An aquaporin-4/transient receptor potential vanilloid 4 (AQP4/TRPV4) complex is essential for cell-volume control in astrocytes

MLC1 protein: a likely link between leukodystrophies and brain channelopathies

Megalencephalic leukoencephalopathy with subcortical cysts (MLCs) disease is a rare inherited, autosomal recessive form of childhood-onset spongiform leukodystrophy characterized by macrocephaly, deterioration of motor functions, epileptic seizures and mental decline. Brain edema, subcortical fluid cysts, myelin and astrocyte vacuolation are the histopathological hallmarks of MLC. Mutations in either the MLC1 gene (>75% of patients) or the GlialCAM gene (<20% of patients) are responsible for the disease. Recently, the GlialCAM adhesion protein was found essential for the membrane expression and function of the chloride channel ClC-2 indicating MLC disease caused by mutation in GlialCAM as the first channelopathy among leukodystrophies. On the contrary, the function of MLC1 protein, which binds GlialCAM, its functional relationship with ClC-2 and the molecular mechanisms underlying MLC1 mutation-induced functional defects are not fully understood yet. The human MLC1 gene encodes a 377-amino acid membrane protein with eight predicted transmembrane domains which shows very low homology with voltage-dependent potassium (K⁺) channel subunits. The high expression of MLC1 in brain astrocytes contacting blood vessels and meninges and brain alterations observed in MLC patients have led to hypothesize a role for MLC1 in the regulation of ion and water homeostasis. Recent studies have shown that MLC1 establishes structural and/or functional interactions with several ion/water channels and transporters and ion channel accessory proteins, and that these interactions are affected by MLC1 mutations causing MLC. Here, we review data on MLC1 functional properties obtained in in vitro and in vivo models and discuss evidence linking the effects of MLC1 mutations to brain channelopathies.

Are Aquaporins the Missing Transmembrane Osmosensors?

Regulation of cell volume is central to homeostasis. It is assumed to begin with the detection of a change in water potential across the bounding membrane, but it is not clear how this is accomplished. While examples of general osmoreceptors (which sense osmotic pressure in one phase) and stretch-activated ion channels (which require swelling of a cell or organelle) are known, effective volume regulation requires true transmembrane osmosensors (TMOs) which directly detect a water potential difference spanning a membrane. At present, no TMO molecule has been unambiguously identified, and clear evidence for mammalian TMOs is notably lacking. In this paper, we set out a theory of TMOs which requires a water channel spanning the membrane that excludes the major osmotic solutes, responds directly without the need for any other process such as swelling, and signals to other molecules associated with the magnitude of changing osmotic differences. The most likely molecules that are fit for this purpose and which are also ubiquitous in eukaryotic cells are aquaporins (AQPs). We review experimental evidence from several systems which indicates that AQPs are essential elements in regulation and may be functioning as TMOs; i.e. the first step in an osmosensing sequence that signals osmotic imbalance in a cell or organelle. We extend this concept to several systems of current interest in which the cellular involvement of AQPs as simple water channels is puzzling or counter-intuitive. We suggest that, apart from regulatory volume changes in cells, AQPs may also be acting as TMOs in red cells, secretory granules and microorganisms.

Role of astrocytes in epilepsy

Astrocytes express ion channels, transmitter receptors, and transporters and, thus, are endowed with the machinery to sense and respond to neuronal activity. Recent studies have implicated that astrocytes play important roles in physiology, but these cells also emerge as crucial actors in epilepsy. Astrocytes are abundantly coupled through gap junctions allowing them to redistribute elevated K(+) and transmitter concentrations from sites of enhanced neuronal activity. Investigation of specimens from patients with pharmacoresistant temporal lobe epilepsy and epilepsy models revealed alterations in expression, localization, and function of astroglial K(+) and water channels. In addition, malfunction of glutamate transporters and the astrocytic glutamate-converting enzyme, glutamine synthetase, has been observed in epileptic tissue. These findings suggest that dysfunctional astrocytes are crucial players in epilepsy and should be considered as promising targets for new therapeutic strategies.

Regulation of neurovascular coupling in autoimmunity to water and ion channels

Much progress has been made in understanding autoimmune channelopathies, but the underlying pathogenic mechanisms are not always clear due to broad expression of some channel proteins. Recent studies show that autoimmune conditions that interfere with neurovascular coupling in the central nervous system (CNS) can lead to neurodegeneration. Cerebral blood flow that meets neuronal activity and metabolic demand is tightly regulated by local neural activity. This process of reciprocal regulation involves coordinated actions of a number of cell types, including neurons, glia, and vascular cells. In particular, astrocytic endfeet cover more than 90% of brain capillaries to assist blood-brain barrier (BBB) function, and wrap around synapses and nodes of Ranvier to communicate with neuronal activity. In this review, we highlight four types of channel proteins that are expressed in astrocytes, regarding their structures, biophysical properties, expression and distribution patterns, and related diseases including autoimmune disorders. Water channel aquaporin 4 (AQP4) and inwardly rectifying potassium (Kir4.1) channels are concentrated in astrocytic endfeet, whereas some voltage-gated Ca(2+) and two-pore domain K(+) channels are expressed throughout the cell body of reactive astrocytes. More channel proteins are found in astrocytes under normal and abnormal conditions. This research field will contribute to a better understanding of pathogenic mechanisms underlying autoimmune disorders.

The Sarcoglycan complex is expressed in the cerebrovascular system and is specifically regulated by astroglial Cx30 channels

Astrocytes, the most prominent glial cell type in the brain, send specialized processes called endfeet, around blood vessels and express a large molecular repertoire regulating the cerebrovascular system physiology. One of the most striking properties of astrocyte endfeet is their enrichment in gap junction proteins Connexin 43 and 30 (Cx43 and Cx30) allowing in particular for direct intercellular trafficking of ions and small signaling molecules through perivascular astroglial networks. In this study, we addressed the specific role of Cx30 at the gliovascular interface. Using an inactivation mouse model for Cx30 (Cx30^Δ/Δ; Δ means deleted allele) we showed that absence of Cx30 does not affect blood-brain barrier (BBB) organization and permeability. However, it results in the cerebrovascular fraction, in a strong upregulation of Sgcg encoding γ-Sarcoglycan (γ-SG), a member of the Dystrophin-associated protein complex (DAPC) connecting cytoskeleton and the extracellular matrix. The same molecular event occurs in Cx30^T5M/T5M mutated mice, where Cx30 channels are closed, demonstrating that Sgcg regulation relied on Cx30 channel functions. We further characterized the expression of other Sarcoglycan complex (SGC) molecules in the cerebrovascular system and showed the presence of α-, β-, δ-, γ-, ε- and ζ- SG, as well as Sarcospan. Their expression was however not modified in Cx30^Δ/Δ. These results suggest that a full SGC might be present in the cerebrovascular system, and that expression of one of its member, γ-SG, depends on Cx30 channels. As described in skeletal muscles, the SGC may contribute to membrane stabilization and signal transduction in the cerebrovascular system, which may therefore be regulated by Cx30 channel-mediated functions.

