Minimal information for studies of extracellular vesicles 2018 (MISEV2018): a position statement of the International Society for Extracellular Vesicles and update of the MISEV2014 guidelines

Comprehensive Comparison of Extracellular Vesicles Derived from Mesenchymal Stem Cells Cultured with Fetal Bovine Serum and Human Platelet Lysate

Mesenchymal stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles (MSC-EVs) have emerged as a promising approach in regenerative therapy. However, the clinical application of MSC-EVs is hindered by the presence of xenogenic components, such as fetal bovine serum (FBS), which is the most used culture supplement for MSCs. Human platelet lysate (HPL) has been proposed as an alternative to FBS, but whether MSC-EVs derived from HPL-cultured MSCs are suitable for clinical translation remains unclear. In this study, we comprehensively compared the characterization of EVs derived from MSCs cultured in the medium with FBS (F-EVs) and HPL (H-EVs). Our study showed that HPL promoted MSC-EV production without compromising EVs critical quality attributes. Multiomics sequencing revealed the stability of H-EVs from different umbilical cord donors and global functional alterations for MSC-EVs under different culture conditions. In comparison to F-EVs, H-EVs enriched more angiogenesis-related molecules and exhibited enhanced angiogenesis, which were further confirmed by in vivo and in vitro studies. H-EVs significantly reduced renal microvascular rarefaction and promoted the regeneration of umbilical vein endothelial cells to hypoxia stimulation compared to that of F-EVs. In conclusion, our findings demonstrated that HPL as culture supplements did not alter the critical quality attributes of MSC-EVs, specifically holding a higher yield and quality of MSC-EVs with enhanced angiogenic potential.

Unique Patterns of Circulating Extracellular Vesicles in Preterm Infants During Adaptation to Extra-Uterine Life

There is growing interest in the role of extracellular vesicles (EVs) in neonatal pathology. This study aimed to characterise circulating EVs following preterm birth. This single-centre prospective observational study included cord and postnatal plasma from preterm (n = 101) and full-term infants (n = 66). EVs were analysed using nanoparticle tracking analysis, flow cytometry, proteomics and procoagulant activity assay. We found changes in the concentration, size, cellular origin and proteomic content of circulating EVs in preterm infants during perinatal adaptation. To understand if these changes were related to prematurity or normal adaptation to extrauterine life, they were also investigated in term infants. There was a dramatic increase in the concentration of small and large EVs on Day 3 in the preterm group; specific subsets of platelet (CD42b+ and CD62P+), endothelial (VEGFR2) and tissue factor EVs were elevated. Differentially expressed proteins relating to haemostasis, pulmonary physiology and immunity were identified between Day 1 and 3 in preterm infants. These changes have never previously been described in a large cohort of preterm infants and differ from healthy term infants. These findings have major implications for future neonatal EV studies, particularly the timing of sample collection. Further work is required to understand the clinical implications of this unique EV profile following preterm birth.

The Placenta Regulates Intrauterine Fetal Growth via Exosomal PPARγ

Abnormal adipogenesis is a major contributor to fetal growth restriction (FGR) and its associated complications. However, the underlying etiology remains unclear. Here, it is reported that the placentas of women with pregnancies complicated with FGR exhibit peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ) inactivation. In mice, trophoblast-specific ablation of murine PPARγ reproduces the phenotype of human fetuses with FGR and defective adipogenesis. Coculture of trophoblasts with preadipocytes significantly improves preadipocyte commitment and differentiation and increases the transcription of a series of adipogenic genes via intercellular transfer of exosomal PPARγ proteins. Moreover, nanoparticle-mediated placenta-specific delivery of rosiglitazone (RGZ) significantly rescues adipogenesis defects in an FGR-induced mouse model. In summary, the placenta is a major reservoir of PPARγ. An insufficient supply of placental PPARγ to fetal preadipocytes via exosomes during late gestation is a major mechanism underlying FGR. Preclinically, placenta-targeted RGZ administration can be a promising interventional therapy for FGR and/or defective intrauterine fat development.

Unlocking a Decade of Research on Embryo-Derived Extracellular Vesicles: Discoveries Made and Paths Ahead

Over the past decade, research on embryo-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) has unveiled their critical roles in embryonic development and intercellular communication. EVs secreted by embryos are nanoscale lipid bilayer vesicles that carry bioactive cargo, including proteins, lipids, RNAs, and DNAs, reflecting the physiological state of the source cells. These vesicles facilitate paracrine and autocrine signaling, influencing key processes such as cell differentiation, embryo viability, and endometrial receptivity. Studies reveal that EVs can traverse the zona pellucida, transferring molecular signals that enhance blastocyst formation and support embryo-maternal crosstalk. EVs have emerged as non-invasive biomarkers for embryo quality, with their cargo providing insights into genetic integrity and developmental competence. Advances in isolation and characterization techniques have identified specific microRNA (miRNAs) and transcription factors within EVs, offering potential for use in preimplantation genetic screening (PGS) and sex determination. Moreover, EV-mediated interactions with the maternal environment are critical for successful implantation, as they modulate gene expression and immune responses in endometrial and oviductal cells. Despite these advancements, challenges persist, including the standardization of EV isolation methods and the low yield of EVs DNA from spent culture media. Future research should aim to refine analytical techniques, explore EV-miRNA profiling, and investigate the mechanisms underlying EV-mediated signaling. By addressing these gaps, EVs could revolutionize embryo selection and reproductive technologies, offering new strategies to improve outcomes in assisted reproduction and animal breeding.

Development of an Effective Isolation Method for Plasma Extracellular Vesicles Excluding Lipoproteins by Precipitation With Polyethylene Glycol

Various molecules in plasma extracellular vesicles (EVs) are expected to be applied to minimally invasive diagnosis; however, the high concentration of lipoproteins in plasma, which are similar in size, density and content to EVs, hampers analysis on plasma EVs. To overcome this, we explored an effective isolation method for plasma EVs that excludes lipoproteins by applying precipitation methods that are conventionally used to separate lipoproteins. Human plasma was mixed with heparin and MnCl2, phosphotungstic acid and MgCl2, or polyethylene glycol (PEG), and the expression level of CD9, Apo B and Apo A-I in both the supernatant and pellet was measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Morphology was observed by transmission electron microscopy to assess EV yield and lipoprotein contamination. The combination of heparin and MnCl2, or phosphotungstic acid and MgCl2, could not separate plasma EVs and lipoproteins. PEG precipitated EVs and lipoproteins differently, and EVs were specifically precipitated by PEG (3%) to some extent. In comparison with differential ultracentrifugation (UC), size-exclusion chromatography, density gradient centrifugation and precipitation with PEG (8%) followed by UC, PEG (3%) was not inferior in efficiency but was superior in terms of time and cost. The precipitation method using PEG (3%) may contribute to the application of plasma EVs in disease diagnosis.

Extracellular Vesicles Alter Trophoblast Function in Pregnancies Complicated by COVID-19

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection and resulting coronavirus disease (COVID-19) cause placental dysfunction, which increases the risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes. While abnormal placental pathology resulting from COVID-19 is common, direct infection of the placenta is rare. This suggests that pathophysiology associated with maternal COVID-19, rather than direct placental infection, is responsible for placental dysfunction. We hypothesized that maternal circulating extracellular vesicles (EVs), altered by COVID-19 during pregnancy, contribute to placental dysfunction. To examine this hypothesis, we characterized circulating EVs from pregnancies complicated by COVID-19 and tested their effects on trophoblast cell physiology in vitro. Trophoblast exposure to EVs isolated from patients with an active infection (AI), but not controls, altered key trophoblast functions including hormone production and invasion. Thus, circulating EVs from participants with an AI, both symptomatic and asymptomatic cases, can disrupt vital trophoblast functions. EV cargo differed between participants with COVID-19, depending on the gestational timing of infection, and Controls, which may contribute to the disruption of the placental transcriptome and morphology. Our findings show that COVID-19 can have effects throughout pregnancy on circulating EVs, and circulating EVs are likely to participate in placental dysfunction induced by COVID-19.

