Mammalian Pins is a conformational switch that links NuMA to heterotrimeric G proteins

Asymmetric Cell Division: A CAB Driver for Spindle Movements

To divide asymmetrically, a cell must position the mitotic spindle relative to localized cell fate determinants. Recent work in the early ascidian embryo reveals the function of a single factor that coordinates this act to control cleavage pattern and cell fate determination.

Absence of LPA1 signaling results in defective cortical development

Lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) is a simple phospholipid with extracellular signaling properties mediated by specific G protein-coupled receptors. At least 2 LPA receptors, LPA(1) and LPA(2), are expressed in the developing brain, the former enriched in the neurogenic ventricular zone (VZ), suggesting a normal role in neurogenesis. Despite numerous studies reporting the effects of exogenous LPA using in vitro neural models, the first LPA(1) loss-of-function mutants reported did not show gross cerebral cortical defects in the 50% that survived perinatal demise. Here, we report a role for LPA(1) in cortical neural precursors resulting from analysis of a variant of a previously characterized LPA(1)-null mutant that arose spontaneously during colony expansion. These LPA(1)-null mice, termed maLPA(1), exhibit almost complete perinatal viability and show a reduced VZ, altered neuronal markers, and increased cortical cell death that results in a loss of cortical layer cellularity in adults. These data support LPA(1) function in normal cortical development and suggest that the presence of genetic modifiers of LPA(1) influences cerebral cortical development.

Experimental and theoretical study of mitotic spindle orientation

The architecture and adhesiveness of a cell microenvironment is a critical factor for the regulation of spindle orientation in vivo. Using a combination of theory and experiments, we have investigated spindle orientation in HeLa (human) cells. Here we show that spindle orientation can be understood as the result of the action of cortical force generators, which interact with spindle microtubules and are activated by cortical cues. We develop a simple physical description of this spindle mechanics, which allows us to calculate angular profiles of the torque acting on the spindle, as well as the angular distribution of spindle orientations. Our model accounts for the preferred spindle orientation and the shape of the full angular distribution of spindle orientations observed in a large variety of different cellular microenvironment geometries. It also correctly describes asymmetric spindle orientations, which are observed for certain distributions of cortical cues. We conclude that, on the basis of a few simple assumptions, we can provide a quantitative description of the spindle orientation of adherent cells.

Force-induced polarized mitosis of endothelial and smooth muscle cells in arterial remodeling

Arteries display highly directional growth and remodeling that are specific to increases in the mechanical loads imposed on them by blood pressure, blood flow, and lengthwise tensile forces that are transmitted from the tissues to which they are attached. This study examined the effect of mechanical forces on the direction in which mitosis delivers daughter cells, as a mechanism for directional growth. Lateral forces were imposed on surface integrins of cultured endothelial cells by seeding the cells with arginine-glycine-aspartate peptide-coated magnetic microspheres and applying a magnetic field. Video images revealed that the mitotic axis of dividing cells became highly biased in the direction of applied force. Distribution of cortactin, which participates in polarized mitoses driven by other stimuli, was highly sensitive to mechanical loading and interfering with cortactin function arrested cell growth. Smooth muscle cell mitoses also proved to be sensitive to mechanical force: when lengthwise force imposed on rabbit carotid arteries was altered by excision of a vessel segment and reanastomosis of the cut ends, direction of mitosis was dramatically altered. These findings indicate that influences of mechanical force can modulate the manner in which mitosis of vascular cells contributes to reorganization of arterial wall tissue.

Cytokinesis: LET-ting the asters signal

Cytokinesis is regulated by both astral microtubules and the midzone microtubules of the mitotic apparatus. A new study in Caenorhabditis elegans has identified the polarity factor LET-99 and its heterotrimeric G-protein regulators as components of the signaling pathway downstream of astral microtubules.

Spindle regulation in neural precursors of flies and mammals

The mitotic spindle is the cellular scaffold that facilitates proper segregation of genetic material during cell division. Far from being static, the spindle is a dynamically regulated tool that can alter its size, shape and position during mitosis. Work in both insect and vertebrate systems has shown that regulation of this structure involves an array of highly conserved proteins. Moreover, it is now clear that tight regulation of the spindle during the process of neurogenesis is paramount to proper cell division and generation of the nervous system as a whole.

Spindle oscillations during asymmetric cell division require a threshold number of active cortical force generators

BACKGROUND

Asymmetric division of the C. elegans zygote is due to the posterior-directed movement of the mitotic spindle during metaphase and anaphase. During this movement along the anterior-posterior axis, the spindle oscillates transversely. These motions are thought to be driven by a force-generating complex-possibly containing the motor protein cytoplasmic dynein-that is located at the cell cortex and pulls on microtubules growing out from the spindle poles. A theoretical analysis indicates that the oscillations might arise from mechanical coordination of the force-generating motors, and this coordination is mediated by the load dependence of the motors' detachment from the microtubules. The model predicts that the motor activity must exceed a threshold for oscillations to occur.