Swelling and eicosanoid metabolites differentially gate TRPV4 channels in retinal neurons and glia

Activity-dependent shifts in ionic concentrations and water that accompany neuronal and glial activity can generate osmotic forces with biological consequences for brain physiology. Active regulation of osmotic gradients and cellular volume requires volume-sensitive ion channels. In the vertebrate retina, critical support to volume regulation is provided by Müller astroglia, but the identity of their osmosensor is unknown. Here, we identify TRPV4 channels as transducers of mouse Müller cell volume increases into physiological responses. Hypotonic stimuli induced sustained [Ca(2+)]i elevations that were inhibited by TRPV4 antagonists and absent in TRPV4(-/-) Müller cells. Glial TRPV4 signals were phospholipase A2- and cytochrome P450-dependent, characterized by slow-onset and Ca(2+) waves, and, in excess, were sufficient to induce reactive gliosis. In contrast, neurons responded to TRPV4 agonists and swelling with fast, inactivating Ca(2+) signals that were independent of phospholipase A2. Our results support a model whereby swelling and proinflammatory signals associated with arachidonic acid metabolites differentially gate TRPV4 in retinal neurons and glia, with potentially significant consequences for normal and pathological retinal function.

Brain transient receptor potential channels and stroke

Transient receptor potential (TRP) channels have been increasingly implicated in the pathological mechanisms of CNS disorders. TRP expression has been detected in neurons, astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglia, and ependymal cells as well as in the cerebral vascular endothelium and smooth muscle. In stroke, TRPC3/4/6, TRPM2/4/7, and TRPV1/3/4 channels have been found to participate in ischemia-induced cell death, whereas other TRP channels, in particular those expressed in nonneuronal cells, have been less well studied. This review summarizes the current knowledge on the expression and functions of the TRP channels in various cell types in the brain and our current understanding of TRP channels in stroke pathophysiology. In an aging society, the occurrence of stroke is expected to increase steadily, and there is an urgent requirement to improve the current stroke management strategy. Therefore, elucidating the roles of TRP channels in stroke could shed light on the development of novel therapeutic strategies and ultimately improve stroke outcome.

Extracellular osmolarity regulates matrix homeostasis in the intervertebral disc and articular cartilage: evolving role of TonEBP

Degeneration of the intervertebral disc is characterized by changes in proteoglycan status, loss of bound water molecules, decreased tissue osmotic pressure and a resulting mechanical failure of the disc. A similar spectrum of changes is evident in osteoarthritic articular cartilage. When healthy, resident cells in these skeletal tissues respond to applied mechanical loads by regulating their own osmotic state and the hydration of the extracellular matrix. The transcription factor Tonicity-Responsive Enhancer Binding Protein (TonEBP or NFAT5) is known to mediate the osmoadaptive response in these and other tissues. While the molecular basis of how osmotic loading controls matrix homeostasis is not completely understood, TonEBP regulates the expression of aggrecan and β1,3-glucoronosyltransferase in nucleus pulposus cells, in addition to targets that allow for survival under hypertonic stress. Moreover, in chondrocytes, TonEBP controls expression of several collagen subtypes and Sox9, a master regulator of aggrecan and collagen II expression. Thus, TonEBP-mediated regulation of the matrix composition allows disc cells and chondrocytes to modify the extracellular osmotic state itself. On the other hand, TonEBP in immune cells induces expression of TNF-α, IL-6 and MCP-1, pro-inflammatory molecules closely linked to matrix catabolism and pathogenesis of both disc degeneration and osteoarthritis, warranting investigations of this aspect of TonEBP function in skeletal cells. In summary, the TonEBP system, through its effects on extracellular matrix and osmoregulatory genes can be viewed primarily as a protective or homeostatic response to physiological loading.

A defect in vasopressin secretion in autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease

A nephrogenic defect in urine concentration is well established in patients with polycystic kidney disease, but Ho et al. report a defect in the increase of plasma vasopressin in response to dehydration. On a cellular level, transient receptor potential channels responsible for osmoperception could interact with TRPPs encoded by the polycystic genes PKD1 and PKD2.

APOE genotype-dependent modulation of astrocyte chemokine CCL3 production

Apolipoprotein E (apoE) is well known as a regulator of cholesterol homeostasis, and is increasingly recognized to play a prominent role in the modulation of innate immune response, including cell-to-cell communication and migration. Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a slowly progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by neuroinflammation that appears to be an important component of the pathophysiology of the disease. Astrocytes are the majority cell type in brain, exerting significant influence over a range of central nervous system activities, including microglial-mediated neuroinflammatory responses. As the resident innate immune effector cells of the brain, microglia respond to soluble chemical signals released from tissue during injury and disease by mobilizing to lesion sites, clearing toxic molecules, and releasing chemical signals of their own. While microglial-mediated neuroinflammation in the AD brain remains an area of intense investigation, the mechanisms underlying reinforcement and regulation of these aberrant microglial responses by astrocytes are largely unstudied. Moreover, although inheritance of APOE ɛ4 represents the greatest genetic risk factor for sporadic AD, the mechanism by which apoE isoforms differentially influence AD pathophysiology is unknown. Here we show that APOE ɛ4 genotype specifically modulates astrocyte secretion of potent microglial chemotactic agents, including CCL3, thus providing evidence that APOE modulation of central nervous system (CNS) innate immune response is mediated through astrocytes.

Role of transient receptor potential vanilloid 4 activation in indomethacin-induced intestinal damage

Gastrointestinal ulcers and bleeding are serious complications of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) use. Although administration of antibiotics and Toll-like receptor 4 knockdown mitigate NSAID-induced enteropathy, the molecular mechanism of these effects is poorly understood. Intestinal hyperpermeability is speculated to trigger the initial damage due to NSAID use. Transient receptor potential vanilloid 4 (TRPV4) is a nonselective cation channel expressed throughout the gastrointestinal tract epithelium that is activated by temperature, extension, and chemicals such as 5,6-epoxyeicosatrienoic acid (5,6-EET). The aim of this study was to investigate the possible role of TRPV4 in NSAID-induced intestinal damage. TRPV4 mRNA and protein expression was confirmed by RT-PCR and immunochemistry, respectively, in mouse and human tissues while TRPV4 channel activity of the intestinal cell line IEC-6 was assessed by Ca(2+)-imaging analysis. TRPV4 activators or the NSAID indomethacin significantly decreased transepithelial resistance (TER) in IEC-6 cells, and indomethacin-induced TER decreases were inhibited by specific TRPV4 inhibitors or small-interfering RNA TRPV4 knockdown, as well as by the epoxygenase inhibitor N-(methylsulfonyl)-2-(2-propynyloxy)-benzenehexanamide, which decreased 5,6-EET levels. In TRPV4 knockout mice, indomethacin-induced intestinal damage was significantly reduced compared with WT mice. Taken together, these results show that TRPV4 activation in the intestinal epithelium caused epithelial hyperpermeability in response to NSAID-induced arachidonic acid metabolites and contributed to NSAID-induced intestinal damage. Thus, TRPV4 could be a promising new therapeutic target for the prevention of NSAID-induced intestinal damage.