Engineering Exosomes for CNS Disorders: Advances, Challenges, and Therapeutic Potential

The development of targeted drugs for diseases of the central nervous system (CNS) is a significant challenge due to the structural complexity and functional specificities of these systems. Recently, exosomes have emerged as a promising therapeutic platform, given their unique capacity to traverse the blood-brain barrier and deliver bioactive molecules to target cells. This review examines recent advances in exosome research with a particular focus on CNS diseases, emphasizing their role as carriers of therapeutic cargo, including proteins, RNAs, and lipids. Nevertheless, significant challenges remain before exosome-based therapies can be translated from preclinical research to clinical applications. These include the need for scalable production and standardized isolation methods. Despite these hurdles, ongoing studies continue to shed light on the mechanisms of exosome-mediated neuroprotection and neurodegeneration. This paves the way for innovative therapeutic strategies to address CNS disorders.

Potential upscaling protocol establishment and wound healing bioactivity screening of exosomes isolated from canine adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells

Mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes exhibit promising potential in tissue regeneration. Recent studies highlight its significant therapeutic potential in various stages of wound healing. However, the clinical translation of exosome-based therapy was hindered due to issues regarding low productivity and the lack of efficient production protocol to obtain a clinically relevant exosome quantity. Therefore, this study established a potential upscaling protocol to produce exosomes derived from canine adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells (cAD-MSCs) and explored its potential for wound treatment. The potential upscaling protocol, termed VSCBIC-3-3D, was carried out using VSCBIC-3 in-house serum-free exosome-collecting solution in a three-dimensional (3D) culture system followed by the tangential flow filtration (TFF) isolation. Our findings suggest that culturing cAD-MSCs with VSCBIC-3 maintained cell morphology and viability. Compared to conventional two-dimensional (2D) protocols, The potential upscaling protocol increased exosome yield and concentration in conditioned medium by 2.4-fold and 3.2-fold, respectively. The quality assessment revealed enhanced purity and bioactivity of exosomes produced using the VSCBIC-3-3D protocol. In addition, the cAD-MSCs-derived exosomes were shown to significantly improve fibroblast migration, proliferation, and wound healing-related gene expression in vitro. This study collectively demonstrates that potential upscaling protocol establishment allowed robust production of exosomes from cAD-MSCs, which exhibit therapeutic potential for wound healing in vitro.

Immunomodulatory effects and clinical application of exosomes derived from mesenchymal stem cells

Exosomes (Exos) are extracellular vesicles secreted by cells and serve as crucial mediators of intercellular communication. They play a pivotal role in the pathogenesis and progression of various diseases and offer promising avenues for therapeutic interventions. Exos derived from mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have significant immunomodulatory properties. They effectively regulate immune responses by modulating both innate and adaptive immunity. These Exos can inhibit excessive inflammatory responses and promote tissue repair. Moreover, they participate in antigen presentation, which is essential for activating immune responses. The cargo of these Exos, including ligands, proteins, and microRNAs, can suppress T cell activity or enhance the population of immunosuppressive cells to dampen the immune response. By inhibiting lymphocyte proliferation, acting on macrophages, and increasing the population of regulatory T cells, these Exos contribute to maintaining immune and metabolic homeostasis. Furthermore, they can activate immune-related signaling pathways or serve as vehicles to deliver microRNAs and other bioactive substances to target tumor cells, which holds potential for immunotherapy applications. Given the immense therapeutic potential of MSC-derived Exos, this review comprehensively explores their mechanisms of immune regulation and therapeutic applications in areas such as infection control, tumor suppression, and autoimmune disease management. This article aims to provide valuable insights into the mechanisms behind the actions of MSC-derived Exos, offering theoretical references for their future clinical utilization as cell-free drug preparations.

Extracellular vesicles: a new frontier in diagnosing and treating graft-versus-host disease after allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation

Graft-versus-host disease (GvHD) is a prevalent complication following allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) and is characterized by relatively high morbidity and mortality rates. GvHD can result in extensive systemic damage in patients following allogeneic HSCT (allo-HSCT), with the skin, gastrointestinal tract, and liver frequently being the primary target organs affected. The severe manifestations of acute intestinal GvHD often indicate a poor prognosis for patients after allo-HSCT. Endoscopy and histopathological evaluation remain employed to diagnose GvHD, and auxiliary examinations exclude differential diagnoses. Currently, reliable serum biomarkers for the diagnosis and differential diagnosis of GvHD are scarce. As an essential part of standard transplant protocols, early application of immunosuppressive drugs effectively prevents GvHD. Among them, steroids represent first-line therapeutic agents, and the JAK2 inhibitor ruxolitinib represents the second-line therapeutic agent. Currently, no efficacious treatment modality exists for steroid-resistant aGvHD. Therefore, the diagnosis and treatment of GvHD still face significant medical demands. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are nanometer to micrometer-scale biomembrane vesicles containing various bioactive components, such as proteins, nucleotides, and metabolites. Distinctive changes in serum-derived EV components occur in patients after allo-HSCT; Hence, EVs are expected to be potential biomarkers for diagnosing and treating GvHD. Furthermore, cell-free therapeutics characterized by EVs derived from mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have manifested remarkable therapeutic efficacy in preclinical models and preclinical trials of GvHD. Customized engineered EVs with fewer toxic and side effects for the combined treatment of GvHD hold broad prospects for clinical translation. This review article examines the potential value of translating EVs into clinical applications for the diagnosis and treatment of GvHD. It summarizes the latest advancements and prospects of engineered EVs applying GvHD.

Extracellular vesicles derived from mesenchymal stem cells ameliorate sulfur mustard-induced lung injury by regulating apoptosis via miR-146a-5p

Sulfur mustard (SM) is an extremely toxic chemical warfare agent. Although SM-induced toxicity has long been studied, due to its complexity, the characterization of the precise molecular pathway it targets has been remaining an ongoing area of research. Extracellular vesicles derived from human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells (hucMSC-EVs) are natural substances that participate in intercellular communication by delivering microRNA to target cells. Importantly, the microRNA content in EVs can be modified. MiR-146a-5p delivered by EVs were utilized and hucMSCs were further modified with miR-146a-5p mimics or inhibitors to collect EVs that over-(miR-146a-5p+-EVs) or underexpress (miR-146a-5p--EVs) miR-146a-5p. Transcriptome sequencing was used to identify potential mediators of the effects of miR-146a-5p delivered by hucMSC-EVs. Our results showed that hucMSC-EVs reduced SM-induced lung injury by mitigating apoptosis. These effects were enhanced by miR-146a-5p+-EVs and weakened by miR-146a-5p--EVs. Meanwhile, the relationship between apoptosis enhancing nuclease (AEN) and miR-146a-5p was discovered, a novel target of miR-146a-5p. Our study showed that hucMSC-EVs ameliorating sulfur mustard induced lung injury through miR-146a-5p, and AEN was one of the functional molecules in this process.

Migrasome-Related Genes as Potential Prognosis and Immunotherapy Response Predictors for Colorectal Cancer

Background: Studies highlight the role of migrasomes as mediators of intercellular communication and signaling, critical in influencing tumorigenesis and progression. Yet migrasome-related genes and their potential role in colorectal cancer prognosis remain unexplored. Methods: Differentially expressed gene set A (DEG set A) was identified in the TCGA-CRC dataset, and Weighted Gene Co-expression Network Analysis (WGCNA) was performed to identify the most important modules associated with migrasome-related gene (MRG) scores. Single-cell RNA-seq dataset GSE231559 DEG set B was determined. Candidate migrasome-related genes were filtered by intersecting DGE set A, key module genes, and DEG set B. Prognostic genes were subsequently screened through regression analysis, and a risk model was developed. Patients with CRC in the TCGA cohort were stratified into high- and low-risk groups based on the optimal cutoff of the risk score. Immunotherapy response-related analyses were then performed. Finally, cell-to-cell communication analysis was carried out for key cells identified based on prognostic gene expression analysis in annotated cells. Results: The six candidate migrasome-related genes were identified through the overlap of 5158 DEG set A, 1960 key module genes, and 146 DEG set B. Further screening led to the selection of T1MP1, CXCL8, and MGP as potential prognostic biomarkers. Immune-related analysis indicated that the high-risk group exhibited a better response to immunotherapy. Notably, the prognostic genes showed elevated expression levels in monocytes and tissue stem cells, thereby designating them as key cell types. Conclusions: We conducted bioinformatic analysis of migrasome-related genes and identified significant involvement of T1MP1, CXCL8, and MGP in influencing CRC prognosis and immunotherapy response. Our research provides novel insights into the role of migrasomes in CRC biology.