RESULTS

We have tested the existence of a threshold by using RNA interference to gradually reduce the levels of dynein light intermediate chain as well as GPR-1 and GPR-2 that are involved in the G protein-mediated regulation of the force generators. We found an abrupt cessation of oscillations as expected if the motor activity dropped below a threshold. Furthermore, we can account for the complex choreography of the mitotic spindle-the precise temporal coordination of the buildup and die-down of the transverse oscillations with the posterior displacement-by a gradual increase in the processivity of a single type of motor machinery during metaphase and anaphase.

CONCLUSIONS

The agreement between our results and modeling suggests that the force generators themselves have the intrinsic capability of generating oscillations when opposing forces exceed a threshold.

G protein βγ subunits interact with αβ- and γ-tubulin and play a role in microtubule assembly in PC12 cells

The betagamma subunit of G proteins (Gbetagamma) is known to transfer signals from cell surface receptors to intracellular effector molecules. Recent results suggest that Gbetagamma also interacts with microtubules and is involved in the regulation of the mitotic spindle. In the current study, the anti-microtubular drug nocodazole was employed to investigate the mechanism by which Gbetagamma interacts with tubulin and its possible implications in microtubule assembly in cultured PC12 cells. Nocodazole-induced depolymerization of microtubules drastically inhibited the interaction between Gbetagamma and tubulin. Gbetagamma was preferentially bound to microtubules and treatment with nocodazole suggested that the dissociation of Gbetagamma from microtubules is an early step in the depolymerization process. When microtubules were allowed to recover after removal of nocodazole, the tubulin-Gbetagamma interaction was restored. Unlike Gbetagamma, however, the interaction between tubulin and the alpha subunit of the Gs protein (Gsalpha) was not inhibited by nocodazole, indicating that the inhibition of tubulin-Gbetagamma interactions during microtubule depolymerization is selective. We found that Gbetagamma also interacts with gamma-tubulin, colocalizes with gamma-tubulin in centrosomes, and co-sediments in centrosomal fractions. The interaction between Gbetagamma and gamma-tubulin was unaffected by nocodazole, suggesting that the Gbetagamma-gamma-tubulin interaction is not dependent on assembled microtubules. Taken together, our results suggest that Gbetagamma may play an important and definitive role in microtubule assembly and/or stability. We propose that betagamma-microtubule interaction is an important step for G protein-mediated cell activation. These results may also provide new insights into the mechanism of action of anti-microtubule drugs.

Selective interactions between Giα1 and Giα3 and the GoLoco/GPR domain of RGS14 influence its dynamic subcellular localization

RGS14 is a multifunctional protein that contains an RGS domain, which binds active Gi/o alpha-GTP, a GoLoco/GPR domain, which binds inactive Gi alpha-GDP, and a tandem Rap1/2 binding domain (RBD). Studies were initiated to determine the roles of these domains and their interactions with Gi alpha on RGS14 subcellular localization. We report that RGS14 dynamic subcellular localization in HeLa cells depends on distinct domains and selective interactions with preferred Gi alpha isoforms. RGS14 shuttles rapidly between the nucleus and cytoplasm, and associates with centrosomes during interphase and mitosis. RGS14 localization to the nucleus depends on the RGS and RBD domains, its translocation out of the nucleus depends on the GoLoco/GPR domain, and its localization to centrosomes depends on the RBD domain. Gi alpha subunits (Gi alpha1, 2 and 3) localize predominantly at the plasma membrane. RGS14 binds directly to inactive and active forms of Gi alpha1 and Gi alpha3, but not Gi alpha2, both as a purified protein and when recovered from cells. RGS14 localizes predominantly at the plasma membrane in cells with inactive Gi alpha1 and Gi alpha3, but not Gi alpha2, whereas less RGS14 associates with active Gi alpha1/3 at the plasma membrane. RGS14 binding to inactive, but not active Gi alpha1/3 also prevents association with centrosomes or nuclear localization. Removal or functional inactivation of the GoLoco/GPR domain causes RGS14 to accumulate at centrosomes and in the nucleus, but renders it insensitive to recruitment to the plasma membrane by Gi alpha1/3. These findings highlight the importance of the GoLoco/GPR domain and its interactions with Gi alpha1/3 in determining RGS14 subcellular localization and linked functions.

Cellular laserfection

Many studies in modern biology often rely on the introduction of a foreign molecule (i.e., transfection), be it DNA plasmids, siRNA molecules, protein biosensors, labeled tracers, and so on, into cells in order to answer the important questions of today's science. Many different methods have been developed over time to facilitate cellular transfection, but most of these methods were developed to work with a specific type of molecule (usually DNA plasmids) and none work well enough with difficult, sensitive, or primary cells to meet the needs of current life science researchers. A novel procedure that uses laser light to gently permeabilize large number of cells in a very short time has been developed and is described in detail in this chapter. This method allows difficult cells to be efficiently transfected in a high-throughput manner, with a wide variety of molecules, with extremely low toxicity.