Megalencephalic leukoencephalopathy with subcortical cysts protein-1 modulates endosomal pH and protein trafficking in astrocytes: relevance to MLC disease pathogenesis

Megalencephalic leukoencephalopathy with subcortical cysts (MLC) is a rare leukodystrophy caused by mutations in the gene encoding MLC1, a membrane protein mainly expressed in astrocytes in the central nervous system. Although MLC1 function is unknown, evidence is emerging that it may regulate ion fluxes. Using biochemical and proteomic approaches to identify MLC1 interactors and elucidate MLC1 function we found that MLC1 interacts with the vacuolar ATPase (V-ATPase), the proton pump that regulates endosomal acidity. Because we previously showed that in intracellular organelles MLC1 directly binds Na, K-ATPase, which controls endosomal pH, we studied MLC1 endosomal localization and trafficking and MLC1 effects on endosomal acidity and function using human astrocytoma cells overexpressing wild-type (WT) MLC1 or MLC1 carrying pathological mutations. We found that WT MLC1 is abundantly expressed in early (EEA1(+), Rab5(+)) and recycling (Rab11(+)) endosomes and uses the latter compartment to traffic to the plasma membrane during hyposmotic stress. We also showed that WT MLC1 limits early endosomal acidification and influences protein trafficking in astrocytoma cells by stimulating protein recycling, as revealed by FITC-dextran measurement of endosomal pH and transferrin protein recycling assay, respectively. WT MLC1 also favors recycling to the plasma-membrane of the TRPV4 cation channel which cooperates with MLC1 to activate calcium influx in astrocytes during hyposmotic stress. Although MLC disease-causing mutations differentially affect MLC1 localization and trafficking, all the mutated proteins fail to influence endosomal pH and protein recycling. This study demonstrates that MLC1 modulates endosomal pH and protein trafficking suggesting that alteration of these processes contributes to MLC pathogenesis.

Nanovesicle-based platform for the electrophysiological monitoring of aquaporin-4 and the real-time detection of its antibody

Aquaporin-4 (AQP4) water channel protein transports water molecules across cell membranes bidirectionally and involves in a neurological disorder, neuromyelitis optica (NMO) caused by anti-AQP4 antibodies. Here, we developed a platform based on nanovesicle-carbon nanotube hybrid nanostructures for the real-time detection of anti-AQP4 antibodies and the electrophysiological monitoring of AQP4 activities. Using the hybrid device, we could detect anti-AQP4 antibodies with a high sensitivity and estimate the binding constants under different osmotic conditions. The results show AQP4 had a better affinity to anti-AQP4 antibodies under hyper-osmotic conditions than normal conditions. Furthermore, our device can be utilized to study the real-time cellular responses related with AQP4 such as those to different osmotic stresses. This nanovesicle-based platform can be a simple but versatile tool for basic research about AQP4 and related biomedical applications such as disease diagnostics.

Postnatal development of the molecular complex underlying astrocyte polarization

Astrocytes are highly polarised cells with processes that ensheath microvessels, cover the brain surface, and abut synapses. The endfoot membrane domains facing microvessels and pia are enriched with aquaporin-4 water channels (AQP4) and other members of the dystrophin associated protein complex (DAPC). Several lines of evidence show that loss of astrocyte polarization, defined by the loss of proteins that are normally enriched in astrocyte endfeet, is a common denominator of several neurological diseases such as mesial temporal lobe epilepsy, Alzheimer's disease, and stroke. Little is known about the mechanisms responsible for inducing astrocyte polarization in vivo. Here we introduce the term endfoot-basal lamina junctional complex (EBJC) to denote the proteins that consolidate and characterize the gliovascular interface. The present study was initiated in order to resolve the developmental profile of the EBJC in mouse brain. We show that the EBJC is established after the first week postnatally. Through a combination of methodological approaches, including light microscopic and high resolution immunogold cytochemistry, quantitative RT-PCR, and Western blotting, we demonstrate that the different members of this complex exhibit distinct ontogenic profiles—with the extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins laminin and agrin appearing earlier than the other members of the complex. Specifically, while laminin and agrin expression peak at P7, quantitative immunoblot analyses indicate that AQP4, α-syntrophin, and the inwardly rectifying K(+) channel Kir4.1 expression increases towards adulthood. Our findings are consistent with ECM having an instructive role in establishing astrocyte polarization in postnatal development and emphasize the need to explore the involvement of ECM in neurological disease.

Hippocampus, hippocampal sclerosis and epilepsy

Hippocampal sclerosis (HS) is considered one of the major pathogenic factors of drug-resistant temporal lobe epilepsy. HS is characterized by selective loss of pyramidal neurons - especially of sectors CA1 and CA3 of the hippocampus - pathological proliferation of interneuron networks, and severe glia reaction. These changes occur in the course of long-term and complex epileptogenesis. The authors, on the basis of a review of the literature and own experience, present the pathomechanisms leading to hippocampal sclerosis and epileptogenesis, including various morphological and functional elements of this structure of the brain and pharmacological possibilities of preventing these processes.

A novel subtype of astrocytes expressing TRPV4 (transient receptor potential vanilloid 4) regulates neuronal excitability via release of gliotransmitters

Astrocytes play active roles in the regulation of synaptic transmission. Neuronal excitation can evoke Ca(2+) transients in astrocytes, and these Ca(2+) transients can modulate neuronal excitability. Although only a subset of astrocytes appears to communicate with neurons, the types of astrocytes that can regulate neuronal excitability are poorly characterized. We found that ∼30% of astrocytes in the brain express transient receptor potential vanilloid 4 (TRPV4), indicating that astrocytic subtypes can be classified on the basis of their expression patterns. When TRPV4(+) astrocytes are activated by ligands such as arachidonic acid, the activation propagates to neighboring astrocytes through gap junctions and by ATP release from the TRPV4(+) astrocytes. After activation, both TRPV4(+) and TRPV4(-) astrocytes release glutamate, which acts as an excitatory gliotransmitter to increase synaptic transmission through type 1 metabotropic glutamate receptor (mGluR). Our results indicate that TRPV4(+) astrocytes constitute a novel subtype of the population and are solely responsible for initiating excitatory gliotransmitter release to enhance synaptic transmission. We propose that TRPV4(+) astrocytes form a core of excitatory glial assembly in the brain and function to efficiently increase neuronal excitation in response to endogenous TRPV4 ligands.