Fibroblast-derived osteoglycin promotes epithelial cell repair

There is an urgent need for innovative therapies targeting defective epithelial repair in chronic diseases like COPD. The mesenchymal niche is a critical regulator in epithelial stem cell activation, suggesting that their secreted factors are possible potent drug targets. Utilizing a proteomics-guided drug discovery strategy, we explored the lung fibroblast secretome to uncover impactful drug targets. Our lung organoid assays identified several regenerative ligands, with osteoglycin (OGN) showing the most profound effects. Transcriptomic analyses revealed that OGN enhances alveolar progenitor differentiation, detoxifies reactive oxygen species, and strengthens fibroblast-epithelial crosstalk. OGN expression was diminished in COPD patients and smoke-exposed mice. An active fragment of OGN (leucine-rich repeat regions 4-7) replicated full-length OGN's regenerative effects, significantly ameliorating elastase-induced lung injury in lung slices and improving lung function in vivo. These findings highlight OGN as a pivotal secreted protein for alveolar epithelial repair, positioning its active fragment as a promising therapeutic for COPD.

The role of exosomes in diagnosis, pathophysiology, and management of Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder associated with impaired cognitive function and memory loss. Currently, available therapeutics can effectively alleviate the symptoms of AD, but there is a lack of treatment to halt the progression of the disease. In recent years, exosomes have gained much attention due to their involvement in various neurological disorders. Exosomes are small extracellular vesicles comprising lipids, proteins, DNA, non-coding RNA, and mRNAs, can carry various therapeutic molecules, and are potential drug delivery vehicles. Exosomes are known as a double-edged sword due to their involvement in both the pathogenesis and management of AD. This review explores the function of exosomes in the pathophysiology, treatment, and diagnosis of AD, also emphasizing their potential as a targeted drug delivery carrier to the brain. This review seeks to provide novel perspectives to understand better the onset, targeted treatment, and diagnosis of AD using exosomes.

Human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cell-derived microvesicles alleviate pulmonary fibrosis by inhibiting monocyte‒macrophage migration through ERK1/2 signaling-mediated suppression of CCL2 expression

BACKGROUND

Pulmonary fibrosis (PF) is a disease with high morbidity and mortality rates, but effective treatment options are extremely limited. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) and their derivatives show promise as potential therapeutics for PF. However, the underlying mechanisms responsible for these beneficial effects remain poorly understood. The objective of this study was to elucidate the specific mechanism through which microvesicles derived from human umbilical cord MSCs (MSC-MVs) alleviate PF.

METHODS

The effects of MSC-MVs on PF in bleomycin (BLM)-induced mice were assessed via histological staining, flow cytometry, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs). The potential therapeutic target was identified via RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) analysis, followed by validation via real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT‒qPCR), ELISAs, scratch testing, and western blotting (WB).

RESULTS

MSC-MVs significantly attenuated collagen fiber deposition and downregulated the expression of extracellular matrix components in the lungs of the BLM-induced mice. Moreover, this treatment substantially ameliorated lung inflammation by reducing the monocyte‒macrophage ratio and the TNF-α and IL-6 levels. Further analyses revealed that MSC-MVs inhibited the classic chemotactic CCL2/CCR2 axis of monocyte‒macrophages, leading to reduced recruitment of monocytes‒macrophages to the lungs, which decreased lung inflammation and prevented fibrotic progression. Both in vitro and in vivo findings demonstrated that MSC-MVs suppressed ERK1/2 phosphorylation followed by decreased CCL2 production to modulate monocyte-macrophage migration.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings demonstrate that the protective effect of MSC-MVs against BLM-induced lung toxicity was achieved through the inhibition of the ERK1/2 signaling pathway, leading to the suppression of CCL2 expression and subsequent modulation of monocyte-macrophage migration, thereby establishing a theoretical basis for the effect of MSC-MVs in PF.

Proteomic profiling and functional analysis of extracellular vesicles from metastasis-competent circulating tumor cells in colon cancer

BACKGROUND

Circulating tumor cells (CTCs) are pivotal in cancer progression, and in vitro CTC models are crucial for understanding their biological mechanisms. This study focused on the characterization of extracellular vesicles (EVs) from CTC lines derived from a patient with metastatic colorectal cancer (mCRC) at different stages of progression who progressed despite therapy (thus mirroring the clonal evolution of cancer).

METHODS AND RESULTS

Morphological and size analyses revealed variations among EVs derived from different CTC lines. Compared with the Vesiclepedia database, proteomic profiling of these EVs revealed enrichment of proteins related to stemness, endosomal biogenesis, and mCRC prognosis. Integrin family proteins were significantly enriched in EVs from CTC lines derived after therapy failure. The role of these EVs in cancer progression was analyzed by assessing their in vivo distribution, particularly in the liver, lungs, kidneys, and bones. EVs accumulate significantly in the liver, followed by the lungs, kidneys and femurs.

CONCLUSIONS

This study is a pioneering effort in highlighting therapy progression-associated changes in EVs from mCRC patients via an in vitro CTC model. The results offer insights into the role of metastasis initiator CTC-derived EVs in cancer spread, suggesting their utility for studying cancer tissue distribution mechanisms. However, these findings must be confirmed and extended to patients with mCRC. This work underscores the potential of CTC-derived EVs as tools for understanding cancer dissemination.

Extracellular Vesicles Analysis as Possible Signatures of Antiphospholipid Syndrome Clinical Features

Antiphospholipid syndrome (APS) is a rare autoimmune disease characterized by thrombosis and obstetric complications. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) of either platelet and endothelial origin are recognized to be involved in the pathophysiology of the disease. This study aimed to evaluate the potential role of endothelial- and platelet-derived extracellular vesicles and the clinical features or progression of APS. We enrolled 22 patients diagnosed with APS and 18 age and sex-matched healthy controls. We determined APS-specific antibody positivity and clinical manifestations in APS affected patients, with a focus on neurological, cardiovascular, dermatological, hematological manifestations, and pregnancy-related complications. Platelet-poor plasma was collected from either patients and controls for the analysis of EVs by flow cytometry technology using monoclonal antibodies to specifically identify those derived from either platelets and/or endothelial cells. EVs of endothelial and platelet origins were overall significantly increased in patients as compared to healthy controls. Furthermore, a significant association was also observed between the number of extracellular vesicles and specific organ involvement, particularly central nervous system manifestations, hematological abnormalities, and obstetric complications. An elevated proportion of endothelial-derived EVs in APS and a reduction of resting endothelial cell-derived EVs were observed in APS-affected women with obstetric complications. Our findings highlight the involvement of endothelial cells and platelets in mirroring the activities of endothelial cells and platelets in APS. Additionally, extracellular vesicles may serve as potential predictors of organ involvement and disease-related damage.

Innovative Applications of Nanopore Technology in Tumor Screening: An Exosome-Centric Approach

Cancer remains one of the leading causes of death worldwide. Its complex pathogenesis and metastasis pose significant challenges for early diagnosis, underscoring the urgent need for innovative and non-invasive tumor screening methods. Exosomes, small extracellular vesicles that reflect the physiological and pathological states of their parent cells, are uniquely suited for cancer liquid biopsy due to their molecular cargo, including RNA, DNA, and proteins. However, traditional methods for exosome isolation and detection are often limited by inadequate sensitivity, specificity, and efficiency. Nanopore technology, characterized by high sensitivity and single-molecule resolution, offers powerful tools for exosome analysis. This review highlights its diverse applications in tumor screening, such as magnetic nanopores for high-throughput sorting, electrochemical sensing for real-time detection, nanomaterial-based assemblies for efficient capture, and plasmon resonance for ultrasensitive analysis. These advancements have enabled precise exosome detection and demonstrated promising potential in the early diagnosis of breast, pancreatic, and prostate cancers, while also supporting personalized treatment strategies. Additionally, this review summarizes commercialized products for exosome-based cancer diagnostics and examines the technical and translational challenges in clinical applications. Finally, it discusses the future prospects of nanopore technology in advancing liquid biopsy toward clinical implementation. The continued progress of nanopore technology not only accelerates exosome-based precision medicine but also represents a significant step forward in next-generation liquid biopsy and tumor screening.

