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Abstract
Coordinated function of the innate and adaptive arms of the immune system in vertebrates is essential to promote protective immunity and to avoid immunopathology. The Notch signalling pathway, which was originally identified as a pleiotropic mediator of cell fate in invertebrates, has recently emerged as an important regulator of immune cell development and function. Notch was initially shown to be a key determinant of cell-lineage commitment in developing lymphocytes, but it is now known to control the homeostasis of several innate cell populations. Moreover, the roles of Notch in adaptive immunity have expanded to include the regulation of T cell differentiation and function. The aim of this Review is to summarize the current status of immune regulation by Notch. A better understanding of Notch function in both innate and adaptive immunity will hopefully provide multiple avenues for therapeutic intervention in disease.
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202
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Wolfensohn S, Hawkins P, Lilley E, Anthony D, Chambers C, Lane S, Lawton M, Voipio HM, Woodhall G. Reducing suffering in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). J Pharmacol Toxicol Methods 2013; 67:169-76. [PMID: 23357188 DOI: 10.1016/j.vascn.2013.01.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2012] [Revised: 01/17/2013] [Accepted: 01/18/2013] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
This report is based on discussions and submissions from an expert working group consisting of veterinarians, animal care staff and scientists with expert knowledge relevant to the field. It aims to facilitate the implementation of the Three Rs (replacement, reduction and refinement) in the use of animal models or procedures involving experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), an experimental model used in multiple sclerosis research. The emphasis is on refinement since this has the greatest potential for immediate implementation. Specific welfare issues are identified and discussed, and practical measures are proposed to reduce animal use and suffering. Some general issues for refinement are summarised to help achieve this, with more detail provided on a range of specific measures to reduce suffering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Wolfensohn
- Seventeen Eighty Nine, 1st Floor, 21 High Street, Highworth, Swindon, SN6 7AG, United Kingdom
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203
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Abstract
Antibodies play an important role in autoimmune liver diseases, such as autoimmune hepatitis (AIH). On the one hand, they are essential diagnostic markers to identify not only the presentation of AIH, but also the AIH subtype characterized by the presence of particular antibodies to target autoantigens in the liver. On the other hand, such autoantibodies might be directly involved in the etiology and/or pathogenesis of AIH. This review will reflect on the evidence of how specific autoantibodies influence AIH and will further provide insight into the necessities for generating therapeutic antibodies to treat AIH in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Urs Christen
- Pharmazentrum Frankfurt/ZAFES, Goethe University Hospital Frankfurt, Theodor-Stern Kai 7, 60590 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
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204
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Development of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis critically depends on CD137 ligand signaling. J Neurosci 2013; 32:18246-52. [PMID: 23238738 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.2473-12.2012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a degenerative autoimmune disease of the CNS. Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) is a commonly used murine model for MS. Here we report that CD137 ligand (CD137L, 4-1BB ligand, TNFS9), a member of the TNF superfamily, is critical for the development of EAE. EAE symptoms were significantly ameliorated in CD137L(-/-) mice. In the absence of CD137L, myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG)-specific T-cells secreted lower levels of T(h)1/T(h)17 cell-associated cytokines. MOG-specific T-cells also trafficked less efficiently to the CNS in CD137L(-/-) mice, possibly as a consequence of reduced expression of vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1), which regulates leukocyte extravasation. Thus, CD137L regulates many functions of MOG-specific T-cells that contribute to EAE and may represent a novel therapeutic target for the treatment of MS.
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205
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Mc Guire C, Wieghofer P, Elton L, Muylaert D, Prinz M, Beyaert R, van Loo G. Paracaspase MALT1 Deficiency Protects Mice from Autoimmune-Mediated Demyelination. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2013; 190:2896-903. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1201351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
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206
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Protein kinase C gamma (PKCγ) as a novel marker to assess the functional status of the corticospinal tract in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). J Neuroimmunol 2013; 256:43-8. [PMID: 23385082 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2013.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2012] [Accepted: 01/07/2013] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
In the spinal cord, PKCγ is an important kinase found in a specific subset of excitatory interneurons in the superficial dorsal horn and in axons of the corticospinal tract (CST). The major interest in spinal PKCγ has been its influences on regulating pain sensitivity but its presence in the CST also indicates that it has a significant role in locomotor function. A hallmark feature of the animal model commonly used to study Multiple Sclerosis, experimental autoimmune encephalolomyelitis (EAE) are motor impairments associated with the disease. More recently, it has also become recognized that EAE is associated with significant changes in pain sensitivity. Given its role in generating pain hypersensitivity and its presence in a major tract controlling motor activity, we set out to characterize whether EAE was associated with changes PKCγ levels in the spinal cord. We show here that EAE triggers a significant reduction in the levels of PKCγ, primarily in the CST. We did not observe any significant changes in PKCγ levels in the superficial dorsal horn but in general the levels tended to be below control levels in this region. In a final experiment we assessed the levels of PKCγ in the spinal cord of EAE mice that had recovered gross locomotor function and compared this to the levels found in EAE mice with chronic deficits. Our findings demonstrate that PKCγ levels are dynamic and that in later stages of the disease, its expression is dependent on the degree of motor function in the model. Taken together these results suggest that PKCγ may be a useful marker in the disease to monitor the status of the CST.
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207
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Munro KM, Dixon KJ, Gresle MM, Jonas A, Kemper D, Doherty W, Fabri LJ, Owczarek CM, Pearse M, Boyd AW, Kilpatrick TJ, Butzkueven H, Turnley AM. EphA4 receptor tyrosine kinase is a modulator of onset and disease severity of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). PLoS One 2013; 8:e55948. [PMID: 23390555 PMCID: PMC3563632 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0055948] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2012] [Accepted: 01/04/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The EphA4 receptor tyrosine kinase is a major regulator of axonal growth and astrocyte reactivity and is a possible inflammatory mediator. Given that multiple sclerosis (MS) is primarily an inflammatory demyelinating disease and in mouse models of MS, such as experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), axonal degeneration and reactive gliosis are prominent clinical features, we hypothesised that endogenous EphA4 could play a role in modulating EAE. EAE was induced in EphA4 knockout and wildtype mice using MOG peptide immunisation and clinical severity and histological features of the disease were then compared in lumbar spinal cord sections. EphA4 knockout mice exhibited a markedly less severe clinical course than wildtype mice, with a lower maximum disease grade and a slightly later onset of clinical symptoms. Numbers of infiltrating T cells and macrophages, the number and size of the lesions, and the extent of astrocytic gliosis were similar in both genotypes; however, EphA4 knockout mice appeared to have decreased axonal pathology. Blocking of EphA4 in wildtype mice by administration of soluble EphA4 (EphA4-Fc) as a decoy receptor following induction of EAE produced a delay in onset of clinical symptoms; however, most mice had clinical symptoms of similar severity by 22 days, indicating that EphA4 blocking treatment slowed early EAE disease evolution. Again there were no apparent differences in histopathology. To determine whether the role of EphA4 in modulating EAE was CNS mediated or due to an altered immune response, MOG primed T cells from wildtype and EphA4 knockout mice were passively transferred into naive recipient mice and both were shown to induce disease of equivalent severity. These results are consistent with a non-inflammatory, CNS specific, deleterious effect of EphA4 during neuroinflammation that results in axonal pathology.
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MESH Headings
- Adoptive Transfer
- Animals
- Astrocytes/immunology
- Astrocytes/pathology
- Axons/immunology
- Axons/pathology
- Cell Movement
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/genetics
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/immunology
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/pathology
- Female
- Gene Deletion
- Immunoglobulin Fc Fragments/immunology
- Immunoglobulin Fc Fragments/pharmacology
- Macrophages/immunology
- Macrophages/pathology
- Male
- Mice
- Mice, Knockout
- Myelin-Oligodendrocyte Glycoprotein/immunology
- Myelin-Oligodendrocyte Glycoprotein/pharmacology
- Peptide Fragments/immunology
- Peptide Fragments/pharmacology
- Receptor, EphA4/antagonists & inhibitors
- Receptor, EphA4/genetics
- Receptor, EphA4/immunology
- Severity of Illness Index
- Spinal Cord/drug effects
- Spinal Cord/immunology
- Spinal Cord/pathology
- T-Lymphocytes/drug effects
- T-Lymphocytes/immunology
- T-Lymphocytes/pathology
- T-Lymphocytes/transplantation
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn M. Munro
- Centre for Neuroscience Research, The University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, The University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Kirsty J. Dixon
- Centre for Neuroscience Research, The University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Melissa M. Gresle
- Department of Medicine, Melbourne Brain Centre at the Royal Melbourne Hospital, The University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Anna Jonas
- MS Division, Florey Neuroscience Institutes, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Dennis Kemper
- MS Division, Florey Neuroscience Institutes, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - William Doherty
- MS Division, Florey Neuroscience Institutes, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | | | | | | | - Andrew W. Boyd
- Queensland Institute of Medical Research, Brisbane, Queensland
| | - Trevor J. Kilpatrick
- Centre for Neuroscience Research, The University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, The University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- MS Division, Florey Neuroscience Institutes, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Helmut Butzkueven
- Department of Medicine, Melbourne Brain Centre at the Royal Melbourne Hospital, The University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Ann M. Turnley
- Centre for Neuroscience Research, The University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, The University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- * E-mail:
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208
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The innate immune adaptor MyD88 is dispensable for spontaneous autoimmune demyelination in a mouse model of multiple sclerosis. J Neuroimmunol 2013; 255:60-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2012.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2012] [Revised: 11/02/2012] [Accepted: 11/30/2012] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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209
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Mecha M, Carrillo-Salinas FJ, Mestre L, Feliú A, Guaza C. Viral models of multiple sclerosis: neurodegeneration and demyelination in mice infected with Theiler's virus. Prog Neurobiol 2013; 101-102:46-64. [PMID: 23201558 PMCID: PMC7117056 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2012.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2012] [Revised: 10/30/2012] [Accepted: 11/12/2012] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a complex inflammatory disease of unknown etiology that affects the central nervous system (CNS) white matter, and for which no effective cure exists. Indeed, whether the primary event in MS pathology affects myelin or axons of the CNS remains unclear. Animal models are necessary to identify the immunopathological mechanisms involved in MS and to develop novel therapeutic and reparative approaches. Specifically, viral models of chronic demyelination and axonal damage have been used to study the contribution of viruses in human MS, and they have led to important breakthroughs in our understanding of MS pathology. The Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV) model is one of the most commonly used MS models, although other viral models are also used, including neurotropic strains of mouse hepatitis virus (MHV) that induce chronic inflammatory demyelination with similar histological features to those observed in MS. This review will discuss the immunopathological mechanisms involved in TMEV-induced demyelinating disease (TMEV-IDD). The TMEV model reproduces a chronic progressive disease due to the persistence of the virus for the entire lifespan in susceptible mice. The evolution and significance of the axonal damage and neuroinflammation, the importance of epitope spread from viral to myelin epitopes, the presence of abortive remyelination and the existence of a brain pathology in addition to the classical spinal cord demyelination, are some of the findings that will be discussed in the context of this TMEV-IDD model. Despite their limitations, viral models remain an important tool to study the etiology of MS, and to understand the clinical and pathological variability associated with this disease.