LET-99, GOA-1/GPA-16, and GPR-1/2 are required for aster-positioned cytokinesis

At anaphase, the mitotic spindle positions the cytokinesis furrow [1]. Two populations of spindle microtubules are implicated in cytokinesis: radial microtubule arrays called asters and bundled nonkinetochore microtubules called the spindle midzone [2-4]. In C. elegans embryos, these two populations of microtubules provide two consecutive signals that position the cytokinesis furrow: The first signal is positioned midway between the microtubule asters; the second signal is positioned over the spindle midzone [5]. Evidence for two cytokinesis signals came from the identification of molecules that block midzone-positioned cytokinesis [5-7]. However, no molecules that are only required for, and thus define, the molecular pathway of aster-positioned cytokinesis have been identified. With RNAi screening, we identify LET-99 and the heterotrimeric G proteins GOA-1/GPA-16 and their regulator GPR-1/2 [10-12] in aster-positioned cytokinesis. By using mechanical spindle displacement, we show that the anaphase spindle positions cortical LET-99, at the site of the presumptive cytokinesis furrow. LET-99 enrichment at the furrow depends on the G proteins. GPR-1 is locally reduced at the site of cytokinesis-furrow formation by LET-99, which prevents accumulation of GPR-1 at this site. We conclude that LET-99 and the G proteins define a molecular pathway required for aster-positioned cytokinesis.

Activator of G-protein signaling in asymmetric cell divisions of the sea urchin embryo

An asymmetric fourth cell division in the sea urchin embryo results in formation of daughter cells, macromeres and micromeres, with distinct sizes and fates. Several lines of functional evidence presented here, including pharmacological interference and dominant negative protein expression, indicate that heterotrimeric G protein Gi and its interaction partner, activator of G-protein signaling (AGS), are necessary for this asymmetric cell division. Inhibition of Gi signaling by pertussis toxin interferes with micromere formation and leads to defects in embryogenesis. AGS was isolated in a yeast two-hybrid screen with G alpha i as bait and was expressed in embryos localized to the cell cortex at the time of asymmetric divisions. Introduction of exogenous dominant-negative AGS protein, containing only G-protein regulatory (GPR) domains, selectively prevented the asymmetric division in normal micromere formation. These results support the growing evidence that AGS is a universal regulator of asymmetric cell divisions in embryos.

Mechanistic pathways and biological roles for receptor-independent activators of G-protein signaling

Signal processing via heterotrimeric G-proteins in response to cell surface receptors is a central and much investigated aspect of how cells integrate cellular stimuli to produce coordinated biological responses. The system is a target of numerous therapeutic agents and plays an important role in adaptive processes of organs; aberrant processing of signals through these transducing systems is a component of various disease states. In addition to G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR)-mediated activation of G-protein signaling, nature has evolved creative ways to manipulate and utilize the Galphabetagamma heterotrimer or Galpha and Gbetagamma subunits independent of the cell surface receptor stimuli. In such situations, the G-protein subunits (Galpha and Gbetagamma) may actually be complexed with alternative binding partners independent of the typical heterotrimeric Galphabetagamma. Such regulatory accessory proteins include the family of regulator of G-protein signaling (RGS) proteins that accelerate the GTPase activity of Galpha and various entities that influence nucleotide binding properties and/or subunit interaction. The latter group of proteins includes receptor-independent activators of G-protein signaling (AGS) proteins that play surprising roles in signal processing. This review provides an overview of our current knowledge regarding AGS proteins. AGS proteins are indicative of a growing number of accessory proteins that influence signal propagation, facilitate cross talk between various types of signaling pathways, and provide a platform for diverse functions of both the heterotrimeric Galphabetagamma and the individual Galpha and Gbetagamma subunits.

Orientation of endothelial cell division is regulated by VEGF signaling during blood vessel formation

New blood vessel formation requires the coordination of endothelial cell division and the morphogenetic movements of vessel expansion, but it is not known how this integration occurs. Here, we show that endothelial cells regulate division orientation during the earliest stages of blood vessel formation, in response to morphogenetic cues. In embryonic stem (ES) cell-derived vessels that do not experience flow, the plane of endothelial cytokinesis was oriented perpendicular to the vessel long axis. We also demonstrated regulated cleavage orientation in vivo, in flow-exposed forming retinal vessels. Daughter nuclei moved away from the cleavage plane after division, suggesting that regulation of endothelial division orientation effectively extends vessel length in these developing vascular beds. A gain-of-function mutation in VEGF signaling increased randomization of endothelial division orientation, and this effect was rescued by a transgene, indicating that regulation of division orientation is a novel mechanism whereby VEGF signaling affects vessel morphogenesis. Thus, our findings show that endothelial cell division and morphogenesis are integrated in developing vessels by flow-independent mechanisms that involve VEGF signaling, and this cross talk is likely to be critical to proper vessel morphogenesis.