Diversity of astroglial functions alludes to subcellular specialisation

Rapid signal exchange between astroglia and neurons has emerged as an essential element of neural circuits of the brain. However, the increasing variety of mechanisms contributing to this signalling appears to be facing a conceptual stalemate. The communication medium of astroglia involves intracellular [Ca(2+)] waves, which until recently have been associated with slow, global [Ca(2+)] rises. How such a uniform trigger could handle fast and diverse molecular messages remains unexplained. Recent studies have, however, revealed a variety of apparently independent Ca(2+) activities within individual astrocytic compartments, also indicating the prevalence of subcellular segregation for some signalling mechanisms. These signs of intracellular compartmentalisation might provide the key to the multitude of adaptive roles played by astroglia.

Modulation of water efflux through functional interaction between TRPV4 and TMEM16A/anoctamin 1

Transient receptor potential vanilloid 4 (TRPV4), a calcium-permeable channel, is highly expressed in the apical membrane of choroid plexus epithelial cells (CPECs) in the brain. The function of TRPV4 is unknown. Here, we show physical and functional interaction between TRPV4 and anoctamin 1 (ANO1) in HEK293T cells and CPECs. Chloride currents induced by a TRPV4 activator (GSK1016790A) were markedly increased in an extracellular calcium-dependent manner in HEK293T cells expressing TRPV4 with ANO1, but not with ANO4, ANO6, or ANO10, the mRNAs of which were expressed in the choroid plexus. We also found physical interaction between TRPV4 and ANO1 in both HEK293T cells and choroid plexus. We observed that ANO1 was activated at a warm temperature (37°C) in HEK293T cells and that the heat-evoked chloride currents were markedly enhanced after GSK1016790A application in CPECs. Simultaneous stimulation by warmth and hyposmosis induced chloride current activation in wild-type, but not in TRPV4-deficient, CPECs. Cell volume changes were induced by ANO1-mediated chloride currents in parallel with membrane potential changes, and the cell volume was significantly decreased at negative membrane potentials by TRPV4-induced ANO1 activation. Thus, physical and functional interactions between TRPV4 and ANO1 can modulate water transport in the choroid plexus.

The TRPV4 channel

The widely distributed TRPV4 cationic channel participates in the transduction of both physical (osmotic, mechanical, and heat) and chemical (endogenous, plant-derived, and synthetic ligands) stimuli. In this chapter we will review TRPV4 expression, biophysics, structure, regulation, and interacting partners as well as physiological and pathological insights obtained in TRPV4 animal models and human genetic studies.

TRPs in mechanosensing and volume regulation

Mechanosensitive channels allow cells to respond to changes in membrane stretch that occur due to external stimuli like pressure or flow or that occur because of osmotically induced cell swelling or shrinkage. Ion fluxes through the channels change the membrane potential and ion concentrations and link the stretch to cellular signalling. Changes in cellular activity evoked by mechanical stimuli can be used to elicit local tissue responses or can be transmitted further to generate more widespread responses. Channels can respond directly to membrane stress, can be conferred mechanosensitive by interaction with structural proteins, or can be activated by mechanosensitive signalling pathways. Because mechanosensitive channels are often nonselective cation channels, and invertebrate TRP isoforms are involved in mechanosensation, many of the mammalian TRP isoforms have been investigated with regard to their mechanosensitivity. There is evidence that members of the TRPC, TRPV, TRPM, TRPA and TRPP subfamilies could be in some way mechanosensitive, and each of the activation mechanisms described above is used by a TRP channel. TRP channels may be involved in mechanosensitive processes ranging from flow and pressure sensing in the vasculature and other organs to mechanosensation in sensory neurones and sensory organs. There is also evidence for a role of mechano- or osmosensitive TRP isoforms in osmosensing and the regulation of cell volume. Often, a number of different TRP isoforms have been implicated in a single type of mechanosensitive response. In many cases, the involvement of the isoforms needs to be confirmed, and their exact role in the signalling process determined.

Physiological roles of aquaporin-4 in brain

Aquaporin-4 (AQP4) is one of the most abundant molecules in the brain and is particularly prevalent in astrocytic membranes at the blood-brain and brain-liquor interfaces. While AQP4 has been implicated in a number of pathophysiological processes, its role in brain physiology has remained elusive. Only recently has evidence accumulated to suggest that AQP4 is involved in such diverse functions as regulation of extracellular space volume, potassium buffering, cerebrospinal fluid circulation, interstitial fluid resorption, waste clearance, neuroinflammation, osmosensation, cell migration, and Ca(2+) signaling. AQP4 is also required for normal function of the retina, inner ear, and olfactory system. A review will be provided of the physiological roles of AQP4 in brain and of the growing list of data that emphasize the polarized nature of astrocytes.

Roles of ion transport in control of cell motility

Cell motility is an essential feature of life. It is essential for reproduction, propagation, embryonic development, and healing processes such as wound closure and a successful immune defense. If out of control, cell motility can become life-threatening as, for example, in metastasis or autoimmune diseases. Regardless of whether ciliary/flagellar or amoeboid movement, controlled motility always requires a concerted action of ion channels and transporters, cytoskeletal elements, and signaling cascades. Ion transport across the plasma membrane contributes to cell motility by affecting the membrane potential and voltage-sensitive ion channels, by inducing local volume changes with the help of aquaporins and by modulating cytosolic Ca(2+) and H(+) concentrations. Voltage-sensitive ion channels serve as voltage detectors in electric fields thus enabling galvanotaxis; local swelling facilitates the outgrowth of protrusions at the leading edge while local shrinkage accompanies the retraction of the cell rear; the cytosolic Ca(2+) concentration exerts its main effect on cytoskeletal dynamics via motor proteins such as myosin or dynein; and both, the intracellular and the extracellular H(+) concentration modulate cell migration and adhesion by tuning the activity of enzymes and signaling molecules in the cytosol as well as the activation state of adhesion molecules at the cell surface. In addition to the actual process of ion transport, both, channels and transporters contribute to cell migration by being part of focal adhesion complexes and/or physically interacting with components of the cytoskeleton. The present article provides an overview of how the numerous ion-transport mechanisms contribute to the various modes of cell motility.