Generation of Current Good Manufacturing Practices-Grade Mesenchymal Stromal Cell-Derived Extracellular Vesicles Using Automated Bioreactors

Interest in Current Good Manufacturing Practices (cGMP)-grade extracellular vesicles (EVs) is expanding. Some obstacles in this new but rapidly growing field include a lack of standardization and scalability. This review focuses on automated biomanufacturing of EVs in conditioned media collected from cultured mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs). Different automated cell culture systems are discussed, including factors affecting EV quantity and quality, isolating EVs manufactured in an automated system, and validations needed. The ultimate goal when manufacturing cGMP-grade EVs is to identify a specific application and characterize the EV population in detail. This is achieved by validating every step of the process, choosing appropriate release criteria, and assuring batch-to-batch consistency. Due to the lack of standards in the field, it is critical to ensure that the cGMP-grade EVs meet FDA standards pertaining to identity, reproducibility, sterility, safety, purity, and potency. A closed-system automated bioreactor can be a valuable tool to generate cGMP-EVs in a scalable, economical, and reproducible manner.

Extracellular vesicles modulate integrin signaling and subcellular energetics to promote pulmonary lymphangioleiomyomatosis metastasis

Pulmonary lymphangioleiomyomatosis (LAM) is metastatic sarcoma but mechanisms of LAM metastasis are unknown. Extracellular vesicles (EV) regulate cancer metastasis but their roles in LAM have not yet been thoroughly investigated. Here, we report the discovery of distinct LAM-EV subtypes derived from primary tumor or metastasizing LAM cells that promote LAM metastasis through ITGα6/β1-c-Src-FAK signaling, triggered by shuttling ATP synthesis to cell pseudopodia or the activation of integrin adhesion complex, respectively. This signaling leads to increased LAM cell migration, invasiveness, and stemness and regulates metastable (hybrid) phenotypes that are all pivotal for metastasis. Mouse models corroborate in vitro data by demonstrating a significant increase in metastatic burden upon the exposure to EV through distinct mechanisms involving either lung resident fibroblasts or metalloproteinases' activation that are EV subtype dependent. The clinical relevance of these findings is underscored by increased EV biogenies in LAM patients and the enrichment of these EV cargo with lung tropic integrins and metalloproteinases. These findings establish EV as novel therapeutic target in LAM, warranting the future clinical studies.

Microglia-derived sEV: Friend or foe in the pathogenesis of cognitive impairment

As immune cells, microglia serve a dual role in cognition. Microglia-derived sEV actively contribute to the development of cognitive impairment by selectively targeting specific cells through various substances such as proteins, RNA, DNA, lipids, and metabolic waste. In recent years, there has been an increasing focus on understanding the pathogenesis and therapeutic potential of sEV. This comprehensive review summarizes the detrimental effects of M1 microglial sEV on pathogenic protein transport, neuroinflammation, disruption of the blood-brain barrier (BBB), neuronal death and synaptic dysfunction in relation to cognitive damage. Additionally, it highlights the beneficial effects of M2 microglia on alleviating cognitive impairment based on evidence from cellular experiments and animal studies. Furthermore, since microglial-secreted sEV can be found in cerebrospinal fluid or cross the BBB into plasma circulation, they play a crucial role in diagnosing cognitive impairment. However, using sEV as biomarkers is still at an experimental stage and requires further clinical validation. Future research should aim to explore the mechanisms underlying microglial involvement in various nervous system disorders to identify novel targets for clinical interventions.

Navigating Glioma Complexity: The Role of Abnormal Signaling Pathways in Shaping Future Therapies

Gliomas are a type of highly heterogeneous and invasive central nervous system tumor. Traditional treatment methods have limited efficacy, and the prognosis for patients remains poor. Recent studies have revealed the crucial roles of several abnormal signaling pathways in the pathogenesis of gliomas, including the Receptor Tyrosine Kinase/Rat Sarcoma Virus Oncogene/Phosphatidylinositol-3-Kinase (RTK/RAS/PI3K) pathway, the Wingless-Related Integration Site/β-Catenin (Wnt/β-Catenin) pathway, the Hippo/YAP (Hippo/Yes-associated protein) pathway, and the Slit/Robo (Slit Guidance Ligands/Roundabout) signaling pathway. These pathways play extremely vital roles in tumor proliferation, invasion, and treatment resistance. This article comprehensively and systematically reviews the molecular mechanisms of these signaling pathways, deeply summarizing the research progress of various treatment strategies, including targeted inhibitors, gene therapy, and nanomedicine against them. Moreover, the combination of targeted therapy and personalized treatment regimens is expected to overcome the current treatment bottleneck and provide a more favorable survival prognosis for glioblastoma patients.

Functional tumor-derived exosomes in NSCLC progression and clinical implications

Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) accounts for approximately 85% of all lung cancer cases and remains one of the leading causes of cancer-related mortality worldwide. The high mortality rate is primarily driven by delayed diagnosis, rapid metastasis, and frequent recurrence. Tumor-derived exosomes (TEXs) have emerged as critical mediators in NSCLC progression, offering valuable insights into the tumor microenvironment. Exosomes are small membrane vesicles that facilitate intercellular communication and transport bioactive molecules, including proteins, RNAs, and DNAs, thereby reflecting the genetic complexity of tumors. These exosomes play a key role in promoting tumor metastasis, epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), neovascularization, drug resistance, and immune evasion, all of which are pivotal in the development of NSCLC. This review explores the diverse roles of TEXs in NSCLC progression, focusing on their involvement in pre-metastatic niche formation, tissue metastasis, and immune modulation. Specifically, we discuss the roles of exosome-associated RNAs and proteins in NSCLC, and their contribute to tumor growth and metastasis. Furthermore, we explore the potential of TEXs as biomarkers for NSCLC, emphasizing their application in diagnosis, prognosis, and prediction of resistance to targeted therapies and immunotherapies.

Plant Derived Exosome-Like Nanoparticles and Their Therapeutic Applications in Glucolipid Metabolism Diseases

Plant derived exosome-like nanoparticles (PELNs) are membrane structures isolated from different plants, which encapsulate many active substances such as proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids, which exert a substantial influence on many physiological processes such as plant growth and development, self-defense, and tissue repair. Compared with synthetic nanoparticles and mammalian cell derived exosomes (MDEs), PELNs have lower toxicity and immunogenicity and possess excellent biocompatibility. The intrinsic properties of PELNs establish a robust basis for their applications in the therapeutic management of a diverse array of pathologies. It is worth mentioning that PELNs have good biological targeting, which promotes them to load and deliver drugs to specific tissues, offering a superior development pathway for the construction of a new drug delivery system (DDS). Glucose and lipid metabolism is a vital life process for the body's energy and material supply. The maintenance of homeostatic balance provides a fundamental basis for the body's ability to adjust to modifications in both its internal and external environment. Conversely, homeostatic imbalance can lead to a range of severe metabolic disorders. This work provides a comprehensive overview of the extraction and representation methods of PELNs, their transportation and storage characteristics, and their applications as therapeutic agents for direct treatment and as delivery vehicles to enhance nutrition and health. Additionally, it examines the therapeutic efficacy and practical applications of PELNs in addressing abnormalities in glucose and lipid metabolism. Finally, combined with the above contents, the paper summarizes and provides a conceptual framework for the better application of PELNs in clinical disease treatment.

Update on the roles and applications of extracellular vesicles in depression

Depression is a prevalent mental disorder that affects numerous individuals, manifesting as persistent anhedonia, sadness, and hopelessness. Despite extensive research, the exact causes and optimal treatment approaches for depression remain unclear. Extracellular vesicles (EVs), which carry biological molecules such as proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and metabolites, have emerged as crucial players in both pathological and physiological processes. EVs derived from various sources exert distinct effects on depression. Specifically, EVs released by neurons, astrocytes, microglia, oligodendrocytes, immune cells, stem cells, and even bacteria contribute to the pathogenesis of depression. Moreover, there is growing interest in potential of EVs as diagnostic and therapeutic tools for depression. This review provides a comprehensive overview of recent research on EVs from different sources, their roles in depression, and their potential clinical applications.

Therapeutic and Pharmaceutical Potential of Scutellaria baicalensis-Derived Exosomes for Oily Skin Disorders

BACKGROUND

Fine dust exposure worsens oily skin by disrupting lipid metabolism and triggering oxidative inflammation. Scutellaria baicalensis extract-induced exosomes (SBEIEs) have shown anti-inflammatory effects by suppressing reactive oxygen species (ROS) and lipid-regulating properties, making them potential therapeutic agents.

METHODS

Exosomes from fibroblasts treated with SBEIEs and PM10 were tested on macrophages, adipose-derived stem cells (ASCs), and T lymphocytes. ELISA, flow cytometry, and PCR measured cytokines and gene expression. A 10-day clinical trial evaluated skin hydration, oiliness, and inflammation.