Cell shape and cell division

The correlation between cell shape elongation and the orientation of the division axis described by early cell biologists is still used as a paradigm in developmental studies. However, analysis of early embryo development and tissue morphogenesis has highlighted the role of the spatial distribution of cortical cues able to guide spindle orientation. In vitro studies of cell division have revealed similar mechanisms. Recent data support the possibility that the orientation of cell division in mammalian cells is dominated by cell adhesion and the associated traction forces developed in interphase. Cell shape is a manifestation of these adhesive and tensional patterns. These patterns control the spatial distribution of cortical signals and thereby guide spindle orientation and daughter cell positioning. From these data, cell division appears to be a continuous transformation ensuring the maintenance of tissue mechanical integrity.

The G-protein regulatory (GPR) motif-containing Leu-Gly-Asn-enriched protein (LGN) and Gialpha3 influence cortical positioning of the mitotic spindle poles at metaphase in symmetrically dividing mammalian cells

We addressed the role of the G-protein regulatory (GPR) motif-containing Leu-Gly-Asn-enriched protein (LGN) and G-proteins (Gialpha3) in the positioning of the spindle pole during mammalian cell division. Immunocytochemistry indicated that both LGN and Gialpha3 co-localized at the spindle pole and at the midbody and the cell cortex during the different phases of mitosis. In marked contrast to the positioning of the spindle pole at metaphase midway between the cell cortex and the metaphase plate, the spindle pole was juxtaposed with the cell cortex at metaphase following increased expression of Gialpha3 and LGN. This repositioning of the spindle pole required the interaction of LGN with Gialpha. The influence of LGN and Gialpha3 on the cortical positioning of the spindle pole likely reflects either stronger pulling forces on the spindle pole exerted from the cell cortex or increased pushing forces exerted on the spindle pole from the mitotic spindle indicating that these events are regulated by GPR motif-containing proteins and G-proteins independent of asymmetry.

A default mechanism of spindle orientation based on cell shape is sufficient to generate cell fate diversity in polarised Xenopus blastomeres

The process of oriented divisions of polarised cells is a recurrent mechanism of cell fate diversification in development. It is commonly assumed that a specialised mechanism of spindle alignment into the axis of polarity is a prerequisite for such systems to generate cell fate diversity. Oriented divisions also take place in the frog blastula, where orientation of the spindle into the apicobasal axis of polarised blastomeres generates inner and outer cells with different fates. Here, we show that, in this system, the spindle orients according to the shape of the cells, a mechanism often thought to be a default. We show that in the embryo, fatedifferentiative, perpendicular divisions correlate with a perpendicular long axis and a small apical surface, but the long axis rather then the size of the apical domain defines the division orientation. Mitotic spindles in rounded, yet polarised, isolated Xenopus blastula cells orient randomly, but align into an experimentally introduced long axis when cells are deformed early in the cell cycle. Unlike other systems of oriented divisions, the spindle aligns at prophase, rotation behaviour is rare and restricted to small angle adjustments. Disruption of astral microtubules leads to misalignment of the spindle. These results show that a mechanism of spindle orientation that depends on cell shape rather than cortical polarity can nevertheless generate cell fate diversity from a population of polarised cells.

Modulation of basal and receptor-induced GIRK potassium channel activity and neuronal excitability by the mammalian PINS homolog LGN

G protein-activated inwardly rectifying potassium (GIRK) channels mediate slow synaptic inhibition and control neuronal excitability. It is unknown whether GIRK channels are subject to regulation by guanine dissociation inhibitor (GDI) proteins like LGN, a mammalian homolog of Drosophila Partner of Inscuteable (mPINS). Here we report that LGN increases basal GIRK current but reduces GIRK activation by metabotropic transmitter receptors coupled to Gi or Go, but not Gs. Moreover, expression of its N-terminal, TPR-containing protein interaction domains mimics the effects of LGN in mammalian cells, probably by releasing sequestered endogenous LGN. In hippocampal neurons, expression of LGN, or LGN fragments that mimic or enhance LGN activity, hyperpolarizes the resting potential due to increased basal GIRK activity and reduces excitability. Using Lenti virus for LGN RNAi to reduce endogenous LGN levels in hippocampal neurons, we further show an essential role of LGN for maintaining basal GIRK channel activity and for harnessing neuronal excitability.