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Key Words
- ab, antibody
- ag, antigen
- apc, antigen presenting cell
- bbb, blood–brain barrier
- cns, central nervous system
- cox-2, cyclooxygenase-2
- ctl, cytotoxic t lymphocytes
- dpi, days post-infection
- da, daniels strain of theiler's virus
- eae, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis
- galc, galactocerebroside
- mbp, myelin basic protein
- mnc, mononuclear cells
- mhc, major histocompatibility complex
- mhv, mouse hepatitis virus
- mog, myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein
- ms, multiple sclerosis
- naa, n-acetylaspartate
- no, nitric oxide
- pcr, polymerase chain reaction
- plp, myelin proteolipid protein
- pprs, pattern recognition receptors
- sfv, semliki forest virus
- sv, sindbis virus
- tmev, theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus
- tmev-idd, theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus-induced demyelinating disease
- tregs, regulatory t cells
- theiler's virus
- multiple sclerosis
- demyelination
- axonal damage
- neuroinflammation
- spinal cord pathology
- brain pathology
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Carmen Guaza
- Neuroimmunology Group, Functional and System Neurobiology Department, Instituto Cajal, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Avda Dr Arce 37, 28002 Madrid, Spain
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210
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Shriver LP, Plummer EM, Thomas DM, Ho S, Manchester M. Localization of gadolinium-loaded CPMV to sites of inflammation during central nervous system autoimmunity. J Mater Chem B 2013; 1:5256-5263. [DOI: 10.1039/c3tb20521e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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211
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Leech MD, Barr TA, Turner DG, Brown S, O'Connor RA, Gray D, Mellanby RJ, Anderton SM. Cutting edge: IL-6-dependent autoimmune disease: dendritic cells as a sufficient, but transient, source. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2012; 190:881-5. [PMID: 23267024 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1202925] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Mice lacking IL-6 are resistant to autoimmune diseases, such as experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), which is driven by CNS-reactive CD4(+) T cells. There are multiple cellular sources of IL-6, but the critical source in EAE has been uncertain. Using cell-specific IL-6 deficiency in models of EAE induced by active immunization, passive transfer, T cell transfer, and dendritic cell transfer, we show that neither the pathogenic T cells nor CNS-resident cells are required to produce IL-6. Instead, the requirement for IL-6 was restricted to the early stages of T cell activation and was entirely controlled by dendritic cell-derived IL-6. This reflected the loss of IL-6R expression by T cells over time. These data explain why blockade of IL-6R only achieves protection against EAE if used at the time of T cell priming. The implications for therapeutic manipulation of IL-6 signaling in human T cell-driven autoimmune conditions are considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melanie D Leech
- Medical Research Council Centre for Inflammation Research, Centre for Multiple Sclerosis Research and Centre for Immunity, Infection, and Evolution, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4TJ, United Kingdom
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212
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Loo EW, Krantz MJ, Agrawal B. High dose antigen treatment with a peptide epitope of myelin basic protein modulates T cells in multiple sclerosis patients. Cell Immunol 2012; 280:10-5. [PMID: 23246830 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellimm.2012.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2012] [Revised: 10/03/2012] [Accepted: 11/06/2012] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
One of the auto-antigens aberrantly targeted in Multiple sclerosis is myelin basic protein (MBP). In this study, chronic progressive multiple sclerosis (CPMS) patients receiving the experimental drug MBP8298, on a compassionate care trial, were examined before and after high dose peptide treatment for their circulating regulatory T-cell numbers and their responses to the common mitogens, phytohemagglutinin and poke-weed mitogen. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) isolated from these patients before treatment displayed anergy upon stimulation with phytohemagglutinin; measured through reduced proliferation, IFN-γ and IL-17A secretion in an in vitro cell culture system. 6 Weeks and 6months after treatment their PBMCs displayed a reversal of anergy with phytohemagglutinin stimulation. There was also a marked increase in their CD4(+)CD25(+hi)FoxP3(+) T-cells regulatory T-cells. These results suggest that high dose MBP8298 treatment has a profound effect on the circulating T-cells of CPMS patients, capable of reversing peripheral anergy and establishing T regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric W Loo
- Department of Surgery, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
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213
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Wang X, Haroon F, Karray S, Martina Deckert, Schlüter D. Astrocytic Fas ligand expression is required to induce T-cell apoptosis and recovery from experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Eur J Immunol 2012; 43:115-24. [PMID: 23011975 DOI: 10.1002/eji.201242679] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2012] [Revised: 08/24/2012] [Accepted: 09/19/2012] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
In T-cell-mediated autoimmune diseases of the CNS, apoptosis of Fas(+) T cells by FasL contributes to resolution of disease. However, the apoptosis-inducing cell population still remains to be identified. To address the role of astrocytic FasL in the regulation of T-cell apoptosis in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, we immunized C57BL/6 glial fibrillary acid protein (GFAP)-Cre FasL(fl/fl) mice selectively lacking FasL in astrocytes with MOG(35-55) peptide. GFAP-Cre FasL(fl/fl) mice were unable to resolve EAE and suffered from persisting demyelination and paralysis, while FasL(fl/fl) control mice recovered. In contrast to FasL(fl/fl) mice, GFAP-Cre FasL(fl/fl) mice failed to induce apoptosis of Fas(+) activated CD4(+) T cells and to increase numbers of Foxp3(+) Treg cells beyond day 15 post immunization, the time point of maximal clinical disease in control mice. The persistence of activated and GM-CSF-producing CD4(+) T cells in GFAP-Cre FasL(fl/fl) mice also resulted in an increased IL-17, IFN-γ, TNF, and GM-CSF mRNA expression in the CNS. In vitro, FasL(+) but not FasL(-) astrocytes induced caspase-3 expression and apoptosis of activated T cells. In conclusion, FasL expression of astrocytes plays an important role in the control and elimination of autoimmune T cells from the CNS, thereby determining recovery from EAE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xu Wang
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany
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214
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Costanza M, Colombo MP, Pedotti R. Mast cells in the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis and experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Int J Mol Sci 2012. [PMID: 23203114 PMCID: PMC3509630 DOI: 10.3390/ijms131115107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Mast cells (MCs) are best known as key immune players in immunoglobulin E (IgE)-dependent allergic reactions. In recent years, several lines of evidence have suggested that MCs might play an important role in several pathological conditions, including autoimmune disorders such as multiple sclerosis (MS) and experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), an animal model for MS. Since their first description in MS plaques in the late 1800s, much effort has been put into elucidating the contribution of MCs to the development of central nervous system (CNS) autoimmunity. Mouse models of MC-deficiency have provided a valuable experimental tool for dissecting MC involvement in MS and EAE. However, to date there is still major controversy concerning the function of MCs in these diseases. Indeed, although MCs have been classically proposed as having a detrimental and pro-inflammatory role, recent literature has questioned and resized the contribution of MCs to the pathology of MS and EAE. In this review, we will present the main evidence obtained in MS and EAE on this topic, and discuss the critical and controversial aspects of such evidence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Massimo Costanza
- Neuroimmunology and Neuromuscular Disorder Unit, Neurological Institute Foundation IRCCS C. Besta, via Amadeo 42, Milan 20133, Italy; E-Mail:
| | - Mario P. Colombo
- Molecular Immunology Unit, Department of Experimental Oncology and Molecular Medicine, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale dei Tumori, via Amadeo 42, Milan 20133, Italy; E-Mail:
| | - Rosetta Pedotti
- Neuroimmunology and Neuromuscular Disorder Unit, Neurological Institute Foundation IRCCS C. Besta, via Amadeo 42, Milan 20133, Italy; E-Mail:
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: ; Tel.: +39-02-23944654; Fax: +39-02-23944708
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215