RESULTS

SBEIEs increased IRF3 (1.6 times) and suppressed PPARγ in ASCs while enhancing lipolysis markers. Sebaceous gland activity (squalene synthase) decreased by 10%. Macrophages showed increased IRF3, IFN-β, and IL-10 (2.1 times). T cells secreted IL-4 and IL-22 (2-2.33 times). Clinically, SBEIEs improved hydration (21%), reduced oiliness (1.6 times), and decreased inflammation (2.2 times).

CONCLUSIONS

SBEIEs effectively regulate lipid metabolism, cytokines, and immune responses, showing promise to treat oily and inflamed skin caused by fine dust exposure. Further studies are needed for clinical applications.

Extracellular vesicles in cancer´s communication: messages we can read and how to answer

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are emerging as critical mediators of intercellular communication in the tumor microenvironment (TME), profoundly influencing cancer progression. These nano-sized vesicles, released by both tumor and stromal cells, carry a diverse cargo of proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids, reflecting the dynamic cellular landscape and mediating intricate interactions between cells. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the biogenesis, composition, and functional roles of EVs in cancer, highlighting their significance in both basic research and clinical applications. We discuss how cancer cells manipulate EV biogenesis pathways to produce vesicles enriched with pro-tumorigenic molecules, explore the specific contributions of EVs to key hallmarks of cancer, such as angiogenesis, metastasis, and immune evasion, emphasizing their role in shaping TME and driving therapeutic resistance. Concurrently, we submit recent knowledge on how the cargo of EVs can serve as a valuable source of biomarkers for minimally invasive liquid biopsies, and its therapeutic potential, particularly as targeted drug delivery vehicles and immunomodulatory agents, showcasing their promise for enhancing the efficacy and safety of cancer treatments. By deciphering the intricate messages carried by EVs, we can gain a deeper understanding of cancer biology and develop more effective strategies for early detection, targeted therapy, and immunotherapy, paving the way for a new era of personalized and precise cancer medicine with the potential to significantly improve patient outcomes.

Direct Extraction and Evaluation of Intraluminal Vesicles Inside a Single Cell

Because endogenous extracellular vesicles are involved in important physiological functions, various techniques have been developed for their isolation and evaluation. However, methods for evaluating endogenous vesicles within cells are limited. This study presents a technique for the direct extraction and evaluation of intraluminal vesicles (ILVs). This technique combines scanning ion conductance microscopy, electrochemical syringes, and confocal microscopy to extract specific structures within a living cell, achieving high spatial resolution and accuracy at the femtoliter scale. This approach allowed the direct collection of CD63(+) vesicles from HEK293 CD63-pHluorin-RFP cells and showed that their RNA expression profiles were different from those recovered from cytosol and extracellular vesicles isolated by ultracentrifuge. It also identified a subset specifically containing hsa-miR-145-5p and allowed for direct assessment of the local accumulation of miRNAs in cells. This technique is expected to become a powerful tool for evaluating the contents of ILVs within living cells.

Extracellular vesicle-bound S100A8/A9 is differentially expressed in septic shock and prompts acute lung injury

BACKGROUND

Sepsis is a common indirect insult leading to acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). Circulating extracellular vesicles (EVs) have been reported to participate in the pathogenesis of sepsis. However, the alteration of EV-bound S100A8/A9 during septic shock, along with the role of S100A8/A9 in driving acute lung injury, remains unexplored.

METHODS

EVs were isolated from the plasma of patients upon admission with sepsis or septic shock, as well as from healthy controls. Levels of EV S100A8/A9 were assayed via ELISA. To examine the effects and underlying mechanisms of septic shock EVs in acute lung injury, these EVs were administered intratracheally into wild-type C57BL/6 mice or mice with a deficiency of advanced glycation end-products (RAGE). In addition, a mouse model of polymicrobial sepsis was introduced using cecal ligation and puncture (CLP).

RESULTS

Levels of EV S100A8/A9 were significantly elevated in patients with sepsis or septic shock compared to healthy controls. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis demonstrated that EV S100A8/A9 effectively distinguished between septic shock and sepsis and had predictive potential for the development of ARDS. Notably, the levels of S100A8/A9 in EVs and alveolar macrophages from CLP mice were significantly higher than those in sham mice. Intratracheal administration of septic shock EVs directly induced acute lung injury and M1 macrophage polarization in a lipopolysaccharide-independent manner. Septic shock EVs were efficiently taken up by alveolar macrophages in vivo, leading to a significant increase in S100A8/A9 levels, which was inhibited by preincubating the EVs with an S100A8/A9 neutralizing antibody. Additionally, mice with deficiency in RAGE, a receptor for S100A8/A9, were partially protected from acute lung injury induced by septic shock EVs. In vitro, septic shock EVs prompted a proinflammatory response in bone marrow-derived macrophages. This response was blocked by preincubating the EVs with the S100A8/A9 neutralizing antibody.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggested that EV S100A8/A9 has potential value in distinguishing septic shock from sepsis and predicting the development of ARDS. Septic shock EVs-induced lung injury is at least partially mediated through S100A8/A9-RAGE pathway, involving the activation of alveolar macrophages.

From Plant Based Therapy to Plant-Derived Vesicle-Like Nanoparticles for Cancer Treatment: Past, Present and Future

Cancer stands as a formidable malady profoundly impacting human health. Throughout history, plant-based therapies have remained pivotal in the arsenal against cancer, evolving alongside the epochs. Presently, challenges such as the arduous extraction of active components and potential safety concerns impede the progression of plant-based anticancer therapies. The isolation of plant-derived vesicle-like nanoparticles (PDVLNs), a kind of lipid bilayer capsules isolated from plants, has brought plant-based anticancer therapy into a novel realm and has led to decades of research on PDVLNs. Accumulating evidence indicates that PDVLNs can deliver plant-derived active substances to human cells and regulate cellular functions. Regulating immunity, inducing cell cycle arrest, and promoting apoptosis in cancer cells are the most commonly reported mechanisms of PDVLNs in tumor suppression. Low immunogenicity and lack of tumorigenicity make PDVLNs a good platform for drug delivery. The molecules within the PDVLNs are all from source plants, so the selection of source plants is crucial. In recent years, there has been a clear trend that the source plants have changed from vegetables or fruits to medicinal plants. This review highlights the mechanisms of medicinal plant-based cancer therapies to identify candidate source plants. More importantly, the current research on PDVLN-based cancer therapy and the applications of PDVLNs for drug delivery are systematically discussed.

Extracellular Vesicles for Disease Treatment

Traditional drug therapies suffer from problems such as easy drug degradation, side effects, and treatment resistance. Traditional disease diagnosis also suffers from high error rates and late diagnosis. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are nanoscale spherical lipid bilayer vesicles secreted by cells that carry various biologically active components and are integral to intercellular communication. EVs can be found in different body fluids and may reflect the state of the parental cells, making them ideal noninvasive biomarkers for disease-specific diagnosis. The multifaceted characteristics of EVs render them optimal candidates for drug delivery vehicles, with evidence suggesting their efficacy in the treatment of various ailments. However, poor stability and easy degradation of natural EVs have affected their applications. To solve the problems of poor stability and easy degradation of natural EVs, they can be engineered and modified to obtain more stable and multifunctional EVs. In this study, we review the shortcomings of traditional drug delivery methods and describe how to modify EVs to form engineered EVs to improve their utilization. An innovative stimulus-responsive drug delivery system for EVs has also been proposed. We also summarize the current applications and research status of EVs in the diagnosis and treatment of different systemic diseases, and look forward to future research directions, providing research ideas for scholars.

Unlocking the therapeutic potential of tumor-derived EVs in ischemia-reperfusion: a breakthrough perspective from glioma and stroke

Clinical studies have revealed a bidirectional relationship between glioma and ischemic stroke, with evidence of spatial overlap between the two conditions. This connection arises from significant similarities in their pathological processes, including the regulation of cellular metabolism, inflammation, coagulation, hypoxia, angiogenesis, and neural repair, all of which involve common biological factors. A significant shared feature of both diseases is the crucial role of extracellular vesicles (EVs) in mediating intercellular communication. Extracellular vesicles, with their characteristic bilayer structure, encapsulate proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids, shielding them from enzymatic degradation by ribonucleases, deoxyribonucleases, and proteases. This structural protection facilitates long-distance intercellular communication in multicellular organisms. In gliomas, EVs are pivotal in intracranial signaling and shaping the tumor microenvironment. Importantly, the cargos carried by glioma-derived EVs closely align with the biological factors involved in ischemic stroke, underscoring the substantial impact of glioma on stroke pathology, particularly through the crucial roles of EVs as key mediators in this interaction. This review explores the pathological interplay between glioma and ischemic stroke, addressing clinical manifestations and pathophysiological processes across the stages of hypoxia, stroke onset, progression, and recovery, with a particular focus on the crucial role of EVs and their cargos in these interactions.