Differential roles of Arabidopsis heterotrimeric G-protein subunits in modulating cell division in roots

Signaling through heterotrimeric G proteins is conserved in diverse eukaryotes. Compared to vertebrates, the simpler repertoire of G-protein complex and accessory components in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) offers a unique advantage over all other multicellular, genetic-model systems for dissecting the mechanism of G-protein signal transduction. One of several biological processes that the G-protein complex regulates in Arabidopsis is cell division. We determined cell production rate in the primary root and the formation of lateral roots in Arabidopsis to define individually the types of modulatory roles of the respective G-protein alpha- and beta-subunits, as well as the heterotrimer in cell division. The growth rate of the root is in part a consequence of cell cycle maintenance in the root apical meristem (RAM), while lateral root production requires meristem formation by founder pericycle cells. Thus, a comparison of these two parameters in various genetic backgrounds enabled dissection of the role of the G-protein subunits in modulation of cell division, both in maintenance and initiation. Cell production rates were determined for the RAM and lateral root formation in gpa1 (Arabidopsis G-protein alpha-subunit) and agb1 (Arabidopsis G-protein beta-subunit) single and double mutants, and in transgenic lines overexpressing GPA1 or AGB1 in agb1 or gpa1 mutant backgrounds, respectively. We found in the RAM that the heterotrimeric complex acts as an attenuator of cell proliferation, whereas the GTP-bound form of the Galpha-subunit's role is a positive modulator. In contrast, for the formation of lateral roots, the Gbetagamma-dimer acts largely independently of the Galpha-subunit to attenuate cell division. These results suggest that Arabidopsis heterotrimeric G-protein subunits have differential and opposing roles in the modulation of cell division in roots.

Drosophila Neuroblast Asymmetric Cell Division: Recent Advances and Implications for Stem Cell Biology

Asymmetric cell division is an evolutionarily conserved mechanism widely used to generate cellular diversity during development. Drosophila neuroblasts have been a useful model system for studying the molecular mechanisms of asymmetric cell division. In this minireview, we focus on recent progress in understanding the role of heterotrimeric G proteins and their regulators in asymmetric spindle geometry, as well as the role of an Inscuteable-independent microtubule pathway in asymmetric localization of proteins in neuroblasts. We also discuss issues of progenitor proliferation and differentiation associated with asymmetric cell division and their broader implications for stem cell biology.

New roles for Galpha and RGS proteins: communication continues despite pulling sisters apart

Large G protein alpha subunits and their attendant regulators of G-protein signaling (RGS) proteins control both intercellular signaling and asymmetric cell divisions by distinct pathways. The classical pathway, found throughout higher eukaryotic organisms, mediates intercellular communication via hormone binding to G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). Recent studies have led to the discovery of GPCR-independent activation of Galpha subunits by the guanine nucleotide exchange factor RIC-8 in both asymmetric cell division and synaptic vesicle priming in metazoan organisms. Protein-protein interactions and protein function in each pathway are driven through the cycle of GTP binding and hydrolysis by the Galpha subunit. This review builds a conceptual framework for understanding RIC-8-mediated pathways by comparison with the mechanism of classical G-protein activation and inhibition in GPCR signaling.

Non-receptor activators of heterotrimeric G-protein signaling (AGS proteins)

G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR) signaling represents one of the most conserved and ubiquitous means in mammalian cells for transferring information across the plasma membrane to the intracellular environment. Heterotrimeric G-protein subunits play key roles in transducing these signals, and intracellular regulators influencing the activation state and interaction of these subunits regulate the extent and duration of GPCR signaling. One class of intracellular regulator, the non-receptor activators of G-protein signaling (or AGS proteins), are the major focus of this review. AGS proteins provide a basis for understanding the function of heterotrimeric G-proteins in both GPCR-driven and GPCR independent cellular signaling pathways.

The Drosophila NuMA Homolog Mud Regulates Spindle Orientation in Asymmetric Cell Division

During asymmetric cell division, the mitotic spindle must be properly oriented to ensure the asymmetric segregation of cell fate determinants into only one of the two daughter cells. In Drosophila neuroblasts, spindle orientation requires heterotrimeric G proteins and the G alpha binding partner Pins, but how the Pins-G alphai complex interacts with the mitotic spindle is unclear. Here, we show that Pins binds directly to the microtubule binding protein Mud, the Drosophila homolog of NuMA. Like NuMA, Mud can bind to microtubules and enhance microtubule polymerization. In the absence of Mud, mitotic spindles in Drosophila neuroblasts fail to align with the polarity axis. This can lead to symmetric segregation of the cell fate determinants Brat and Prospero, resulting in the mis-specification of daughter cell fates and tumor-like over proliferation in the Drosophila nervous system. Our data suggest a model in which asymmetrically localized Pins-G alphai complexes regulate spindle orientation by directly binding to Mud.