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Vidaurre OG, Liu J, Haines J, Sandoval J, Nowakowski R, Casaccia P. An integrated approach to design novel therapeutic interventions for demyelinating disorders. Eur J Neurosci 2012; 35:1879-86. [PMID: 22708599 DOI: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2012.08118.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Therapeutic strategies are often based on two general principles: interference with the pathogenic process and repair of the damaged tissues. Recent studies, however, have suggested that several pathological conditions may result from the interplay between genetic susceptibility traits and environmental influences that, by modulating the epigenome, also affect disease onset and progression. Based on lessons from neural development, it is conceivable that new lines of preventive and possibly therapeutic intervention might be developed to modulate disease onset or decrease the severity of the symptoms. This review will discuss these concepts within the context of multiple sclerosis, the most common demyelinating disease of the central nervous system, and the leading cause of progressive neurological disability in young adults.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oscar G Vidaurre
- Department of Neuroscience and Genetics and Genomics, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, One Gustave Levy Place, Box 1065, New York, NY 10029, USA
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216
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Erta M, Quintana A, Hidalgo J. Interleukin-6, a major cytokine in the central nervous system. Int J Biol Sci 2012; 8:1254-66. [PMID: 23136554 PMCID: PMC3491449 DOI: 10.7150/ijbs.4679] [Citation(s) in RCA: 732] [Impact Index Per Article: 61.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2012] [Accepted: 07/19/2012] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Interleukin-6 (IL-6) is a cytokine originally identified almost 30 years ago as a B-cell differentiation factor, capable of inducing the maturation of B cells into antibody-producing cells. As with many other cytokines, it was soon realized that IL-6 was not a factor only involved in the immune response, but with many critical roles in major physiological systems including the nervous system. IL-6 is now known to participate in neurogenesis (influencing both neurons and glial cells), and in the response of mature neurons and glial cells in normal conditions and following a wide arrange of injury models. In many respects, IL-6 behaves in a neurotrophin-like fashion, and seemingly makes understandable why the cytokine family that it belongs to is known as neuropoietins. Its expression is affected in several of the main brain diseases, and animal models strongly suggest that IL-6 could have a role in the observed neuropathology and that therefore it is a clear target of strategic therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Erta
- Instituto de Neurociencias y Departamento de Biología Celular, Fisiología e Inmunología, Facultad de Biociencias, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
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217
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Banks WA, Niehoff ML, Ponzio NM, Erickson MA, Zalcman SS. Pharmacokinetics and modeling of immune cell trafficking: quantifying differential influences of target tissues versus lymphocytes in SJL and lipopolysaccharide-treated mice. J Neuroinflammation 2012; 9:231. [PMID: 23034075 PMCID: PMC3489553 DOI: 10.1186/1742-2094-9-231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2012] [Accepted: 09/17/2012] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Immune cell trafficking into the CNS and other tissues plays important roles in health and disease. Rapid quantitative methods are not available that could be used to study many of the dynamic aspects of immune cell-tissue interactions. METHODS We used pharmacokinetics and modeling to quantify and characterize the trafficking of radioactively labeled lymphocytes into brain and peripheral tissues. We used variance from two-way ANOVAs with 2 × 2 experimental designs to model the relative influences of lymphocytes and target tissues in trafficking. RESULTS We found that in male CD-1 mice, about 1 in 5,000 intravenously injected lymphocytes entered each gram of brain. Uptake by brain was 2 to 3 times higher in naïve SJL females, but uptake by spleen and clearance from blood was lower, demonstrating a dichotomy in immune cell distribution. Treatment of CD-1 mice with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) increased immune cell uptake into brain but decreased uptake by spleen and axillary nodes. CONCLUSIONS Differences in brain uptake and in uptake by spleen between SJL and CD-1 mice were primarily determined by lymphocytes, whereas differences in uptake with LPS were primarily determined by lymphocytes for the brain but by the tissues for the spleen and the axillary lymph node. These results show that immune cells normally enter the CNS and that tissues and immune cells interact in ways that can be quantified by pharmacokinetic models.
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Affiliation(s)
- William A Banks
- GRECC, Veterans Affairs Puget Sound Health Care System, Seattle, WA, USA
- Division Gerontology and Geriatric Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, USA
- VAPSHCS, Rm 810A, 1660 S. Columbian Way, Seattle, WA, 98108, USA
| | - Michael L Niehoff
- Division of Geriatric Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO, USA
| | - Nicholas M Ponzio
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, UMDNJ-New Jersey Medical School, Newark, USA
| | - Michelle A Erickson
- GRECC, Veterans Affairs Puget Sound Health Care System, Seattle, WA, USA
- Division Gerontology and Geriatric Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, USA
- Department of Pharmacological and Physiological Sciences, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, USA
| | - Steven S Zalcman
- Department of Psychiatry-UMDNJ-New Jersey Medical School, Newark, USA
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218
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Santello M, Volterra A. TNFα in synaptic function: switching gears. Trends Neurosci 2012; 35:638-47. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tins.2012.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 194] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2012] [Revised: 05/18/2012] [Accepted: 06/04/2012] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
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219
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Comerford I, Litchfield W, Kara E, McColl SR. PI3Kγ drives priming and survival of autoreactive CD4(+) T cells during experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. PLoS One 2012; 7:e45095. [PMID: 23028778 PMCID: PMC3441529 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0045095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2012] [Accepted: 08/17/2012] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The class IB phosphoinositide 3-kinase gamma enzyme complex (PI3Kγ) functions in multiple signaling pathways involved in leukocyte activation and migration, making it an attractive target in complex human inflammatory diseases including MS. Here, using pik3cg−/− mice and a selective PI3Kγ inhibitor, we show that PI3Kγ promotes development of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). In pik3cg−/− mice, EAE is markedly suppressed and fewer leukocytes including CD4+ and CD8+ T cells, granulocytes and mononuclear phagocytes infiltrate the CNS. CD4+ T cell priming in secondary lymphoid organs is reduced in pik3cg−/− mice following immunisation. This is attributable to defects in DC migration concomitant with a failure of full T cell activation following TCR ligation in the absence of p110γ. Together, this results in suppressed autoreactive T cell responses in pik3cg−/− mice, with more CD4+ T cells undergoing apoptosis and fewer cytokine-producing Th1 and Th17 cells in lymphoid organs and the CNS. When administered from onset of EAE, the orally active PI3Kγ inhibitor AS605240 caused inhibition and reversal of clinical disease, and demyelination and cellular pathology in the CNS was reduced. These results strongly suggest that inhibitors of PI3Kγ may be useful therapeutics for MS.
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MESH Headings
- Administration, Oral
- Animals
- Apoptosis/drug effects
- Apoptosis/immunology
- CD4-Positive T-Lymphocytes/drug effects
- CD4-Positive T-Lymphocytes/enzymology
- CD4-Positive T-Lymphocytes/immunology
- CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes/drug effects
- CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes/immunology
- Cell Movement/drug effects
- Cell Movement/immunology
- Cell Survival/drug effects
- Cell Survival/immunology
- Central Nervous System/drug effects
- Central Nervous System/immunology
- Central Nervous System/pathology
- Class Ib Phosphatidylinositol 3-Kinase/deficiency
- Class Ib Phosphatidylinositol 3-Kinase/metabolism
- Cross-Priming/drug effects
- Cross-Priming/immunology
- Cytokines/biosynthesis
- Dendritic Cells/drug effects
- Dendritic Cells/enzymology
- Dendritic Cells/immunology
- Dendritic Cells/pathology
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/enzymology
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/etiology
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/immunology
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/pathology
- Female
- Gene Deletion
- Humans
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Protein Kinase Inhibitors/administration & dosage
- Protein Kinase Inhibitors/pharmacology
- Quinoxalines/administration & dosage
- Quinoxalines/pharmacology
- Signal Transduction/drug effects
- Signal Transduction/immunology
- Th1 Cells/drug effects
- Th1 Cells/immunology
- Th17 Cells/drug effects
- Th17 Cells/immunology
- Thiazolidinediones/administration & dosage
- Thiazolidinediones/pharmacology
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Affiliation(s)
- Iain Comerford
- Chemokine Biology Laboratory, the School of Molecular & Biomedical Science, the University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia.