Secreted exosomes induce filopodia formation

Filopodia are dynamic adhesive cytoskeletal structures that are critical for directional sensing, polarization, cell-cell adhesion, and migration of diverse cell types. Filopodia are also critical for neuronal synapse formation. While dynamic rearrangement of the actin cytoskeleton is known to be critical for filopodia biogenesis, little is known about the upstream extracellular signals. Here, we identify secreted exosomes as potent regulators of filopodia formation. Inhibition of exosome secretion inhibited the formation and stabilization of filopodia in both cancer cells and neurons and inhibited subsequent synapse formation by neurons. Rescue experiments with purified small and large extracellular vesicles (EVs) identified exosome-enriched small EVs (SEVs) as having potent filopodia-inducing activity. Proteomic analyses of cancer cell-derived SEVs identified the TGF-β family coreceptor endoglin as a key SEV-enriched cargo that regulates filopodia. Cancer cell endoglin levels also affected filopodia-dependent behaviors, including metastasis of cancer cells in chick embryos and 3D migration in collagen gels. As neurons do not express endoglin, we performed a second proteomics experiment to identify SEV cargoes regulated by endoglin that might promote filopodia in both cell types. We discovered a single SEV cargo that was altered in endoglin-KD cancer SEVs, the transmembrane protein Thrombospondin Type 1 Domain Containing 7A (THSD7A). We further found that both cancer cell and neuronal SEVs carry THSD7A and that add-back of purified THSD7A is sufficient to rescue filopodia defects of both endoglin-KD cancer cells and exosome-inhibited neurons. We also find that THSD7A induces filopodia formation through activation of the Rho GTPase, Cdc42. These findings suggest a new model for filopodia formation, triggered by exosomes carrying THSD7A.

Enhanced packaging of U6 small nuclear RNA and splicing-related proteins into extracellular vesicles during HIV infection

U6 small nuclear RNA (U6 snRNA), a critical spliceosome component primarily found in the nucleus, plays a vital role in RNA splicing. Our previous study, using the simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) macaque model, revealed an increase of U6 snRNA in plasma extracellular vesicles (EVs) in acute retroviral infection. Given the limited understanding of U6 snRNA dynamics across cells and EVs, particularly in SIV infection, this research explores U6 snRNA trafficking and its association with splicing proteins in the nucleus, cytoplasm, and EVs. We observed a redistribution of U6 snRNA from the nucleus to EVs post-infection, accompanied by distinct protein profile changes and alterations in nucleic acid metabolism and spliceosome pathways. In addition, U6 machinery proteins changed in cells and EVs in a contrasting manner. The redistribution of U6 and related proteins we observed could be part of a viral strategy to redirect host splicing machinery, suggesting that U6 may have regulatory roles and be part of retroviral infection signature.

The potential of exosomes in regenerative medicine and in the diagnosis and therapies of neurodegenerative diseases and cancer

Exosomes, nanosized extracellular vesicles released by various cell types, are intensively studied for the diagnosis and treatment of cancer and neurodegenerative diseases, and they also display high usability in regenerative medicine. Emphasizing their diagnostic potential, exosomes serve as carriers of disease-specific biomarkers, enabling non-invasive early detection and personalized medicine. The cargo loading of exosomes with therapeutic agents presents an innovative strategy for targeted drug delivery, minimizing off-target effects and optimizing therapeutic interventions. In regenerative medicine, exosomes play a crucial role in intercellular communication, facilitating tissue regeneration through the transmission of bioactive molecules. While acknowledging existing challenges in standardization and scalability, ongoing research efforts aim to refine methodologies and address regulatory considerations. In summary, this review underscores the transformative potential of exosomes in reshaping the landscape of medical interventions, with a particular emphasis on cancer, neurodegenerative diseases, and regenerative medicine.

Remodeling of immune system functions by extracellular vesicles

Introduction

The treatment of chronic viral infections can often bring viral replication under control. However, chronic immune activation persists and can lead to the development of comorbid conditions, such as cardiovascular disease and cancer. This is particularly true for people living with HIV (PLWH), who have significantly more extracellular vesicles from membrane budding, also called plasma microparticles (MPs), than healthy individuals (HDs), and a much more immunomodulatory phenotype. We hypothesized that the number and phenotypic heterogeneity of MPs can trigger a functional remodeling of immune responses in PLWH, preventing full immune restoration.

Methods

We investigated the rapid impact of three types of MPs - derived from membrane budding in platelets (CD41a+ PMPs), monocytes (CD14+ MMPs) and lymphocytes (CD3+ LMPs) in the plasma of PLWH or HDs-on four cell types (CD4+ and CD8+T lymphocytes, monocytes and DCs).

Results

These investigations of the short multiple interactions and functions of MPs with these cells revealed an increase in the secretion of cytokines such as IFNg, IL2, IL6, IL12, IL17 and TNFa by the immune cells studied following interactions with MPs. We show that this functional remodeling of immune cells depends not only on the number, but also on the phenotype of MPs.

Conclusion

These data suggest that the large numbers of MPs and their impact on functional remodeling in PLWH may be incompatible with the effective control of chronic infections, potentially leading to chronic immune activation and the onset of comorbid diseases.

Small extracellular vesicles from young adipose-derived stem cells ameliorate age-related changes in the heart of old mice

BACKGROUND

Aging entails a progressive decline in physiological functions, elevating the risk of age-related diseases like heart failure or aortic stenosis. Stem cell therapies, especially those that use paracrine signaling, can potentially mitigate the adverse effects of aging.

OBJECTIVES

The objective is to explore the potential of small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) derived from young adipose-derived stem cells (ADSC-sEVs) in reversing structural, molecular, and functional changes associated with aging in the heart.

METHODS

Aged C57BL/6J mice were treated intravenously with ADSC-sEVs from young mice or PBS as controls. Young mice were included to identify specific age-associated changes. The impact of sEV treatment on cardiac function was assessed using transthoracic echocardiography and physical endurance tests. Histological and molecular analyses were conducted on heart tissue to evaluate structural changes and markers of senescence, inflammation, and oxidative stress. A comprehensive metabolomic analysis was also performed on heart tissues to identify changes in metabolic profiles associated with aging and treatment status.

RESULTS

The administration of ADSC-sEVs significantly improves several aging-associated cardiac parameters, including oxidative stress, inflammation, and cellular senescence reductions. We also report on the age-related reversal of myocardial structure and function changes, highlighted by decreased fibrosis and improved vascularization. Notably, echocardiographic assessments reveal that sEV treatments ameliorate diastolic dysfunction and left ventricle structural alterations typically associated with aging. Furthermore, the treatment shifts the heart metabolome towards a more youthful profile.

CONCLUSIONS

These results denote the potential of ADSC-sEVs as a novel, noninvasive therapeutic strategy for mitigating cardiac aging-associated functional decline.

Akkermansia muciniphila and Its Extracellular Vesicles Affect Endocannabinoid System in in vitro Model

INTRODUCTION

Recent studies indicate that the gut microbiota controls the host's immune system. Probiotics use different signaling pathways to regulate intestinal permeability, barrier integrity, and energy balance.

METHODS

This research examined how Akkermansia muciniphila and its extracellular vesicles (EVs) impact inflammation and genes related to the endocannabinoid system in the STC-1 cell line through RT-PCR and ELISA assays.

RESULTS

The study's results indicated that EVs had a significant impact on GLP-1 expression compared to the multiplicity of infections (MOI) ratio. Notably, there was a substantial increase in the expression of PYY and GLP-1 genes across all treatments (p < 0.05). Conversely, the expression of CB-1, CB-2, and FAAH genes notably decreased in the STC-1 cell line when treated with MOI 50 of A. muciniphila and an EV concentration of 100 μg/mL (p < 0.05). Both MOI 50 of A. muciniphila and an EV concentration of 100 μg/mL significantly enhanced the expression of the TLR-2 gene. In contrast, EVs at a concentration of 100 μg/mL substantially reduced TLR-4 gene expression. A. muciniphila-derived EVs notably decreased the levels of inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α and IL-6), while increasing IL-10 expression at MOI 100 and an EV concentration of 100 μg/mL. These findings suggest that A. muciniphila and its EVs could regulate the expression of specific genes, serving as targets for maintaining host energy balance.