Activation of heterotrimeric G-proteins independent of a G-protein coupled receptor and the implications for signal processing

Heterotrimeric G-proteins are key transducers for signal transfer from outside the cell, mediating signals emanating from cell-surface G-protein coupled receptors (GPCR). Many, if not all, subtypes of heterotrimeric G-proteins are also regulated by accessory proteins that influence guanine nucleotide binding, guanosine triphosphate (GTP) hydrolysis, or subunit interactions. One subgroup of such accessory proteins (activators of G-protein signaling; AGS proteins) refer to a functionally defined group of proteins that activate selected G-protein signaring systems in the absence of classical G-protein coupled receptors. AGS and related proteins provide unexpected insights into the regulation of the G-protein activation-deactivation cycle. Different AGS proteins function as guanine nucleotide exchange factors or guanine nucleotide dissociation inhibitors and may also influence subunit interactions by interaction with GBgamma. These proteins play important roles in the generation or positioning of signaling complexes and of the regulation of GPCR signaling, and as alternative binding partners for G-protein subunits. Perhaps of even broader impact is the discovery that AGS proteins provide a foundation for the concept that heterotrimeric G-protein subunits are processing signals within the cell involving intrinsic cues that do not involve the classical signal input from a cell surface GPCR.

The NuMA-related Mud protein binds Pins and regulates spindle orientation in Drosophila neuroblasts

Asymmetric cell division generates cell diversity during development and regulates stem-cell self-renewal in Drosophila and mammals. In Drosophila, neuroblasts align their spindle with a cortical Partner of Inscuteable (Pins)-G alpha i crescent to divide asymmetrically, but the link between cortical polarity and the mitotic spindle is poorly understood. Here, we show that Pins directly binds, and coimmunoprecipitates with, the NuMA-related Mushroom body defect (Mud) protein. Pins recruits Mud to the neuroblast apical cortex, and Mud is also strongly localized to centrosome/spindle poles, in a similar way to NuMA. In mud mutants, cortical polarity is normal, but the metaphase spindle frequently fails to align with the cortical polarity axis. When spindle orientation is orthogonal to cell polarity, symmetric division occurs. We propose that Mud is a functional orthologue of mammalian NuMA and Caenorhabditis elegans Lin-5, and that Mud coordinates spindle orientation with cortical polarity to promote asymmetric cell division.

Drosophila Pins-binding protein Mud regulates spindle-polarity coupling and centrosome organization

The orientation of the mitotic spindle relative to the cell axis determines whether polarized cells undergo symmetric or asymmetric divisions. Drosophila epithelial cells and neuroblasts provide an ideal pair of cells to study the regulatory mechanisms involved. Epithelial cells divide symmetrically, perpendicular to the apical-basal axis. In the asymmetric divisions of neuroblasts, by contrast, the spindle reorients parallel to that axis, leading to the unequal distribution of cell-fate determinants to one daughter cell. Receptor-independent G-protein signalling involving the GoLoco protein Pins is essential for spindle orientation in both cell types. Here, we identify Mushroom body defect (Mud) as a downstream effector in this pathway. Mud directly associates and colocalizes with Pins at the cell cortex overlying the spindle pole(s) in both neuroblasts and epithelial cells. The cortical Mud protein is essential for proper spindle orientation in the two different division modes. Moreover, Mud localizes to centrosomes during mitosis independently of Pins to regulate centrosomal organization. We propose that Drosophila Mud, vertebrate NuMA and Caenorhabditis elegans Lin-5 (refs 5, 6) have conserved roles in the mechanism by which G-proteins regulate the mitotic spindle.

Accessory proteins for G proteins: partners in signaling

Accessory proteins involved in signal processing through heterotrimeric G proteins are generally defined as proteins distinct from G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR), G protein, or classical effectors that regulate the strength/efficiency/specificity of signal transfer upon receptor activation or position these entities in the right microenvironment, contributing to the formation of a functional signal transduction complex. A flurry of recent studies have implicated an additional class of accessory proteins for this system that provide signal input to heterotrimeric G proteins in the absence of a cell surface receptor, serve as alternative binding partners for G protein subunits, provide unexpected modes of G protein regulation, and have introduced additional functional roles for G proteins. This group of accessory proteins includes the recently discovered Activators of G protein Signaling (AGS) proteins identified in a functional screen for receptor-independent activators of G protein signaling as well as several proteins identified in protein interaction screens and genetic screens in model organisms. These accessory proteins may influence GDP dissociation and nucleotide exchange at the G(alpha) subunit, alter subunit interactions within heterotrimeric G(alphabetagamma) independent of nucleotide exchange, or form complexes with G(alpha) or G(betagamma) independent of the typical G(alphabetagamma) heterotrimer. AGS and related accessory proteins reveal unexpected diversity in G protein subunits as signal transducers within the cell.