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220
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Chiu CT, Chuang DM. Neuroprotective action of lithium in disorders of the central nervous system. ZHONG NAN DA XUE XUE BAO. YI XUE BAN = JOURNAL OF CENTRAL SOUTH UNIVERSITY. MEDICAL SCIENCES 2012; 36:461-76. [PMID: 21743136 DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.1672-7347.2011.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Substantial in vitro and in vivo evidence of neurotrophic and neuroprotective effects of lithium suggests that it may also have considerable potential for the treatment of neurodegenerative conditions. Lithium's main mechanisms of action appear to stem from its ability to inhibit glycogen synthase kinase-3 activity and also to induce signaling mediated by brain-derived neurotrophic factor. This in turn alters a wide variety of downstream effectors, with the ultimate effect of enhancing pathways to cell survival. In addition, lithium contributes to calcium homeostasis. By inhibiting N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor-mediated calcium influx, for instance, it suppresses the calcium-dependent activation of pro-apoptotic signaling pathways. By inhibiting the activity of phosphoinositol phosphatases, it decreases levels of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate, a process recently identified as a novel mechanism for inducing autophagy. These mechanisms allow therapeutic doses of lithium to protect neuronal cells from diverse insults that would otherwise lead to massive cell death. Lithium, moreover, has been shown to improve behavioral and cognitive deficits in animal models of neurodegenerative diseases, including stroke, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, fragile X syndrome, and Huntington's, Alzheimer's, and Parkinson's diseases. Since lithium is already FDA-approved for the treatment of bipolar disorder, our conclusions support the notion that its clinical relevance can be expanded to include the treatment of several neurological and neurodegenerative-related diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chi-Tso Chiu
- Section on Molecular Neurobiology, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, 10 Center Drive MSC 1363, Bethesda, MD 20892-1363, USA
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221
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Schmitt C, Strazielle N, Ghersi-Egea JF. Brain leukocyte infiltration initiated by peripheral inflammation or experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis occurs through pathways connected to the CSF-filled compartments of the forebrain and midbrain. J Neuroinflammation 2012; 9:187. [PMID: 22870891 PMCID: PMC3458946 DOI: 10.1186/1742-2094-9-187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2012] [Accepted: 07/25/2012] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) has been considered as a preferential pathway of circulation for immune cells during neuroimmune surveillance. In order to evaluate the involvement of CSF-filled spaces in the pathogenesis of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), a model of multiple sclerosis, we performed a time-course analysis of immune cell association with the CSF-containing ventricles, velae, and cisterns in two active models of this disease. METHODS Guinea-pig spinal cord homogenate-induced EAE in rat and myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein-induced EAE in mouse were used. Leukocyte distribution and phenotypes were investigated by immunohistochemistry in serial sections of brain areas of interest, as well as in CSF withdrawn from rat. Immune cells associated with the choroid plexuses were quantified. RESULTS Freund's adjuvant-induced peripheral inflammation in the absence of brain antigen led to a subtle but definite increase in the number of myeloid cells in the extraventricular CSF spaces. In both rats and mice, EAE was characterized by a sustained and initial infiltration of lymphocytes and monocytes within forebrain/midbrain fluid-filled compartments such as the velum interpositum and ambient cisterns, and certain basal cisterns. Leukocytes further infiltrated periventricular and pericisternal parenchymal areas, along perivascular spaces or following a downward CSF-to-tissue gradient. Cells quantified in CSF sampled from rats included lymphocytes and neutrophils. The distinctive pattern of cell distribution suggests that both the choroid plexus and the vessels lying in the velae and cisterns are gates for early leukocyte entry in the central nervous system. B-cell infiltration observed in the mouse model was restricted to CSF-filled extraventricular compartments. CONCLUSION These results identified distinctive velae and cisterns of the forebrain and midbrain as preferential sites of immune cell homing following peripheral and early central inflammation and point to a role of CSF in directing brain invasion by immune cells during EAE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charlotte Schmitt
- Inserm U1028, CNRS NMR5292, Lyon Neuroscience Research Center, Neurooncology & Neuroinflammation Team, Lyon 1 University, Faculté de Médecine Laennec, 7 rue G, Paradin, Lyon F-69008, France
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222
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Guzmán-Soto I, Salinas E, Hernández-Jasso I, Quintanar JL. Leuprolide acetate, a GnRH agonist, improves experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis: a possible therapy for multiple sclerosis. Neurochem Res 2012; 37:2190-7. [PMID: 22832949 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-012-0842-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2012] [Revised: 05/29/2012] [Accepted: 07/12/2012] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH), a well known hypothalamic neuropeptide, has been reported to possess neurotrophic properties. Leuprolide acetate, a synthetic analogue of GnRH is considered to be a very safe and tolerable drug and it has been used for diverse clinical applications, including the treatment of prostate cancer, endometriosis, uterine fibroids, central precocious puberty and in vitro fertilization techniques. The present study was designed to determine whether Leuprolide acetate administration, exerts neurotrophic effects on clinical signs, body weight gain, neurofilaments (NFs) and myelin basic protein (MBP) expression, axonal morphometry and cell infiltration in spinal cord of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) rats. In this work, we have found that Leuprolide acetate treatment decreases the severity of clinical signs of locomotion, induces a significantly greater body weight gain, increases the MBP and NFs expression, axonal area and cell infiltration in EAE animals. These results suggest the use of this agonist as a potential therapeutic approach for multiple sclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irene Guzmán-Soto
- Laboratory of Neurophysiology, Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Centro de Ciencias Básicas, Universidad Autónoma de Aguascalientes, Av. Universidad 940, C.P. 20131 Aguascalientes, Mexico
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223
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Zhang Z, Zhang ZY, Wu Y, Schluesener HJ. Valproic acid ameliorates inflammation in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis rats. Neuroscience 2012; 221:140-50. [PMID: 22800566 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2012.07.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2012] [Revised: 06/28/2012] [Accepted: 07/06/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Valproic acid (VPA) is a short-chain branched fatty acid with anti-inflammatory, neuro-protective and axon remodeling effects. Here we have studied effects of VPA in gpMBP(68-84)-induced experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). Both preventive (from Day 0 to Day 18) and therapeutic (from Day 7 to Day 18 or from Day 9 to Day 19) VPA (500 mg/kg, intra-gastric) administration to EAE rats once daily greatly reduced the severity and duration of EAE, and suppressed mRNA levels of interferon-γ (IFN-γ), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and IL-17, matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP9), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and transcription factor T-bet, but increased levels of IL-4 mRNA in EAE spinal cords. Furthermore, preventive VPA treatment greatly attenuated accumulation of macrophages and lymphocytes in EAE spinal cords. VPA treatment altered the cytokine milieu of lymph nodes, modulating the Th profile from Th1 and Th17 to a profile of Th2 and regulatory T cells. In addition, in vitro study showed that VPA inhibited non-specific lymphocyte proliferation in a dose-dependent manner. In summary, our data demonstrated that VPA could suppress systemic and local inflammation to improve outcome of EAE, suggesting that VPA might be a candidate for treatment of multiple sclerosis.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Anti-Inflammatory Agents/therapeutic use
- CD11b Antigen/metabolism
- CD3 Complex/metabolism
- Cell Proliferation/drug effects
- Cytokines/genetics
- Cytokines/metabolism
- Disease Models, Animal
- Ectodysplasins/metabolism
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/chemically induced
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/complications
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/pathology
- Gene Expression Regulation/drug effects
- Inflammation/drug therapy
- Lymphocyte Activation/drug effects
- Macrophages/drug effects
- Macrophages/metabolism
- Male
- Matrix Metalloproteinase 9/genetics
- Matrix Metalloproteinase 9/metabolism
- Nitric Oxide Synthase Type II/genetics
- Nitric Oxide Synthase Type II/metabolism
- RNA, Messenger/metabolism
- Rats
- Rats, Inbred Lew
- Spinal Cord/metabolism
- Spinal Cord/pathology
- T-Box Domain Proteins/genetics
- T-Box Domain Proteins/metabolism
- T-Lymphocytes, Helper-Inducer/drug effects
- T-Lymphocytes, Helper-Inducer/metabolism
- Time Factors
- Valproic Acid/therapeutic use
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Affiliation(s)
- Z Zhang
- Institute of Immunology, Third Military Medical University of PLA, Gaotanyan Main Street 30, Chongqing 400038, People's Republic of China.
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224
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The CCL2 synthesis inhibitor bindarit targets cells of the neurovascular unit, and suppresses experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. J Neuroinflammation 2012; 9:171. [PMID: 22788993 PMCID: PMC3488971 DOI: 10.1186/1742-2094-9-171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2012] [Accepted: 07/12/2012] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Production of the chemokine CCL2 by cells of the neurovascular unit (NVU) drives critical aspects of neuroinflammation. Suppression of CCL2 therefore holds promise in treating neuroinflammatory disease. Accordingly, we sought to determine if the compound bindarit, which inhibits CCL2 synthesis, could repress the three NVU sources of CCL2 most commonly reported in neuroinflammation--astrocytes, microglia and brain microvascular endothelial cells (BMEC)--as well as modify the clinical course of neuroinflammatory disease. METHODS The effect of bindarit on CCL2 expression by cultured murine astrocytes, microglia and BMEC was examined by quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). Bindarit action on mouse brain and spinal cord in vivo was similarly investigated by qRT-PCR following LPS injection in mice. And to further gauge the potential remedial effects of bindarit on neuroinflammatory disease, its impact on the clinical course of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) in mice was also explored. RESULTS Bindarit repressed CCL2 expression by all three cultured cells, and antagonized upregulated expression of CCL2 in both brain and spinal cord in vivo following LPS administration. Bindarit also significantly modified the course and severity of clinical EAE, diminished the incidence and onset of disease, and evidenced signs of disease reversal. CONCLUSION Bindarit was effective in suppressing CCL2 expression by cultured NVU cells as well as brain and spinal cord tissue in vivo. It further modulated the course of clinical EAE in both preventative and therapeutic ways. Collectively, these results suggest that bindarit might prove an effective treatment for neuroinflammatory disease.