CONCLUSIONS

In summary, this study illustrates that A. muciniphila-derived EVs exhibit anti-inflammatory properties and have the potential to modulate gene expression in cases of obesity and gastrointestinal tract inflammation.

Efficient Metabolomics Profiling from Plasma Extracellular Vesicles Enables Accurate Diagnosis of Early Gastric Cancer

Accurate diagnosis of early gastric cancer is valuable for asymptomatic populations, while current endoscopic examination combined with pathological tissue biopsy often encounters bottlenecks for early-stage cancer and causes pain to patients. Liquid biopsy shows promise for noninvasive diagnosis of early gastric cancer; however, it remains a challenge to achieve accurate diagnosis due to the lack of highly sensitive and specific biomarkers. Herein, we propose a protocol combining metabolomics profiling from plasma extracellular vesicles (EVs) and machine learning to identify the metabolomics discrepancies of early gastric cancer individuals from other populations. Efficient metabolomics profiling is achieved by efficient, high-purity, and damage-free plasma EVs separation using elaborately designed nanotrap-structured microparticles (NanoFisher) by taking advantage of stereoscopic interaction and affinity interaction. Significant metabolomics discrepancies are obtained from 150 early gastric cancer (50), benign gastric disease (50), and non-disease control (50) plasma samples. Machine learning enables ideal distinction between early gastric cancer and non-disease control samples with an area under the curve (AUC) of 1.000, achieves an AUC of 0.875-0.975 for differentiating early gastric cancer from benign gastric diseases, and demonstrates an overall accuracy of 92% in directly classifying these three categories. The plasma EV metabolomics profiling enabled by NanoFisher materials, integrated with machine learning, holds considerable promise for broad clinical acceptance, enhancing gastric cancer screening outcomes.

miRNAs-Set of Plasmatic Extracellular Vesicles as Novel Biomarkers for Hepatocellular Carcinoma Diagnosis Across Tumor Stage and Etiologies

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most common primary liver cancer, often diagnosed at advanced stages due to insufficient early screening and monitoring. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are key regulators of gene expression and potential biomarkers for cancer diagnosis. This study investigated the diagnostic potential of miRNAs in Extracellular Vesicles (EVs) from HCC. miRNA expression in EVs was analyzed using HCC cell lines, circulating EVs from a Diethylnitrosamine (DEN)-induced liver tumor rat model, and plasma samples from HCC patients. Receiver Operating Characteristics (ROCs) were applied to evaluate the diagnostic accuracy of circulating EV miRNAs in patients. Five miRNAs (miR-183-5p, miR-19a-3p, miR-148b-3p, miR-34a-5p, and miR-215-5p) were consistently up-regulated in EVs across in vitro and in vivo HCC models. These miRNAs showed statistically significant differences in HCC patients stratified by TNM staging and Edmondson-Steiner grading compared to healthy controls. They also differentiated HCC patients with various etiologies from the control group and distinguished HCC patients, with or without liver cirrhosis, from cirrhotic and healthy individuals. Individually and as a panel, they demonstrated high sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy in identifying HCC patients. Their consistent upregulation across models and clinical samples highlights their robustness as biomarkers for HCC diagnosis, offering the potential for early disease management and prognosis.

Hallmarks of Polymersome Characterization

Polymersomes have the potential to become the next generation of vesicular drug delivery systems. Their high chemical versatility and in certain cases higher membrane stability than liposomes raised the high hopes for polymersomes as a drug carrier, but the clinical translation has been slow. To jump-start translation, there is a need for meticulous characterization and reporting of key parameters of polymersome formulations. Regulatory authorities have provided valuable insights on critical quality attributes of liposomes in their guidance document on liposomal nanosimilars. Inspired by this guidance document, this Perspective proposes necessary characterization of polymersomes (hallmarks) regarding their chemical composition, physicochemical properties, drug release profile, stability, stimuli responsiveness, and pharmacokinetics and biodistribution.

Fully Integrated Centrifugal Microfluidics for Rapid Exosome Isolation, Glycan Analysis, and Point-of-Care Diagnosis

Exosomes present in the circulatory system demonstrate considerable promise for the diagnosis and treatment of diseases. Nevertheless, the complex nature of blood samples and the prevalence of highly abundant proteins pose a significant obstacle to prompt and effective isolation and functional evaluation of exosomes from blood. Here, we present a fully integrated lab-on-a-disc equipped with two nanofilters, also termed iExoDisc, which facilitates automated isolation of exosomes from 400 μL blood samples within 45 min. By integrating the plasma separation module, highly abundant protein removal module, and nanopore membrane-based total isolation module, the resulting exosomes exhibited significantly increased purity (∼3-6-fold) compared to conventional ultracentrifugation and polymer precipitation. Additionally, we then successfully performed nontargeted and targeted glycan profiling on exosomes derived from clinical triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) patients using MALDI-TOF-MS and lectin microarray containing 56 kinds of lectins. The findings from both methodologies indicated that galactosylation and sialylation exhibit potential as diagnostic indicators for TNBC. Finally, by utilizing the exosome-specific glycosylated protein CD63 as a proof-of-concept, we successfully realized the integration of point-of-care on-chip exosome separation and in situ detection with 2 h. Thus, the iExoDisc provides a potential approach to early cancer detection, liquid biopsy, and point-of-care diagnosis.

Extracellular Vesicles in Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukaryotes: Mechanisms of Inter-Kingdom Communication and Clinical Implications

Living organisms must adapt and communicate effectively in their environment to survive. Cells communicate through various mechanisms, including releasing growth factors, chemokines, small bioactive molecules, and cell-cell contact. In recent years, a new and sophisticated cell communication mechanism based on extracellular vesicles (EVs) has been described in all three domains of life: archaea, bacteria, and eukaryotes. EVs are small, bilayer proteolipid vesicles released by cells into the extracellular space. This review aims to analyze and compare the current literature on bacterial, archaeal, and eukaryotic EVs and their possible clinical applications. This framework will address three key points: (a) The role of EVs in bacteria, eukaryotes, and archaea. (b) What is the impact of EVs in archaea on disease?

A synthetic model of bioinspired liposomes to study cancer-cell derived extracellular vesicles and their uptake by recipient cells

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are secreted by most cell types and play a central role in cell-cell communication. These naturally occurring nanoparticles have been particularly implicated in cancer, but EV heterogeneity and lengthy isolation methods with low yield make them difficult to study. To circumvent the challenges in EV research, we aimed to develop a unique synthetic model by engineering bioinspired liposomes to study EV properties and their impact on cellular uptake. We produced EV-like liposomes mimicking the physicochemical properties as cancer EVs. First, using a panel of cancer and non-cancer cell lines, small EVs were isolated by ultracentrifugation and characterized by dynamic light scattering (DLS) and nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA). Cancer EVs ranged in mean size from 107.9 to 161 nm by NTA, hydrodynamic diameter from 152 to 355 nm by DLS, with a zeta potential ranging from - 25 to -6 mV. EV markers TSG101 and CD81 were positive on all EVs. Using a microfluidics bottom-up approach, liposomes were produced using the nanoprecipitation method adapted to micromixers developed by our group. A library of liposome formulations was created that mimicked the ranges of size (90-222 nm) and zeta potential (anionic [-47 mV] to neutral [-1 mV]) at a production throughput of up to 41 mL/h and yielding a concentration of 1 × 1012 particles per mL. EV size and zeta potential were reproduced by controlling the flow conditions and lipid composition set by a statistical model based on the response surface methodology. The model was fairly accurate with an R-squared > 70% for both parameters between the targeted EV and the obtained liposomes. Finally, the internalization of fluorescently labeled EV-like liposomes was assessed by confocal microscopy and flow cytometry, and correlated with decreasing liposome size and less negative zeta potential, providing insights into the effects of key EV physicochemical properties. Our data demonstrated that liposomes can be used as a powerful synthetic model of EVs. By mimicking cancer cell-derived EV properties, the effects on cellular internalization can be assessed individually and in combination. Taken together, we present a novel system that can accelerate research on the effects of EVs in cancer models.