The aPKC-PAR-6-PAR-3 cell polarity complex localizes to the centrosome attracting body, a macroscopic cortical structure responsible for asymmetric divisions in the early ascidian embryo

Posterior blastomeres of 8-cell stage ascidian embryos undergo a series of asymmetric divisions that generate cells of unequal sizes and segregate muscle from germ cell fates. These divisions are orchestrated by a macroscopic cortical structure, the ;centrosome attracting body' (CAB) which controls spindle positioning and distribution of mRNA determinants. The CAB is composed of a mass of cortical endoplasmic reticulum containing mRNAs (the cER-mRNA domain) and an electron dense matrix, but little is known about its precise structure and functions. We have examined the ascidian homologues of PAR proteins, known to regulate polarity in many cell types. We found that aPKC, PAR-6 and PAR-3 proteins, but not their mRNAs, localize to the CAB during the series of asymmetric divisions. Surface particles rich in aPKC concentrate in the CAB at the level of cortical actin microfilaments and form a localized patch sandwiched between the plasma membrane and the cER-mRNA domain. Localization of aPKC to the CAB is dependent on actin but not microtubules. Both the aPKC layer and cER-mRNA domain adhere to cortical fragments prepared from 8-cell stage embryos. Astral microtubules emanating from the proximal centrosome contact the aPKC-rich cortical domain. Our observations indicate that asymmetric division involves the accumulation of the aPKC-PAR-6-PAR-3 complex at the cortical position beneath the pre-existing cER-mRNA domain.

Microtubule-induced Pins/Galphai cortical polarity in Drosophila neuroblasts

Cortical polarity regulates cell division, migration, and differentiation. Microtubules induce cortical polarity in yeast, but few examples are known in metazoans. We show that astral microtubules, kinesin Khc-73, and Discs large (Dlg) induce cortical polarization of Pins/Galphai in Drosophila neuroblasts; this cortical domain is functional for generating spindle asymmetry, daughter-cell-size asymmetry, and distinct sibling fates. Khc-73 localizes to astral microtubule plus ends, and Dlg/Khc-73 and Dlg/Pins coimmunoprecipitate, suggesting that microtubules induce Pins/Galphai cortical polarity through Dlg/Khc-73 interactions. The microtubule/Khc-73/Dlg pathway acts in parallel to the well-characterized Inscuteable/Par pathway, but each provides unique spatial and temporal information: The Inscuteable/Par pathway initiates at prophase to coordinate neuroblast cortical polarity with CNS tissue polarity, whereas the microtubule/Khc-73/Dlg pathway functions at metaphase to coordinate neuroblast cortical polarity with the mitotic spindle axis. These results identify a role for microtubules in polarizing the neuroblast cortex, a fundamental step for generating cell diversity through asymmetric cell division.

Asymmetric spindle positioning

When a spindle is positioned asymmetrically in a dividing cell, the resulting daughter cells are unequal in size. Asymmetric spindle positioning is driven by regulated forces that can pull or push a spindle. The physical and molecular mechanisms that can position spindles asymmetrically have been studied in several systems, and some themes have begun to emerge from recent research. Recent work in budding yeast has presented a model for how cytoskeletal motors and cortical capture molecules can function in orienting and positioning a spindle. The temporal regulation of microtubule-based pulling forces that move a spindle has been examined in one animal system. Although the spindle positioning force generators have not been identified in most animal systems, the forces have been found to be regulated by both PAR polarity proteins and G-protein signaling pathways in more than one animal system.

G protein activation is prerequisite for functional coupling between Gα/Gβγ and tubulin/microtubules

Heterotrimeric G proteins participate in signal transduction by transferring signals from cell surface receptors to intracellular effector molecules. Interestingly, recent results suggest that G proteins also interact with microtubules and participate in cell division and differentiation. It has been shown earlier that both alpha and betagamma subunits of G proteins modulate microtubule assembly in vitro. Since G protein activation and subsequent dissociation of alpha and betagamma subunits are necessary for G proteins to participate in signaling processes, here we asked if similar activation is required for modulation of microtubule assembly by G proteins. We reconstituted Galphabetagamma heterotrimer from myristoylated-Galpha and prenylated-Gbetagamma, and found that the heterotrimer blocks Gi1alpha activation of tubulin GTPase and inhibits the ability of Gbeta1gamma2 to promote in vitro microtubule assembly. Results suggest that G protein activation is required for functional coupling between Galpha/Gbetagamma and tubulin/microtubules, and supports the notion that regulation of microtubules is an integral component of G protein mediated signaling.

PAR proteins and the cytoskeleton: a marriage of equals

The PAR proteins are a group of widely conserved regulators of polarity, many of which are asymmetrically localized in polarized cells. Recent work shows that distinct modes of actomyosin- and microtubule-based transport contribute to the establishment of PAR asymmetries in different cell types. Cross-regulatory interactions among PAR proteins and with other conserved polarity complexes stabilize asymmetries once they form, and shape the evolution of PAR protein distributions in response to cytoskeletal transport or other polarizing inputs. The PAR proteins in turn modulate the actomyosin and microtubule cytoskeletons. In some cases, this is a form of feedback control, central to the establishment and maintenance of PAR asymmetries. In others, it underlies the elaboration of functional cell polarity.