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225
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Ljubisavljevic S, Stojanovic I, Pavlovic R, Sokolovic D, Pavlovic D, Cvetkovic T, Stevanovic I. Modulation of nitric oxide synthase by arginase and methylated arginines during the acute phase of experimental multiple sclerosis. J Neurol Sci 2012; 318:106-11. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jns.2012.03.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2012] [Revised: 03/19/2012] [Accepted: 03/20/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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226
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Xin J, Feinstein DL, Hejna MJ, Lorens SA, McGuire SO. Beneficial effects of blueberries in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2012; 60:5743-8. [PMID: 22243431 DOI: 10.1021/jf203611t] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) is an animal model of autoimmune disease that presents with pathological and clinical features similar to those of multiple sclerosis (MS) including inflammation and neurodegeneration. This study investigated whether blueberries, which possess immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective properties, could provide protection in EAE. Dietary supplementation with 1% whole, freeze-dried blueberries reduced disease incidence by >50% in a chronic EAE model (p < 0.01). When blueberry-fed mice with EAE were compared with control-fed mice with EAE, blueberry-fed mice had significantly lower motor disability scores (p = 0.03) as well as significantly greater myelin preservation in the lumbar spinal cord (p = 0.04). In a relapsing-remitting EAE model, blueberry-supplemented mice showed improved cumulative and final motor scores compared to control diet-fed mice (p = 0.01 and 0.03, respectively). These data demonstrate that blueberry supplementation is beneficial in multiple EAE models, suggesting that blueberries, which are easily administered orally and well-tolerated, may provide benefit to MS patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junping Xin
- Rehabilitation Research and Development Service, U.S. Veterans Administration , Edward Hines, Jr., VA Hospital, Mail Stop 151, 5000 South Fifth Avenue, Hines, Illinois 60141, United States
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227
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Badawi AH, Siahaan TJ. Immune modulating peptides for the treatment and suppression of multiple sclerosis. Clin Immunol 2012; 144:127-38. [PMID: 22722227 DOI: 10.1016/j.clim.2012.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2012] [Revised: 05/25/2012] [Accepted: 05/28/2012] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a neurodegenerative disease in which the immune system recognizes proteins of the myelin sheath as antigenic, thus initiating an inflammatory reaction in the central nervous system. This leads to demyelination of the axons, breakdown of the blood-brain barrier, and lesion formation. Current therapies for the treatment of MS are generally non-specific and weaken the global immune system, thus making the individual susceptible to opportunistic infections. Antigenic peptides and their derivatives are becoming more prevalent for investigation as therapeutic agents for MS because they possess immune-specific characteristics. In addition, other peptides that target vital components of the inflammatory immune response have also been developed. Therefore, the objectives of this review are to (a) summarize the immunological basis for the development of MS, (b) discuss specific and non-specific peptides tested in EAE and in humans, and (c) briefly address some problems and potential solutions with these novel therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed H Badawi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66047, USA
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228
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Mann MK, Ray A, Basu S, Karp CL, Dittel BN. Pathogenic and regulatory roles for B cells in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Autoimmunity 2012; 45:388-99. [PMID: 22443691 DOI: 10.3109/08916934.2012.665523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
A dual role of B cells in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), the animal model of the human autoimmune disease multiple sclerosis (MS), has been established. In the first role, B cells contribute to the pathogenesis of EAE through the production of anti-myelin antibodies that contribute to demyelination. On the contrary, B cells have also been shown to have protective functions in that they play an essential role in the spontaneous recovery from EAE. In this review, we summarize studies conducted in a number of species demonstrating the conditions under which B cells are pathogenic in EAE. We also discuss the phenotype and anti-inflammatory mechanisms of regulatory B cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monica K Mann
- Blood Research Institute, BloodCenter of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53201-2178, USA
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229
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Langer HF, Choi EY, Zhou H, Schleicher R, Chung KJ, Tang Z, Göbel K, Bdeir K, Chatzigeorgiou A, Wong C, Bhatia S, Kruhlak MJ, Rose JW, Burns JB, Hill KE, Qu H, Zhang Y, Lehrmann E, Becker KG, Wang Y, Simon DI, Nieswandt B, Lambris JD, Li X, Meuth SG, Kubes P, Chavakis T. Platelets contribute to the pathogenesis of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Circ Res 2012; 110:1202-10. [PMID: 22456181 DOI: 10.1161/circresaha.111.256370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 144] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Multiple sclerosis (MS) and its mouse model, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), are inflammatory disorders of the central nervous system (CNS). The function of platelets in inflammatory and autoimmune pathologies is thus far poorly defined. OBJECTIVE We addressed the role of platelets in mediating CNS inflammation in EAE. METHODS AND RESULTS We found that platelets were present in human MS lesions as well as in the CNS of mice subjected to EAE but not in the CNS from control nondiseased mice. Platelet depletion at the effector-inflammatory phase of EAE in mice resulted in significantly ameliorated disease development and progression. EAE suppression on platelet depletion was associated with reduced recruitment of leukocytes to the inflamed CNS, as assessed by intravital microscopy, and with a blunted inflammatory response. The platelet-specific receptor glycoprotein Ibα (GPIbα) promotes both platelet adhesion and inflammatory actions of platelets and targeting of GPIbα attenuated EAE in mice. Moreover, targeting another platelet adhesion receptor, glycoprotein IIb/IIIa (GPIIb/IIIa), also reduced EAE severity in mice. CONCLUSIONS Platelets contribute to the pathogenesis of EAE by promoting CNS inflammation. Targeting platelets may therefore represent an important new therapeutic approach for MS treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harald F Langer
- Experimental Immunology Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA.
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230
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CNS-specific therapy for ongoing EAE by silencing IL-17 pathway in astrocytes. Mol Ther 2012; 20:1338-48. [PMID: 22434134 DOI: 10.1038/mt.2012.12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The interleukin-17 (IL-17) cytokine family is crucial to the progression of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), an animal model of multiple sclerosis (MS). It has been shown in a neuroectoderm-specific knockout study that astrocyte-restricted ablation of Act1, a key and common transcription factor for signals mediated by IL-17 family members (IL-17A, IL-17F, and IL-17C), ameliorates EAE. However, the effect of Act1 deficiency in astrocytes on ongoing disease, which is of clinical relevance for MS therapy, has not been investigated. Here we report that intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) injection of a novel lentiviral vector (shAct1) to knockdown Act1 expression in astrocytes effectively inhibited disease progression at EAE induction, clinical onset, and peak of disease (ongoing phases), with significantly reduced numbers of infiltrating inflammatory cells and percentage of Th17 cells in the central nervous system (CNS). This was mainly due to the suppressed expression of Th17-related chemokines in astrocytes, while neurotrophic factors in the CNS and immune responses in the periphery were not affected. These results demonstrate that blocking the IL-17 pathways in astrocytes is a promising therapeutic approach for MS in a CNS-specific manner, which does not interfere with systemic immune responses, a major concern in conventional MS therapy.
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231
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Jun S, Ochoa-Repáraz J, Zlotkowska D, Hoyt T, Pascual DW. Bystander-mediated stimulation of proteolipid protein-specific regulatory T (Treg) cells confers protection against experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) via TGF-β. J Neuroimmunol 2012; 245:39-47. [PMID: 22418032 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2012.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2011] [Revised: 01/28/2012] [Accepted: 02/01/2012] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
To assess the potency of regulatory T (Treg) cells induced against an irrelevant Ag, mice were orally vaccinated with Salmonella expressing Escherichia coli colonization factor antigen I fimbriae. Isolated CD25⁺ and CD25⁻CD4⁺ T cells were adoptively transferred to naive mice, and Treg cells effectively protected against experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), unlike Treg cells from Salmonella vector-immunized mice. This protection was abrogated upon in vivo neutralization of TGF-β, resulting in elevated IL-17 and loss of IL-4 and IL-10 production. Thus, Treg cells induced to irrelevant Ags offer a novel approach to treat autoimmune diseases independent of auto-Ag.