Mercury-sensitive water channels as possible sensors of water potentials in pollen

The growing pollen tube is central to plant reproduction and is a long-standing model for cellular tip growth in biology. Rapid osmotically driven growth is maintained under variable conditions, which requires osmosensing and regulation. This study explores the mechanism of water entry and the potential role of osmosensory regulation in maintaining pollen growth. The osmotic permeability of the plasmalemma of Lilium pollen tubes was measured from plasmolysis rates to be 1.32±0.31×10(-3) cm s(-1). Mercuric ions reduce this permeability by 65%. Simulations using an osmotic model of pollen tube growth predict that an osmosensor at the cell membrane controls pectin deposition at the cell tip; inhibiting the sensor is predicted to cause tip bursting due to cell wall thinning. It was found that adding mercury to growing pollen tubes caused such a bursting of the tips. The model indicates that lowering the osmotic permeability per se does not lead to bursting but rather to thickening of the tip. The time course of induced bursting showed no time lag and was independent of mercury concentration, compatible with a surface site of action. The submaximal bursting response to intermediate mercuric ion concentration was independent of the concentration of calcium ions, showing that bursting is not due to a competitive inhibition of calcium binding or entry. Bursting with the same time course was also shown by cells growing on potassium-free media, indicating that potassium channels (implicated in mechanosensing) are not involved in the bursting response. The possible involvement of mercury-sensitive water channels as osmosensors and current knowledge of these in pollen cells are discussed.

Cardiac aquaporins

Aquaporins are a group of proteins with high-selective permeability for water. A subgroup called aquaglyceroporins is also permeable to glycerol, urea and a few other solutes. Aquaporin function has mainly been studied in the brain, kidney, glands and skeletal muscle, while the information about aquaporins in the heart is still scarce. The current review explores the recent advances in this field, bringing aquaporins into focus in the context of myocardial ischemia, reperfusion, and blood osmolarity disturbances. Since the amount of data on aquaporins in the heart is still limited, examples and comparisons from better-studied areas of aquaporin biology have been used. The human heart expresses aquaporin-1, -3, -4 and -7 at the protein level. The potential roles of aquaporins in the heart are discussed, and some general phenomena that the myocardial aquaporins share with aquaporins in other organs are elaborated. Cardiac aquaporin-1 is mostly distributed in the microvasculature. Its main role is transcellular water flux across the endothelial membranes. Aquaporin-4 is expressed in myocytes, both in cardiac and in skeletal muscle. In addition to water flux, its function is connected to the calcium signaling machinery. It may play a role in ischemia-reperfusion injury. Aquaglyceroporins, especially aquaporin-7, may serve as a novel pathway for nutrient delivery into the heart. They also mediate toxicity of various poisons. Aquaporins cannot influence permeability by gating, therefore, their function is regulated by changes of expression-on the levels of transcription, translation (by microRNAs), post-translational modification, membrane trafficking, ubiquitination and subsequent degradation. Studies using mice genetically deficient for aquaporins have shown rather modest changes in the heart. However, they might still prove to be attractive targets for therapy directed to reduce myocardial edema and injury caused by ischemia and reperfusion.

The glia doctrine: addressing the role of glial cells in healthy brain ageing

Glial cells in their plurality pervade the human brain and impact on brain structure and function. A principal component of the emerging glial doctrine is the hypothesis that astrocytes, the most abundant type of glial cells, trigger major molecular processes leading to brain ageing. Astrocyte biology has been examined using molecular, biochemical and structural methods, as well as 3D brain imaging in live animals and humans. Exosomes are extracelluar membrane vesicles that facilitate communication between glia, and have significant potential for biomarker discovery and drug delivery. Polymorphisms in DNA repair genes may indirectly influence the structure and function of membrane proteins expressed in glial cells and predispose specific cell subgroups to degeneration. Physical exercise may reduce or retard age-related brain deterioration by a mechanism involving neuro-glial processes. It is most likely that additional information about the distribution, structure and function of glial cells will yield novel insight into human brain ageing. Systematic studies of glia and their functions are expected to eventually lead to earlier detection of ageing-related brain dysfunction and to interventions that could delay, reduce or prevent brain dysfunction.

Human aquaporins: regulators of transcellular water flow

BACKGROUND

Emerging evidence supports the view that (AQP) aquaporin water channels are regulators of transcellular water flow. Consistent with their expression in most tissues, AQPs are associated with diverse physiological and pathophysiological processes.

SCOPE OF REVIEW

AQP knockout studies suggest that the regulatory role of AQPs, rather than their action as passive channels, is their critical function. Transport through all AQPs occurs by a common passive mechanism, but their regulation and cellular distribution varies significantly depending on cell and tissue type; the role of AQPs in cell volume regulation (CVR) is particularly notable. This review examines the regulatory role of AQPs in transcellular water flow, especially in CVR. We focus on key systems of the human body, encompassing processes as diverse as urine concentration in the kidney to clearance of brain oedema.

MAJOR CONCLUSIONS

AQPs are crucial for the regulation of water homeostasis, providing selective pores for the rapid movement of water across diverse cell membranes and playing regulatory roles in CVR. Gating mechanisms have been proposed for human AQPs, but have only been reported for plant and microbial AQPs. Consequently, it is likely that the distribution and abundance of AQPs in a particular membrane is the determinant of membrane water permeability and a regulator of transcellular water flow.

GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE

Elucidating the mechanisms that regulate transcellular water flow will improve our understanding of the human body in health and disease. The central role of specific AQPs in regulating water homeostasis will provide routes to a range of novel therapies. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled Aquaporins.

The antagonistic modulation of Arp2/3 activity by N-WASP, WAVE2 and PICK1 defines dynamic changes in astrocyte morphology

Astrocytes exhibit a complex, branched morphology, allowing them to functionally interact with numerous blood vessels, neighboring glial processes and neuronal elements, including synapses. They also respond to central nervous system (CNS) injury by a process known as astrogliosis, which involves morphological changes, including cell body hypertrophy and thickening of major processes. Following severe injury, astrocytes exhibit drastically reduced morphological complexity and collectively form a glial scar. The mechanistic details behind these morphological changes are unknown. Here, we investigate the regulation of the actin-nucleating Arp2/3 complex in controlling dynamic changes in astrocyte morphology. In contrast to other cell types, Arp2/3 inhibition drives the rapid expansion of astrocyte cell bodies and major processes. This intervention results in a reduced morphological complexity of astrocytes in both dissociated culture and in brain slices. We show that this expansion requires functional myosin II downstream of ROCK and RhoA. Knockdown of the Arp2/3 subunit Arp3 or the Arp2/3 activator N-WASP by siRNA also results in cell body expansion and reduced morphological complexity, whereas depleting WAVE2 specifically reduces the branching complexity of astrocyte processes. By contrast, knockdown of the Arp2/3 inhibitor PICK1 increases astrocyte branching complexity. Furthermore, astrocyte expansion induced by ischemic conditions is delayed by PICK1 knockdown or N-WASP overexpression. Our findings identify a new morphological outcome for Arp2/3 activation in restricting rather than promoting outwards movement of the plasma membrane in astrocytes. The Arp2/3 regulators PICK1, and N-WASP and WAVE2 function antagonistically to control the complexity of astrocyte branched morphology, and this mechanism underlies the morphological changes seen in astrocytes during their response to pathological insult.