Development of a cell-penetrating peptide-based nanocomplex for long-term delivery of intact mitochondrial DNA into epithelial cells

Gene therapy approaches for mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)-associated damage/diseases have thus far been limited, and despite advancements in single gene therapy for mtDNA mutations and progress in mitochondrial transplantation, no method exists for restoring the entire mtDNA molecule in a clinically translatable manner. Here, we present for the first time a strategy to deliver an exogenous, fully intact, and healthy mtDNA template into cells to correct endogenous mtDNA mutations and deletions, with the potential to be developed into an efficient pan-therapy for inherited and/or acquired mtDNA disorders. More specifically, the novel therapeutic nanoparticle complex used in our study was generated by combining a cell-penetrating peptide (CPP) with purified mtDNA, in conjunction with a mitochondrial targeting reagent. The generated nanoparticle complexes were found to be taken up by cells and localized to mitochondria, with exogenous mtDNA retention/maintenance, along with mitochondrial RNA and protein production, observed in mitochondria-depleted ARPE-19 cells at least 4 weeks following a single treatment. These data demonstrate the feasibility of restoring mtDNA in cells via a CPP carrier, with the therapeutic potential to correct mtDNA damage independent of the number of gene mutations found within the mtDNA.

Extracellular Vesicles from Adipose-Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cells Improve Ligament-Bone Integration After Anterior Cruciate Ligament Primary Repair in Rabbit

BACKGROUNDS

In this research, we want to find out whether extracellular vesicles (EVs) from adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) can improve ligament-bone integration after primary Anterior Cruciate Ligament (ACL) repair by performing immunological and biomechanical tests.

METHODS

All of the rabbits underwent ACL resection at the proximal attachment to the femur bone, and then were divided into four groups. We performed an ELISA examination from the tissue at the bone-ligament interface of iNOS, CD206, MMP-3, and TIMP-1 to evaluate their levels at the inflammatory stage at the end of the first week. Immunoexpression of type I and III collagen and failure load biomechanical tests were performed at the end of the sixth week.

RESULT

The group that underwent ACL repair with EVs augmentation had significantly higher levels of CD206, significantly lower MMP-3 levels, and significantly higher TIMP-1 levels in the first week. The iNOS levels in the group that underwent ACL repair with EVs augmentation were significantly different compared to the control group that did not receive any. The number of type I collagen fibers and the failure load levels in the group that underwent ACL repair with EVs augmentation were significantly higher.

CONCLUSIONS

EVs from adipose-derived MSCs can improve the outcome of primary ACL repair in rabbits by regulating the inflammatory process during the healing period.

Exosomes derived from hypoxic mesenchymal stem cell ameliorate premature ovarian insufficiency by reducing mitochondrial oxidative stress

Cyclophosphamide (CTX) exposure causes premature ovarian insufficiency (POI). The therapeutic potential of exosomes derived from human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells (hucMSCs) is not fully understood, especially regarding whether hypoxic preconditioning enhances their efficacy in POI. In this study, exosomes were isolated and identified from hucMSCs (hucMSCs-Exos) under hypoxic (HExos) and normoxic (NExos) conditions. Cyclophosphamide (CTX) was used to develop the POI rat model, and NExos or HExos was injected into the tail vein to investigate its therapeutic effect on POI. In addition, CTX-treated KGN cell lines were used to investigate the effects of NExos and HExos on cell proliferation, apoptosis, oxidative stress and mitochondrial membrane potential.The results indicated that hucMSCs-Exos transplantation substantially improved body weight, ovarian weight coefficient, estrous cycles, ovarian morphology, ovulation count, and sex hormone levels in POI rats. Further, HExos showed a higher level of therapeutic efficiency than NExos. In vitro experiments demonstrated that NExos and HExos may be phagocytosed by KGN cell line, decrease cell apoptosis, and enhance cell growth. After NExos or HExos transplantation, the reactive oxygen species level was reduced, mitochondrial membrane potential enhanced, and the levels of mitochondrial oxidative stress-associated factors returned to their basal level. Notably, the improvement of oxidative stress by NExos or HExos was blocked by the SIRT3 selective inhibitor 3-TYP. In conclusion, hypoxia-induced hucMSCs-Exos protected the ovarian reserve against CXT-induced ovarian damage by rectifying mitochondrial malfunction via the SIRT3/PGC1-α pathway, establishing a solid basis for developing specific ovarian protection therapies.

Exosomes in Precision Oncology and Beyond: From Bench to Bedside in Diagnostics and Therapeutics

Exosomes have emerged as pivotal players in precision oncology, offering innovative solutions to longstanding challenges such as metastasis, therapeutic resistance, and immune evasion. These nanoscale extracellular vesicles facilitate intercellular communication by transferring bioactive molecules that mirror the biological state of their parent cells, positioning them as transformative tools for cancer diagnostics and therapeutics. Recent advancements in exosome engineering, artificial intelligence (AI)-driven analytics, and isolation technologies are breaking barriers in scalability, reproducibility, and clinical application. Bioengineered exosomes are being leveraged for CRISPR-Cas9 delivery, while AI models are enhancing biomarker discovery and liquid biopsy accuracy. Despite these advancements, key obstacles such as heterogeneity in exosome populations and the lack of standardized isolation protocols persist. This review synthesizes pioneering research on exosome biology, molecular engineering, and clinical translation, emphasizing their dual roles as both mediators of tumor progression and tools for intervention. It also explores emerging areas, including microbiome-exosome interactions and the integration of machine learning in exosome-based precision medicine. By bridging innovation with translational strategies, this work charts a forward-looking path for integrating exosomes into next-generation cancer care, setting it apart as a comprehensive guide to overcoming clinical and technological hurdles in this rapidly evolving field.

Intranasal delivery of extracellular vesicles: A promising new approach for treating neurological and respiratory disorders

BACKGROUND

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are membrane vesicles secreted by all types of cells, including bacteria, animals, and plants. These vesicles contain proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids from their parent cells and can transfer these components between cells. EVs have attracted attention for their potential use in diagnosis and therapy due to their natural properties, such as low immunogenicity, high biocompatibility, and ability to cross the blood-brain barrier. They can also be engineered to carry therapeutic molecules. EVs can be delivered via various routes. The intranasal route is particularly advantageous for delivering them to the central nervous system, making it a promising approach for treating neurological disorders.

SCOPE OF REVIEW

This review delves into the promising potential of intranasally administered EVs-based therapies for various medical conditions, with a particular focus on those affecting the brain and central nervous system. Additionally, the potential use of these therapies for pulmonary conditions, cancer, and allergies is examined, offering a hopeful outlook for the future of medical treatments.

MAJOR CONCLUSIONS

The intranasal administration of EVs offers significant advantages over other delivery methods. By directly delivering EVs to the brain, specifically targeting areas that have been injured, this administration proves to be highly efficient and effective, providing reassurance about the progress in medical treatments. Intranasal delivery is not limited to brain-related conditions. It can also benefit other organs like the lungs and stimulate a mucosal immune response against various pathogens due to the highly vascularized nature of the nasal cavity and airways. Moreover, it has the added benefit of minimizing toxicity to non-targeted organs and allows the EVs to remain longer in the body. As a result, there is a growing emphasis on conducting clinical trials for intranasal administration of EVs, particularly in treating respiratory tract pathologies such as coronavirus disease.

EV DNA from pancreatic cancer patient-derived cells harbors molecular, coding, non-coding signatures and mutational hotspots

DNA packaged into cancer cell-derived EV is not well appreciated. Here, we uncovered signatures of EV DNA secreted by pancreatic cancer cells. The cancer cells and non-cancer counterparts exhibit distinct low vs. high molecular weight (LMW vs. HMW) EV DNA fragments distribution, respectively. Genome sequencing and Single Nucleotide Variants analysis revealed that 95% of reads and 94% of SNVs map to noncoding regions of the genome. Given that ~1% of the human genome represents coding regions, the 5% mapping rate to coding regions suggests a non-random enrichment of certain coding regions and mutations. The LMW DNA fragments not only set cancer cells apart, but also harbor cancer specific enrichment of unique coding regions, the top nine being FAM135B, COL22A1, TSNARE1, KCNK9, ZFAT, JRK, MROH5, GSDMD, and MIR3667HG. Additionally, the cancer cells' LMW DNA fragments exhibit dense centromeric mapping more strikingly on chromosomes 3, 7, 9, 10, 11, 13, 17, and 20. Mutational profiling turned up close to 200 mutations specific for the cancer cells. Altogether, our analyses suggest that centromeric regions might hold clues to EV DNA content from pancreatic cancer, the molecular, mutational signatures thereof, and rationalizes the need for a new approach to DNA biomarker research.