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MESH Headings
- Adoptive Transfer/methods
- Animals
- Bystander Effect/immunology
- Disease Models, Animal
- Down-Regulation/immunology
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/immunology
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/pathology
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/therapy
- Epitopes, T-Lymphocyte/immunology
- Female
- Interleukin-10/antagonists & inhibitors
- Interleukin-10/biosynthesis
- Interleukin-17/biosynthesis
- Interleukin-17/physiology
- Interleukin-4/antagonists & inhibitors
- Interleukin-4/biosynthesis
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred Strains
- Myelin Proteolipid Protein/immunology
- Primary Cell Culture
- T-Lymphocytes, Regulatory/immunology
- T-Lymphocytes, Regulatory/metabolism
- T-Lymphocytes, Regulatory/transplantation
- Transforming Growth Factor beta/antagonists & inhibitors
- Transforming Growth Factor beta/physiology
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Affiliation(s)
- Sangmu Jun
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Montana State University, P.O. Box 173610, Bozeman, MT 59717-3610, USA
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232
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Herder V, Hansmann F, Stangel M, Schaudien D, Rohn K, Baumgärtner W, Beineke A. Cuprizone inhibits demyelinating leukomyelitis by reducing immune responses without virus exacerbation in an infectious model of multiple sclerosis. J Neuroimmunol 2012; 244:84-93. [PMID: 22329906 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2012.01.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2011] [Revised: 01/20/2012] [Accepted: 01/23/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis is one of the most common demyelinating central nervous system diseases in young adults. Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis (TME) is a widely used virus-induced murine model for human myelin disorders. Immunosuppressive approaches generally reduce antiviral immunity and therefore increase virus dissemination with clinical worsening. In the present study, the progressive course of TME was significantly delayed due to a five-week cuprizone feeding period. Cuprizone was able to minimize demyelinating leukomyelitis without virus exacerbation. This phenomenon is supposed to be a consequence of selective inhibition of detrimental inflammatory responses with maintained protective immunity against the virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vanessa Herder
- Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Bünteweg 17, D-30559 Hannover, Germany
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233
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Wang X, Zhang Y, Yang XO, Nurieva RI, Chang SH, Ojeda SS, Kang HS, Schluns KS, Gui J, Jetten AM, Dong C. Transcription of Il17 and Il17f is controlled by conserved noncoding sequence 2. Immunity 2012; 36:23-31. [PMID: 22244845 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2011.10.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2010] [Revised: 08/30/2011] [Accepted: 10/25/2011] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
T helper 17 (Th17) cells specifically transcribe the Il17 and Il17f genes, which are localized in the same chromosome region, but the underlying mechanism is unclear. Here, we report a cis element that we previously named conserved noncoding sequence 2 (CNS2) physically interacted with both Il17 and Il17f gene promoters and was sufficient for regulating their selective transcription in Th17 cells. Targeted deletion of CNS2 resulted in impaired retinoic acid-related orphan receptor gammat (RORγt)-driven IL-17 expression in vitro. CNS2-deficient T cells also produced substantially decreased amounts of IL-17F. These cytokine defects were associated with defective chromatin remodeling in the Il17-Il17f gene locus, possibly because of effects on CNS2-mediated recruitment of histone-modifying enzymes p300 and JmjC domain-containing protein 3 (JMJD3). CNS2-deficient animals were also shown to be resistant to experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). Our results thus suggest that CNS2 is sufficient and necessary for Il17 and optimal Il17f gene transcription in Th17 cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaohu Wang
- Department of Immunology, M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA
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234
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Ljubisavljevic S, Stojanovic I, Pavlovic D, Sokolovic D, Stevanovic I. Aminoguanidine and N-acetyl-cysteine supress oxidative and nitrosative stress in EAE rat brains. Redox Rep 2011; 16:166-72. [PMID: 21888767 DOI: 10.1179/1351000211y.0000000007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) is a well-established animal model of human multiple sclerosis (MS). We have evaluated the role of oxidative and nitrosative stress, as the causal factors in the development of EAE, responsible for the damage of cardinal cellular components, such as lipids, proteins and nucleic acids, resulting in demyelination, axonal damage, and neuronal death. EAE was induced in female Sprague-Dawley rats, 3 months old (300±20 g), by immunization with myelin basic protein in combination with Complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA). The animals were divided into seven groups: control, EAE, CFA, EAE+aminoguanidine (AG), AG, EAE+N-acetyl-L-cysteine (NAC) and NAC. The animals were sacrificed 15 days after EAE induction, and the levels of nitrosative and oxidative stress were determined in 10% homogenate of the whole encephalitic mass. In EAE rats, brain NO production and MDA level were significantly increased (P<0.001) compared to the control values, whereas AG and NAC treatment decreased both parameters in EAE rats compared to EAE group (P<0.001). Glutathione (GSH) was reduced (P<0.001) in EAE rats in comparison with the control and CFA groups, but increased in EAE+AG and EAE+NAC group compared to the EAE group (P<0.01). Superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity was significantly decreased (P<0.001) in the EAE group compared to all other experimental groups. The clinical expression of EAE was significantly decreased (P<0.05) in the EAE groups treated with AG and NAC compared to EAE rats, during disease development. The obtained results prove an important role of oxidative and nitrosative stress in the pathogenesis of EAE, whereas AG and NAC protective effects offer new possibilities for a modified combined approach in MS therapy.
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235
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Pletinckx K, Stijlemans B, Pavlovic V, Laube R, Brandl C, Kneitz S, Beschin A, De Baetselier P, Lutz MB. Similar inflammatory DC maturation signatures induced by TNF or Trypanosoma brucei antigens instruct default Th2-cell responses. Eur J Immunol 2011; 41:3479-94. [PMID: 21928284 DOI: 10.1002/eji.201141631] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2011] [Revised: 07/20/2011] [Accepted: 09/15/2011] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
DCs represent the major cell type leading to polarized T-helper (Th) cell responses in vivo. Here, we asked whether the instruction of murine Th2 responses by DCs matured with the proinflammatory cytokine TNF is qualitatively different from maturation by different types of TLR4/MyD88-dependent variant-specific surface glycoproteins (VSGs) of Trypanosoma brucei (T. brucei). The results obtained by analyzing DC surface markers, Notch ligand mRNA, cytokines, asthma, and experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) models as well as performing microarrays indicate that both types of stimuli induce similar inflammatory, semi-mature DC profiles. DCs matured by TNF or VSG treatment expressed a common inflammatory signature of 24 genes correlating with their Th2-polarization capacity. However, the same 24 genes and 4498 additional genes were expressed by DCs treated with LPS that went on to induce Th1 cells. These findings support the concept of a default pathway for Th2-cell induction in DCs matured under suboptimal or inflammatory conditions, independent of the surface receptors and signaling pathways involved. Our data also indicate that quantitative differences in DC maturation might direct Th2- vs Th1-cell responses, since suboptimally matured inflammatory DCs induce default Th2-cell maturation, whereas fully mature DCs induce Th1-cell maturation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katrien Pletinckx
- Institute of Virology and Immunobiology, University of Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany
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236
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Musgrave T, Olechowski CJ, Kerr BJ. Learning new tricks from an old dog: using experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis to study comorbid symptoms in multiple sclerosis. Pain Manag 2011; 1:571-6. [DOI: 10.2217/pmt.11.61] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
SUMMARY Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic disease of the CNS characterized by inflammation, demyelination and axonal injury. In addition to the well-recognized features of the disease such as weakness, fatigue and paralysis, patients with MS may also experience a number of other comorbid disorders. Chronic pain, anxiety and depression affect a large percentage of MS patients. While a number of animal models are available to study the pathophysiology of MS, it is only recently that these models have been used to ask questions about other comorbid conditions associated with the disease. We will now summarize some of the major findings in this area. Although these animal models have been in use for many decades, it is clear that they are still capable of addressing novel and clinically relevant questions about the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Travis Musgrave
- Centre for Neuroscience, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada; Department of Anesthesiology & Pain Medicine, Clinical Sciences Building, 8–120, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G-2G3, Canada
| | - Camille J Olechowski
- Centre for Neuroscience, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada; Department of Anesthesiology & Pain Medicine, Clinical Sciences Building, 8–120, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G-2G3, Canada
| | - Bradley J Kerr
- Centre for Neuroscience, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada; Department of Anesthesiology & Pain Medicine, Clinical Sciences Building, 8–120, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G-2G3, Canada
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237
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Handel AE, Lincoln MR, Ramagopalan SV. Of mice and men: experimental autoimmune encephalitis and multiple sclerosis. Eur J Clin Invest 2011; 41:1254-8. [PMID: 21418205 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2362.2011.02519.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Research using experimental autoimmune encephalitis (EAE) models accounts for almost 20% of the papers. published in multiple sclerosis (MS). METHODS We performed a literature review of papers indexed with ISI Web of Science on EAE and MS over the last 30 years and a detailed analysis of studies of molecular pathways in EAE published in 2008 and 2009. RESULTS The impact of EAE studies declines more rapidly than other studies published on MS (EAE cited corrected half-life = 4·00 years vs. MS cited corrected half-life = 9·66 years, P < 0·0001). The pathology of EAE differs quite markedly from that observed in the human disease. EAE has implicated many different genes as important to pathogenesis but only a minority of these are supported by human studies. CONCLUSIONS Future research should critically appraise precisely what is being modelled by EAE before drawing conclusions about human disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam E Handel