TRPV4 and the regulation of vascular tone

Recent studies have introduced the importance of transient receptor potential vanilloid subtype 4 (TRPV4) channels in the regulation of vascular tone. TRPV4 channels are expressed in both endothelium and vascular smooth muscle cells and can be activated by numerous stimuli including mechanical (eg, shear stress, cell swelling, and heat) and chemical (eg, epoxyeicosatrienoic acids, endocannabinoids, and 4α-phorbol esters). In the brain, TRPV4 channels are primarily localized to astrocytic endfeet processes, which wrap around blood vessels. Thus, TRPV4 channels are strategically localized to sense hemodynamic changes and contribute to the regulation of vascular tone. TRPV4 channel activation leads to smooth muscle cell hyperpolarization and vasodilation. Here, we review recent findings on the cellular mechanisms underlying TRPV4-mediated vasodilation; TRPV4 channel interaction with other proteins including transient receptor potential channel 1, small conductance (K(Ca)2.3), and large conductance (K(Ca)1.1) calcium-activated potassium-selective channels; and the importance of caveolin-rich domains for these interactions to take place.

Astrocyte regulation of cerebral vascular tone

Cerebral blood flow is controlled by two crucial processes, cerebral autoregulation (CA) and neurovascular coupling (NVC) or functional hyperemia. Whereas CA ensures constant blood flow over a wide range of systemic pressures, NVC ensures rapid spatial and temporal increases in cerebral blood flow in response to neuronal activation. The focus of this review is to discuss the cellular mechanisms by which astrocytes contribute to the regulation of vascular tone in terms of their participation in NVC and, to a lesser extent, CA. We discuss evidence for the various signaling modalities by which astrocytic activation leads to vasodilation and vasoconstriction of parenchymal arterioles. Moreover, we provide a rationale for the contribution of astrocytes to pressure-induced increases in vascular tone via the vasoconstrictor 20-HETE (a downstream metabolite of arachidonic acid). Along these lines, we highlight the importance of the transient receptor potential channel of the vanilloid family (TRPV4) as a key molecular determinant in the regulation of vascular tone in cerebral arterioles. Finally, we discuss current advances in the technical tools available to study NVC mechanisms in the brain as it relates to the participation of astrocytes.

Water permeability of aquaporin-4 channel depends on bilayer composition, thickness, and elasticity

Aquaporin-4 (AQP4) is the primary water channel in the mammalian brain, particularly abundant in astrocytes, whose plasma membranes normally contain high concentrations of cholesterol. Here we test the hypothesis that the water permeabilities of two naturally occurring isoforms (AQP4-M1 and AQP4-M23) depend on bilayer mechanical/structural properties modulated by cholesterol and phospholipid composition. Osmotic stress measurements were performed with proteoliposomes containing AQP4 and three different lipid mixtures: 1), phosphatidylcholine (PC) and phosphatidylglycerol (PG); 2), PC, PG, with 40 mol % cholesterol; and 3), sphingomyelin (SM), PG, with 40 mol % cholesterol. The unit permeabilities of AQP4-M1 were 3.3 ± 0.4 × 10(-13) cm(3)/s (mean ± SE), 1.2 ± 0.1 × 10(-13) cm(3)/s, and 0.4 ± 0.1 × 10(-13) cm(3)/s in PC:PG, PC:PG:cholesterol, and SM:PG:cholesterol, respectively. The unit permeabilities of AQP4-M23 were 2.1 ± 0.2 × 10(-13) cm(3)/s, 0.8 ± 0.1 × 10(-13) cm(3)/s, and 0.3 ± 0.1 × 10(-13) cm(3)/s in PC:PG, PC:PG:cholesterol, and SM:PG:cholesterol, respectively. Thus, for each isoform the unit permeabilities strongly depended on bilayer composition and systematically decreased with increasing bilayer compressibility modulus and bilayer thickness. These observations suggest that altering lipid environment provides a means of regulating water channel permeability. Such permeability changes could have physiological consequences, because AQP4 water permeability would be reduced by its sequestration into SM:cholesterol-enriched raft microdomains. Conversely, under ischemic conditions astrocyte membrane cholesterol content decreases, which could increase AQP4 permeability.

Aquaporin water channels in the nervous system

The aquaporins (AQPs) are plasma membrane water-transporting proteins. AQP4 is the principal member of this protein family in the CNS, where it is expressed in astrocytes and is involved in water movement, cell migration and neuroexcitation. AQP1 is expressed in the choroid plexus, where it facilitates cerebrospinal fluid secretion, and in dorsal root ganglion neurons, where it tunes pain perception. The AQPs are potential drug targets for several neurological conditions. Astrocytoma cells strongly express AQP4, which may facilitate their infiltration into the brain, and the neuroinflammatory disease neuromyelitis optica is caused by AQP4-specific autoantibodies that produce complement-mediated astrocytic damage.

TRPV4 channels stimulate Ca2+-induced Ca2+ release in astrocytic endfeet and amplify neurovascular coupling responses

In the CNS, astrocytes are sensory and regulatory hubs that play important roles in cerebral homeostatic processes, including matching local cerebral blood flow to neuronal metabolism (neurovascular coupling). These cells possess a highly branched network of processes that project from the soma to neuronal synapses as well as to arterioles and capillaries, where they terminate in "endfeet" that encase the blood vessels. Ca(2+) signaling within the endfoot mediates neurovascular coupling; thus, these functional microdomains control vascular tone and local perfusion in the brain. Transient receptor potential vanilloid 4 (TRPV4) channels--nonselective cation channels with considerable Ca(2+) conductance--have been identified in astrocytes, but their function is largely unknown. We sought to characterize the influence of TRPV4 channels on Ca(2+) dynamics in the astrocytic endfoot microdomain and assess their role in neurovascular coupling. We identified local TRPV4-mediated Ca(2+) oscillations in endfeet and further found that TRPV4 Ca(2+) signals are amplified and propagated by Ca(2+)-induced Ca(2+) release from inositol trisphosphate receptors (IP3Rs). Moreover, TRPV4-mediated Ca(2+) influx contributes to the endfoot Ca(2+) response to neuronal activation, enhancing the accompanying vasodilation. Our results identify a dynamic synergy between TRPV4 channels and IP3Rs in astrocyte endfeet and demonstrate that TRPV4 channels are engaged in and contribute to neurovascular coupling.

