
| | - Maryamosadat Miri
- SDH Research Center, Jahrom University of Medical Sciences, Jahrom 74148-46199, Iran
| | - Hassan Ali Abedi
- Research Centre for Noncommunicable Diseases, Faculty of Medicine, University of Medical Sciences, Jahrom 74148-46199, Iran
| | - Mohsen Salesi
- Department of Exercise Science, Shiraz University, Shiraz 71946-84759, Iran
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250
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Lowther DE, Goods BA, Lucca LE, Lerner BA, Raddassi K, van Dijk D, Hernandez AL, Duan X, Gunel M, Coric V, Krishnaswamy S, Love JC, Hafler DA. PD-1 marks dysfunctional regulatory T cells in malignant gliomas. JCI Insight 2016; 1. [PMID: 27182555 DOI: 10.1172/jci.insight.85935] [Citation(s) in RCA: 159] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Immunotherapies targeting the immune checkpoint receptor programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1) have shown remarkable efficacy in treating cancer. CD4+CD25hiFoxP3+ Tregs are critical regulators of immune responses in autoimmunity and malignancies, but the functional status of human Tregs expressing PD-1 remains unclear. We examined functional and molecular features of PD-1hi Tregs in healthy subjects and patients with glioblastoma multiforme (GBM), combining functional assays, RNA sequencing, and cytometry by time of flight (CyTOF). In both patients with GBM and healthy subjects, circulating PD-1hi Tregs displayed reduced suppression of CD4+ effector T cells, production of IFN-γ, and molecular signatures of exhaustion. Transcriptional profiling of tumor-resident Tregs revealed that several genes coexpressed with PD-1 and associated with IFN-γ production and exhaustion as well as enrichment in exhaustion signatures compared with circulating PD-1hi Tregs. CyTOF analysis of circulating and tumor-infiltrating Tregs from patients with GBM treated with PD-1-blocking antibodies revealed that treatment shifts the profile of circulating Tregs toward a more exhausted phenotype reminiscent of that of tumor-infiltrating Tregs, further increasing IFN-γ production. Thus, high PD-1 expression on human Tregs identifies dysfunctional, exhausted Tregs secreting IFN-γ that exist in healthy individuals and are enriched in tumor infiltrates, possibly losing function as they attempt to modulate the antitumoral immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel E Lowther
- Departments of Neurology and Immunobiology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Brittany A Goods
- Departments of Biological Engineering and Chemical Engineering, Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Liliana E Lucca
- Departments of Neurology and Immunobiology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Benjamin A Lerner
- Departments of Neurology and Immunobiology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Khadir Raddassi
- Departments of Neurology and Immunobiology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - David van Dijk
- Department of Genetics, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Amanda L Hernandez
- Departments of Neurology and Immunobiology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Xiangguo Duan
- Departments of Neurology and Immunobiology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Murat Gunel
- Department of Genetics, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA; Department of Neurosurgery, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Vlad Coric
- Bristol-Myers Squibb, Wallingford, Connecticut, USA
| | - Smita Krishnaswamy
- Department of Genetics, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - J Christopher Love
- Departments of Biological Engineering and Chemical Engineering, Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA; Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - David A Hafler
- Departments of Neurology and Immunobiology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA; Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
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