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
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238
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Huarte E, Rynda-Apple A, Riccardi C, Skyberg JA, Golden S, Rollins MF, Ramstead AG, Jackiw LO, Maddaloni M, Pascual DW. Tolerogen-induced interferon-producing killer dendritic cells (IKDCs) protect against EAE. J Autoimmun 2011; 37:328-41. [PMID: 22018711 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaut.2011.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2011] [Revised: 09/13/2011] [Accepted: 09/17/2011] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Natural killer (NK) cells and dendritic cells (DCs) have been shown to link the innate and adaptive immune systems. Likewise, a new innate cell subset, interferon-producing killer DCs (IKDCs), shares phenotypic and functional characteristics with both DCs and NK cells. Here, we show IKDCs play an essential role in the resolution of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) upon treatment with the tolerizing agent, myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG), genetically fused to reovirus protein σ1 (termed MOG-pσ1). Activated IKDCs were recruited subsequent MOG-pσ1 treatment of EAE, and disease resolution was abated upon NK1.1 cell depletion. These IKDCs were able to kill activated CD4(+) T cells and mature dendritic DCs, thus, contributing to EAE remission. In addition, IKDCs were responsible for MOG-pσ1-mediated MOG-specific regulatory T cell recruitment to the CNS. The IKDCs induced by MOG-pσ1 expressed elevated levels of HVEM for interactions with cognate ligand-positive cells: LIGHT(+) NK and T(eff) cells and BTLA(+) B cells. Further characterization revealed these activated IKDCs being MHC class II(high), and upon their adoptive transfer (CD11c(+)NK1.1(+)MHC class II(high)), IKDCs, but not CD11c(+)NK1.1(+)MHC class II(intermediate/low) (unactivated) cells, conferred protection against EAE. These activated IKDCs showed enhanced CD107a, PD-L1, and granzyme B expression and could present OVA, unlike unactivated IKDCs. Thus, these results demonstrate the interventional potency induced HVEM(+) IKDCs to resolve autoimmune disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eduardo Huarte
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Montana State University, 960 Technology Blvd., Bozeman, MT 59718, USA
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239
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Mc Guire C, Beyaert R, van Loo G. Death receptor signalling in central nervous system inflammation and demyelination. Trends Neurosci 2011; 34:619-28. [PMID: 21999927 DOI: 10.1016/j.tins.2011.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2011] [Revised: 09/13/2011] [Accepted: 09/18/2011] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Death receptors (DRs) are members of the tumor necrosis factor receptor (TNF-R) superfamily that are characterised by the presence of a conserved intracellular death domain and are able to trigger a signalling pathway leading to apoptosis. Strong evidence suggests that DRs contribute to the pathology of tissue destructive diseases, including multiple sclerosis (MS), the most common inflammatory demyelinating disease of the central nervous system (CNS). Here, we review the evidence supporting a role for DRs in MS pathology and its implications for the development of therapeutic strategies for MS and other demyelinating pathologies of the CNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Conor Mc Guire
- Department for Molecular Biomedical Research, Unit of Molecular Signal Transduction in Inflammation, VIB, B-9052 Ghent, Belgium
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240
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Chen G, Hardy K, Pagler E, Ma L, Lee S, Gerondakis S, Daley S, Shannon MF. The NF-κB transcription factor c-Rel is required for Th17 effector cell development in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2011; 187:4483-91. [PMID: 21940679 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1101757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) is a T cell-mediated autoimmune disease involving effector Th subsets such as Th1 and Th17. In this study, we demonstrate that mice lacking the NF-κB transcription factor family member c-Rel (rel(-/-)), which are known to be resistant to EAE, show impaired Th17 development. Mixed bone marrow chimeras and EAE adoptive transfer experiments show that the deficiency of effector Th17 cells in rel(-/-) mice is T cell intrinsic. Consistent with this finding, c-Rel was activated in response to TCR signaling in the early stages of Th17 development and controlled the expression of Rorc, which encodes the Th17 transcription factor retinoic acid-related orphan receptor γt. CD28, but not IL-2, repression of Th17 development was dependent on c-Rel, implicating a dual role for c-Rel in modulating Th17 development. Adoptive transfer experiments also suggested that c-Rel control of regulatory T cell differentiation and homeostasis influences EAE development and severity by influencing the balance between Th17 and regulatory T cells. Collectively, our findings indicate that in addition to promoting Th1 differentiation, c-Rel regulates the development and severity of EAE via multiple mechanisms that impact on the generation of Th17 cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guobing Chen
- Gene Expression and Epigenomics Laboratory, Department of Genome Biology, The John Curtin School of Medical Research, Australian National University, Canberra 2600, Australia
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241
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Clark AK, Malcangio M. Microglial signalling mechanisms: Cathepsin S and Fractalkine. Exp Neurol 2011; 234:283-92. [PMID: 21946268 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2011.09.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2011] [Revised: 08/26/2011] [Accepted: 09/09/2011] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
A recent major conceptual advance has been the recognition of the importance of immune system-neuron interactions in the modulation of spinal pain processing. In particular, pro-inflammatory mediators secreted by immune competent cells such as microglia modulate nociceptive function in the injured CNS and following peripheral nerve damage. Chemokines play a pivotal role in mediating neuronal-microglial communication which leads to increased nociception. Here we examine the evidence that one such microglial mediator, the lysosomal cysteine protease Cathepsin S (CatS), is critical for the maintenance of neuropathic pain via cleavage of the transmembrane chemokine Fractalkine (FKN). Both CatS and FKN mediate critical physiological functions necessary for immune regulation. As key mediators of homeostatic functions it is not surprising that imbalance in these immune processes has been implicated in autoimmune disorders including Multiple Sclerosis and Rheumatoid Arthritis, both of which are associated with chronic pain. Thus, impairment of the CatS/FKN signalling pair constitutes a novel therapeutic approach for the treatment of chronic pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna K Clark
- Wolfson Centre for Age Related Diseases, King's College London, London, UK
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242
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Kipp M, van der Star B, Vogel DYS, Puentes F, van der Valk P, Baker D, Amor S. Experimental in vivo and in vitro models of multiple sclerosis: EAE and beyond. Mult Scler Relat Disord 2011; 1:15-28. [PMID: 25876447 DOI: 10.1016/j.msard.2011.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2011] [Accepted: 09/05/2011] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Although the primary cause of multiple sclerosis (MS) is unknown, the widely accepted view is that aberrant (auto)immune responses possibly arising following infection(s) are responsible for the destructive inflammatory demyelination and neurodegeneration in the central nervous system (CNS). This notion, and the limited access of human brain tissue early in the course of MS, has led to the development of autoimmune, viral and toxin-induced demyelination animal models as well as the development of human CNS cell and organotypic brain slice cultures in an attempt to understand events in MS. The autoimmune models, collectively known as experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), and viral models have shaped ideas of how environmental factors may trigger inflammation, demyelination and neurodegeneration in the CNS. Understandably, these models have also heavily influenced the development of therapies targeting the inflammatory aspect of MS. Demyelination and remyelination in the absence of overt inflammation are better studied in toxin-induced demyelination models using cuprizone and lysolecithin. The paradigm shift of MS as an autoimmune disease of myelin to a neurodegenerative disease has required more appropriate models reflecting the axonal and neuronal damage. Thus, secondary progressive EAE and spastic models have been crucial to develop neuroprotective approaches. In this review the current in vivo and in vitro experimental models to examine pathological mechanisms involved in inflammation, demyelination and neuronal degeneration, as well as remyelination and repair in MS are discussed. Since this knowledge is the basis for the development of new therapeutic approaches for MS, we particularly address whether the currently available models truly reflect the human disease, and discuss perspectives to further optimise and develop more suitable experimental models to study MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Markus Kipp
- Department of Pathology, VU University Medical Centre, PO Box 7057, 1007 MB Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Institute of Neuroanatomy, Faculty of Medicine, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Baukje van der Star
- Department of Pathology, VU University Medical Centre, PO Box 7057, 1007 MB Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Daphne Y S Vogel
- Department of Pathology, VU University Medical Centre, PO Box 7057, 1007 MB Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Department of Molecular Cell Biology and Immunology, VU University Medical Centre, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Fabìola Puentes
- Neuroimmunology Unit, Blizard Institute, Queen Mary University of London, Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry, London, UK
| | - Paul van der Valk
- Department of Pathology, VU University Medical Centre, PO Box 7057, 1007 MB Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - David Baker
- Neuroimmunology Unit, Blizard Institute, Queen Mary University of London, Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry, London, UK
| | - Sandra Amor
- Department of Pathology, VU University Medical Centre, PO Box 7057, 1007 MB Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Neuroimmunology Unit, Blizard Institute, Queen Mary University of London, Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry, London, UK.