Activation of Transient Receptor Potential Vanilloid 4 Increases NMDA-Activated Current in Hippocampal Pyramidal Neurons

The glutamate excitotoxicity, mediated through N-methyl-d-aspartate receptors (NMDARs), plays an important role in cerebral ischemia injury. Transient receptor potential vanilloid 4 (TRPV4) can be activated by multiple stimuli that may happen during stroke. The present study evaluated the effect of TRPV4 activation on NMDA-activated current (I_NMDA) and that of blocking TRPV4 on brain injury after focal cerebral ischemia in mice. We herein report that activation of TRPV4 by 4α-PDD and hypotonic stimulation increased I_NMDA in hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurons, which was sensitive to TRPV4 antagonist HC-067047 and NMDAR antagonist AP-5, indicating that TRPV4 activation potentiates NMDAR response. In addition, the increase in I_NMDA by hypotonicity was sensitive to the antagonist of NMDAR NR2B subunit, but not of NR2A subunit. Furthermore, antagonists of calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) significantly attenuated hypotonicity-induced increase in I_NMDA, while antagonists of protein kinase C or casein kinase II had no such effect, indicating that phosphorylation of NR2B subunit by CaMKII is responsible for TRPV4-potentiated NMDAR response. Finally, we found that intracerebroventricular injection of HC-067047 after 60 min middle cerebral artery occlusion reduced the cerebral infarction with at least a 12 h efficacious time-window. These findings indicate that activation of TRPV4 increases NMDAR function, which may facilitate glutamate excitotoxicity. Closing TRPV4 may exert potent neuroprotection against cerebral ischemia injury through many mechanisms at least including the prevention of NMDAR-mediated glutamate excitotoxicity.

New functions of Müller cells

Müller cells, the major type of glial cells in the retina, are responsible for the homeostatic and metabolic support of retinal neurons. By mediating transcellular ion, water, and bicarbonate transport, Müller cells control the composition of the extracellular space fluid. Müller cells provide trophic and anti-oxidative support of photoreceptors and neurons and regulate the tightness of the blood-retinal barrier. By the uptake of glutamate, Müller cells are more directly involved in the regulation of the synaptic activity in the inner retina. This review gives a survey of recently discoved new functions of Müller cells. Müller cells are living optical fibers that guide light through the inner retinal tissue. Thereby they enhance the signal/noise ratio by minimizing intraretinal light scattering and conserve the spatial distribution of light patterns in the propagating image. Müller cells act as soft, compliant embedding for neurons, protecting them in case of mechanical trauma, and also as soft substrate required for neurite growth and neuronal plasticity. Müller cells release neuroactive signaling molecules which modulate neuronal activity, are implicated in the mediation of neurovascular coupling, and mediate the homeostasis of the extracellular space volume under hypoosmotic conditions which are a characteristic of intense neuronal activity. Under pathological conditions, a subset of Müller cells may differentiate to neural progenitor/stem cells which regenerate lost photoreceptors and neurons. Increasing knowledge of Müller cell function and responses in the normal and diseased retina will have great impact for the development of new therapeutic approaches for retinal diseases.

Role of ion channels and transporters in cell migration

Cell motility is central to tissue homeostasis in health and disease, and there is hardly any cell in the body that is not motile at a given point in its life cycle. Important physiological processes intimately related to the ability of the respective cells to migrate include embryogenesis, immune defense, angiogenesis, and wound healing. On the other side, migration is associated with life-threatening pathologies such as tumor metastases and atherosclerosis. Research from the last ≈ 15 years revealed that ion channels and transporters are indispensable components of the cellular migration apparatus. After presenting general principles by which transport proteins affect cell migration, we will discuss systematically the role of channels and transporters involved in cell migration.

TRP channels coordinate ion signalling in astroglia

Astroglial excitability is based on highly spatio-temporally coordinated fluctuations of intracellular ion concentrations, among which changes in Ca(2+) and Na(+) take the leading role. Intracellular signals mediated by Ca(2+) and Na(+) target numerous molecular cascades that control gene expression, energy production and numerous homeostatic functions of astrocytes. Initiation of Ca(2+) and Na(+) signals relies upon plasmalemmal and intracellular channels that allow fluxes of respective ions down their concentration gradients. Astrocytes express several types of TRP channels of which TRPA1 channels are linked to regulation of functional expression of GABA transporters, whereas TRPV4 channels are activated following osmotic challenges and are up-regulated in ischaemic conditions. Astrocytes also ubiquitously express several isoforms of TRPC channels of which heteromers assembled from TRPC1, 4 and/or 5 subunits that likely act as stretch-activated channels and are linked to store-operated Ca(2+) entry. The TRPC channels mediate large Na(+) fluxes that are associated with the endoplasmic reticulum Ca(2+) signalling machinery and hence coordinate Na(+) and Ca(2+) signalling in astroglia.

ASTROCYTES: EMERGING STARS IN LEUKODYSTROPHY PATHOGENESIS

Astrocytes are the predominant glial cell population in the central nervous system (CNS). Once considered only passive scaffolding elements, astrocytes are now recognised as cells playing essential roles in CNS development and function. They control extracellular water and ion homeostasis, provide substrates for energy metabolism, and regulate neurogenesis, myelination and synaptic transmission. Due to these multiple activities astrocytes have been implicated in almost all brain pathologies, contributing to various aspects of disease initiation, progression and resolution. Evidence is emerging that astrocyte dysfunction can be the direct cause of neurodegeneration, as shown in Alexander's disease where myelin degeneration is caused by mutations in the gene encoding the astrocyte-specific cytoskeleton protein glial fibrillary acidic protein. Recent studies point to a primary role for astrocytes in the pathogenesis of other genetic leukodystrophies such as megalencephalic leukoencephalopathy with subcortical cysts and vanishing white matter disease. The aim of this review is to summarize current knowledge of the pathophysiological role of astrocytes focusing on their contribution to the development of the above mentioned leukodystrophies and on new perspectives for the treatment of neurological disorders.