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243
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Shriver LP, Manchester M. Inhibition of fatty acid metabolism ameliorates disease activity in an animal model of multiple sclerosis. Sci Rep 2011; 1:79. [PMID: 22355598 PMCID: PMC3216566 DOI: 10.1038/srep00079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2011] [Accepted: 07/27/2011] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis is an inflammatory demyelinating disease of the central nervous system and a leading cause of neurological disability. The complex immunopathology and variable disease course of multiple sclerosis have limited effective treatment of all patients. Altering the metabolism of immune cells may be an attractive strategy to modify their function during autoimmunity. We examined the effect of inhibiting fatty acid metabolism in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), a mouse model of multiple sclerosis. Mice treated with an inhibitor of carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1 (CPT-1), the rate-limiting enzyme in the beta-oxidation of fatty acids, showed a reduction in disease severity as well as less inflammation and demyelination. Inhibition of CPT-1 in encephalitogenic T-cells resulted in increased apoptosis and reduced inflammatory cytokine production. These results suggest that disruption of fatty acid metabolism promotes downregulation of inflammation in the CNS and that this metabolic pathway is a potential therapeutic target for multiple sclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leah P Shriver
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California , San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, California. 92093. USA
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244
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Smolinska A, Attali A, Blanchet L, Ampt K, Tuinstra T, van Aken H, Suidgeest E, van Gool AJ, Luider T, Wijmenga SS, Buydens LM. NMR and Pattern Recognition Can Distinguish Neuroinflammation and Peripheral Inflammation. J Proteome Res 2011; 10:4428-38. [DOI: 10.1021/pr200203v] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Agnieszka Smolinska
- Institute for Molecules and Materials, Radboud University Nijmegen, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Amos Attali
- Abbott Healthcare Products B.V., Weesp, The Netherlands
| | - Lionel Blanchet
- Institute for Molecules and Materials, Radboud University Nijmegen, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Kirsten Ampt
- Institute for Molecules and Materials, Radboud University Nijmegen, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | | | - Hans van Aken
- Abbott Healthcare Products B.V., Weesp, The Netherlands
| | | | | | - Theo Luider
- Department of Neurology, Erasmus University Medical Centre, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Sybren S. Wijmenga
- Institute for Molecules and Materials, Radboud University Nijmegen, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Lutgarde M.C. Buydens
- Institute for Molecules and Materials, Radboud University Nijmegen, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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245
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Toker A, Slaney CY, Bäckström BT, Harper JL. Glatiramer Acetate Treatment Directly Targets CD11b+
Ly6G−
Monocytes and Enhances the Suppression of Autoreactive T cells in Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis. Scand J Immunol 2011; 74:235-243. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-3083.2011.02575.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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246
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Bassil R, Zhu B, Lahoud Y, Riella LV, Yagita H, Elyaman W, Khoury SJ. Notch ligand delta-like 4 blockade alleviates experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis by promoting regulatory T cell development. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2011; 187:2322-8. [PMID: 21813770 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1100725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Notch signaling pathway plays an important role in T cell differentiation. Delta-like ligand (Dll)4, one of five known Notch ligands, has been implicated in regulating Th2 cell differentiation in animal models of human diseases. However, the role of Dll4 in Th1/Th17-mediated autoimmune diseases remains largely unknown. Using an anti-Dll4 blocking mAb, we show that neutralizing Dll4 during the induction phase of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis in C57BL/6 mice significantly increased the pool of CD4(+)Foxp3(+) regulatory T cells (Treg) in the periphery and in the CNS, and decreased the severity of clinical disease and CNS inflammation. Dll4 blockade promoted induction of myelin-specific Th2/Treg immune responses and impaired Th1/Th17 responses compared with IgG-treated mice. In vitro, we show that signaling with recombinant Dll4 inhibits the TGF-β-induced Treg development, and inhibits Janus kinase 3-induced STAT5 phosphorylation, a transcription factor known to play a key role in Foxp3 expression and maintenance. Depletion of natural Treg using anti-CD25 Ab reversed the protective effects of anti-Dll4 Ab. These findings outline a novel role for Dll4-Notch signaling in regulating Treg development in EAE, making it an encouraging target for Treg-mediated immunotherapy in autoimmune diseases, such as multiple sclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ribal Bassil
- Center for Neurologic Diseases, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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247
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Denic A, Johnson AJ, Bieber AJ, Warrington AE, Rodriguez M, Pirko I. The relevance of animal models in multiple sclerosis research. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011; 18:21-9. [PMID: 20537877 DOI: 10.1016/j.pathophys.2010.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 220] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2009] [Revised: 04/06/2010] [Accepted: 04/16/2010] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is a complex disease with an unknown etiology and no effective cure, despite decades of extensive research that led to the development of several partially effective treatments. Researchers have only limited access to early and immunologically active MS tissue samples, and the modification of experimental circumstances is much more restricted in human studies compared to studies in animal models. For these reasons, animal models are needed to clarify the underlying immune-pathological mechanisms and test novel therapeutic and reparative approaches. It is not possible for a single mouse model to capture and adequately incorporate all clinical, radiological, pathological and genetic features of MS. The three most commonly studied major categories of animal models of MS include: (1) the purely autoimmune experimental autoimmune/allergic encephalomyelitis (EAE); (2) the virally induced chronic demyelinating disease models, with the main model of Theiler's Murine Encephalomyelitis Virus (TMEV) infection and (3) toxin-induced models of demyelination, including the cuprizone model and focal demyelination induced by lyso-phosphatidyl choline (lyso-lecithine). EAE has been enormously helpful over the past several decades in our overall understanding of CNS inflammation, immune surveillance and immune-mediated tissue injury. Furthermore, EAE has directly led to the development of three approved medications for treatment in multiple sclerosis, glatiramer acetate, mitoxantrone and natalizumab. On the other hand, numerous therapeutical approaches that showed promising results in EAE turned out to be either ineffective or in some cases harmful in MS. The TMEV model features a chronic-progressive disease course that lasts for the entire lifespan in susceptible mice. Several features of MS, including the role and significance of axonal injury and repair, the partial independence of disability from demyelination, epitope spread from viral to myelin epitopes, the significance of remyelination has all been demonstrated in this model. TMEV based MS models also feature several MRI findings of the human disease. Toxin-induced demyelination models has been mainly used to study focal demyelination and remyelination. None of the three main animal models described in this review can be considered superior; rather, they are best viewed as complementary to one another. Despite their limitations, the rational utilization and application of these models to address specific research questions will remain one of the most useful tools in studies of human demyelinating diseases.
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Abstract
BACKGROUND The 90-kDa heat-shock proteins (Hsp90) have rapidly evolved into promising therapeutic targets for the treatment of several diseases, including cancer and neurodegenerative diseases. Hsp90 is a molecular chaperone that aids in the conformational maturation of nascent polypeptides, as well as the rematuration of denatured proteins. DISCUSSION Many of the Hsp90-dependent client proteins are associated with cellular growth and survival and, consequently, inhibition of Hsp90 represents a promising approach for the treatment of cancer. Conversely, stimulation of heat-shock protein levels has potential therapeutic applications for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases that result from misfolded and aggregated proteins. CONCLUSION Hsp90 modulation exhibits the potential to treat unrelated disease states, from cancer to neurodegenerative diseases, and, thus, to fold or not to fold, becomes a question of great value.
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249
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Ploix CC, Noor S, Crane J, Masek K, Carter W, Lo DD, Wilson EH, Carson MJ. CNS-derived CCL21 is both sufficient to drive homeostatic CD4+ T cell proliferation and necessary for efficient CD4+ T cell migration into the CNS parenchyma following Toxoplasma gondii infection. Brain Behav Immun 2011; 25:883-96. [PMID: 20868739 PMCID: PMC3032828 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2010.09.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2010] [Revised: 09/16/2010] [Accepted: 09/16/2010] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Injury, infection and autoimmune triggers increase CNS expression of the chemokine CCL21. Outside the CNS, CCL21 contributes to chronic inflammatory disease and autoimmunity by three mechanisms: recruitment of lymphocytes into injured or infected tissues, organization of inflammatory infiltrates into lymphoid-like structures and promotion of homeostatic CD4+ T-cell proliferation. To test if CCL21 plays the same role in CNS inflammation, we generated transgenic mice with astrocyte-driven expression of CCL21 (GFAP-CCL21 mice). Astrocyte-produced CCL21 was bioavailable and sufficient to support homeostatic CD4+ T-cell proliferation in cervical lymph nodes even in the absence of endogenous CCL19/CCL21. However, lymphocytes and glial-activation were not detected in the brains of uninfected GFAP-CCL21 mice, although CCL21 levels in GFAP-CCL21 brains were higher than levels expressed in inflamed Toxoplasma-infected non-transgenic brains. Following Toxoplasma infection, T-cell extravasation into submeningeal, perivascular and ventricular sites of infected CNS was not CCL21-dependent, occurring even in CCL19/CCL21-deficient mice. However, migration of extravasated CD4+, but not CD8+ T cells from extra-parenchymal CNS sites into the CNS parenchyma was CCL21-dependent. CD4+ T cells preferentially accumulated at perivascular, submeningeal and ventricular spaces in infected CCL21/CCL19-deficient mice. By contrast, greater numbers of CD4+ T cells infiltrated the parenchyma of infected GFAP-CCL21 mice than in wild-type or CCL19/CCL21-deficient mice. Together these data indicate that CCL21 expression within the CNS has the potential to contribute to T cell-mediated CNS pathology via: (a) homeostatic priming of CD4+ T-lymphocytes outside the CNS and (b) by facilitating CD4+ T-cell migration into parenchymal sites following pathogenic insults to the CNS.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Shahani Noor
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, Center for Glial-Neuronal Interactions, University of California Riverside, Graduate Program in Biomedical Sciences, University of California Riverside
| | - Janelle Crane
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, Center for Glial-Neuronal Interactions, University of California Riverside
| | - Kokoechat Masek
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, Center for Glial-Neuronal Interactions, University of California Riverside
| | - Whitney Carter
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, Center for Glial-Neuronal Interactions, University of California Riverside
| | - David D. Lo
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, Center for Glial-Neuronal Interactions, University of California Riverside
| | - Emma H. Wilson
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, Center for Glial-Neuronal Interactions, University of California Riverside,Correspondence should be directed to: Emma H. Wilson and Monica J. Carson, Division of Biomedical Sciences, University of California Riverside, 900 University Ave, Riverside, CA 92421, Tel: 951-827-2584, FAX: 951-827-5504, ,
| | - Monica J. Carson
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, Center for Glial-Neuronal Interactions, University of California Riverside,Correspondence should be directed to: Emma H. Wilson and Monica J. Carson, Division of Biomedical Sciences, University of California Riverside, 900 University Ave, Riverside, CA 92421, Tel: 951-827-2584, FAX: 951-827-5504, ,
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Miljković D, Momčilović M, Stanojević Ž, Rašić D, Mostarica-Stojković M. It is still not for the old iron: adjuvant effects of carbonyl iron in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis induction. J Neurochem 2011; 118:205-14. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2011.07303.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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