First cloning and characterization of two functional aquaporin genes from an arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus Glomus intraradices

Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) symbiosis is known to stimulate plant drought tolerance. However, the molecular basis for the direct involvement of AM fungi (AMF) in plant water relations has not been established. Two full-length aquaporin genes, namely GintAQPF1 and GintAQPF2, were cloned by rapid amplification of cDNA 5'- and 3'-ends from an AMF, Glomus intraradices. Aquaporin localization, activities and water permeability were examined by heterologous expression in yeast. Gene expression during symbiosis was also analyzed by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction. GintAQPF1 was localized to the plasma membrane of yeast, whereas GintAQPF2 was localized to both plasma and intracellular membranes. Transformed yeast cells exhibited a significant decrease in cell volume on hyperosmotic shock and faster protoplast bursting on hypo-osmotic shock. Polyethylene glycol (PEG) stimulated, but glycerol inhibited, the aquaporin activities. Furthermore, the expression of the two genes in arbuscule-enriched cortical cells and extraradical mycelia of maize roots was also enhanced significantly under drought stress. GintAQPF1 and GintAQPF2 are the first two functional aquaporin genes from AMF reported to date. Our data strongly support potential water transport via AMF to host plants, which leads to a better understanding of the important role of AMF in plant drought tolerance.

Calcium signaling in glioma cells--the role of nucleotide receptors

Calcium signaling is probably one of the evolutionary oldest and the most common way by which the signal can be transmitted from the cell environment to the cytoplasmic calcium binding effectors. Calcium signal is fast and due to diversity of calcium binding proteins it may have a very broad effect on cell behavior. Being a crucial player in neuronal transmission it is also very important for glia physiology. It is responsible for the cross-talk between neurons and astrocytes, for microglia activation and motility. Changes in calcium signaling are also crucial for the behavior of transformed glioma cells. The present Chapter summarizes molecular mechanisms of calcium signal formation present in glial cells with a strong emphasis on extracellular nucleotide-evoked signaling pathways. Some aspects of glioma C6 signaling such as the cross-talk between P2Y(1) and P2Y(12) nucleotide receptors in calcium signal generation will be discussed in-depth, to show complexity of machinery engaged in formation of this signal. Moreover, possible mechanisms of modulation of the calcium signal in diverse environments there will be presented herein. Finally, the possible role of calcium signal in glioma motility is also discussed. This is a very important issue, since glioma cells, contrary to the vast majority of neoplastic cells, cannot spread in the body with the bloodstream and, at least in early stages of tumor development, may expand only by means of sheer motility.

Genetically Encoded Calcium Indicators and Astrocyte Calcium Microdomains

The discovery of intracellular Ca2+ signals within astrocytes has changed our view of how these ubiquitous cells contribute to brain function. Classically thought merely to serve supportive functions, astrocytes are increasingly thought to respond to, and regulate, neurons. The use of organic Ca2+ indicator dyes such as Fluo-4 and Fura-2 has proved instrumental in the study of astrocyte physiology. However, progress has recently been accelerated by the use of cytosolic and membrane targeted genetically encoded calcium indicators (GECIs). Herein, we review these recent findings, discuss why studying astrocyte Ca2+ signals is important to understand brain function, and summarize work that led to the discovery of TRPA1 channel-mediated near-membrane Ca2+ signals in astrocytes and their indirect neuromodulatory roles at inhibitory synapses in the CA1 stratum radiatum region of the hippocampus. We suggest that the use of membrane-targeted and cytosolic GECIs holds great promise to explore the diversity of Ca2+ signals within single astrocytes and also to study diversity of function for astrocytes in different parts of the brain.

Differential regulation of TRPV4 mRNA levels by acclimation salinity and extracellular osmolality in euryhaline tilapia

Prolactin (PRL) cells of the euryhaline Mozambique tilapia, Oreochromis mossambicus, are osmoreceptors. Hyposmotically-induced PRL release is mediated by the inward movement of extracellular Ca(2+) through a stretch-activated Ca(2+) channel, which has been recently identified as the transient receptor potential vanilloid 4 (TRPV4). In the present study, changes in plasma PRL, as well as PRL and TRPV4 mRNA expression from the rostral pars distalis (RPD), were measured in fish transferred from seawater (SW) to fresh water (FW) and in fish transferred from FW to SW. The in vitro effects of osmolality on PRL release and on PRL and TRPV4 mRNA expression in dispersed PRL cells were compared between fish adapted to SW and FW. Both the release and expression of PRL fell when fish were transferred to SW and rose when fish were transferred to FW. By contrast, TRPV4 expression increased by 48h after fish were transferred from FW to SW and declined as early as 6h after transfer from SW to FW. A similar pattern was observed in vitro where TRPV4 expression responded positively to an increase in medium osmolality while PRL expression declined. Incubation with the Ca(2+) ionophore, A23187, and the phosphodiesterase inhibitor, IBMX, stimulated PRL release. While both IBMX and A23187 inhibited TRPV4 expression, only A23187 reduced PRL expression. Together, these findings indicate that the expression of TRPV4 mRNA is osmosensitive, increasing as extracellular osmolality rises. Furthermore, these data suggest that TRPV4 expression may be regulated through the same second messenger pathways involved in hyposmotically-induced PRL release.

The increased activity of TRPV4 channel in the astrocytes of the adult rat hippocampus after cerebral hypoxia/ischemia

The polymodal transient receptor potential vanilloid 4 (TRPV4) channel, a member of the TRP channel family, is a calcium-permeable cationic channel that is gated by various stimuli such as cell swelling, low pH and high temperature. Therefore, TRPV4-mediated calcium entry may be involved in neuronal and glia pathophysiology associated with various disorders of the central nervous system, such as ischemia. The TRPV4 channel has been recently found in adult rat cortical and hippocampal astrocytes; however, its role in astrocyte pathophysiology is still not defined. In the present study, we examined the impact of cerebral hypoxia/ischemia (H/I) on the functional expression of astrocytic TRPV4 channels in the adult rat hippocampal CA1 region employing immunohistochemical analyses, the patch-clamp technique and microfluorimetric intracellular calcium imaging on astrocytes in slices as well as on those isolated from sham-operated or ischemic hippocampi. Hypoxia/ischemia was induced by a bilateral 15-minute occlusion of the common carotids combined with hypoxic conditions. Our immunohistochemical analyses revealed that 7 days after H/I, the expression of TRPV4 is markedly enhanced in hippocampal astrocytes of the CA1 region and that the increasing TRPV4 expression coincides with the development of astrogliosis. Additionally, adult hippocampal astrocytes in slices or cultured hippocampal astrocytes respond to the TRPV4 activator 4-alpha-phorbol-12,-13-didecanoate (4αPDD) by an increase in intracellular calcium and the activation of a cationic current, both of which are abolished by the removal of extracellular calcium or exposure to TRP antagonists, such as Ruthenium Red or RN1734. Following hypoxic/ischemic injury, the responses of astrocytes to 4αPDD are significantly augmented. Collectively, we show that TRPV4 channels are involved in ischemia-induced calcium entry in reactive astrocytes and thus, might participate in the pathogenic mechanisms of astroglial reactivity following ischemic insult.