Drosophila Ric-8 is essential for plasma-membrane localization of heterotrimeric G proteins

Heterotrimeric G proteins act during signal transduction in response to extracellular ligands. They are also required for spindle orientation and cell polarity during asymmetric cell division. We show here that, in Drosophila, both functions require the Galpha interaction partner Ric-8. Drosophila Ric-8 is a cytoplasmic protein that binds both the GDP- and GTP-bound form of the G-protein alpha-subunit Galphai. In ric-8 mutants, neither Galphai nor its associated beta-subunit Gbeta13F are localized at the plasma membrane, which leads to their degradation in the cytosol. During asymmetric cell division, this leads to various defects: apico-basal polarity is not maintained, mitotic spindles are misoriented and the size of the two daughter cells becomes nearly equal. ric-8 mutants also have defects in gastrulation that resemble mutants in the Galpha protein concertina or the extracellular ligand foldedgastrulation. Our results indicate a model in which both receptor-dependent and receptor-independent G-protein functions are executed at the plasma membrane and require the Ric-8 protein.

Drosophila Ric-8 regulates Galphai cortical localization to promote Galphai-dependent planar orientation of the mitotic spindle during asymmetric cell division

Localization and activation of heterotrimeric G proteins have a crucial role during asymmetric cell division. The asymmetric division of the Drosophila sensory precursor cell (pl) is polarized along the antero-posterior axis by Frizzled signalling and, during this division, activation of Galphai depends on Partner of Inscuteable (Pins). We establish here that Ric-8, which belongs to a family of guanine nucleotide-exchange factors for Galphai, regulates cortical localization of the subunits Galphai and Gbeta13F. Ric-8, Galphai and Pins are not necessary for the control of the anteroposterior orientation of the mitotic spindle during pl cell division downstream of Frizzled signalling, but they are required for maintainance of the spindle within the plane of the epithelium. On the contrary, Frizzled signalling orients the spindle along the antero-posterior axis but also tilts it along the apico-basal axis. Thus, Frizzled and heterotrimeric G-protein signalling act in opposition to ensure that the spindle aligns both in the plane of the epithelium and along the tissue polarity axis.

Zonula occludens-1 function in the assembly of tight junctions in Madin-Darby canine kidney epithelial cells

Zonula occludens (ZO)-1 was the first tight junction protein to be cloned and has been implicated as an important scaffold protein. It contains multiple domains that bind a diverse set of junction proteins. However, the molecular functions of ZO-1 and related proteins such as ZO-2 and ZO-3 have remained unclear. We now show that gene silencing of ZO-1 causes a delay of approximately 3 h in tight junction formation in Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) epithelial cells, but mature junctions seem functionally normal even in the continuing absence of ZO-1. Depletion of ZO-2, cingulin, or occludin, proteins that can interact with ZO-1, had no discernible effects on tight junctions. Rescue of junction assembly using murine ZO-1 mutants demonstrated that the ZO-1 C terminus is neither necessary nor sufficient for normal assembly. Moreover, mutation of the PDZ1 domain did not block rescue. However, point mutations in the Src homology 3 (SH3) domain almost completely prevented rescue. Surprisingly, the isolated SH3 domain of ZO-1 could also rescue junction assembly. These data reveal an unexpected function for the SH3 domain of ZO-1 in regulating tight junction assembly in epithelial cells and show that cingulin, occludin, or ZO-2 are not limiting for junction assembly in MDCK monolayers.

Neural Stem Cells and Their Manipulation

Extracellular signals dictate the biological processes of neural stem cells (NSCs) both in vivo and in vitro. The intracellular response elicited by these signals is dependent on the context in which the signal is received, which in turn is decided by previous and concurrent signals impinging on the cell. A synthesis of signaling pathways that control proliferation, survival, and differentiation of NSCs in vivo and in vitro will lead to a better understanding of their biology, and will also permit more precise and reproducible manipulation of these cells to particular end points. In this review we summarize the known signals that cause proliferation, survival, and differentiation in mammalian NSCs.

mPins modulates PSD-95 and SAP102 trafficking and influences NMDA receptor surface expression

Appropriate trafficking and targeting of glutamate receptors (GluRs) to the postsynaptic density is crucial for synaptic function. We show that mPins (mammalian homologue of Drosophila melanogaster partner of inscuteable) interacts with SAP102 and PSD-95 (two PDZ proteins present in neurons), and functions in the formation of the NMDAR-MAGUK (N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor-membrane-associated guanylate kinase) complex. mPins enhances trafficking of SAP102 and NMDARs to the plasma membrane in neurons. Expression of dominant-negative constructs and short-interfering RNA (siRNA)-mediated knockdown of mPins decreases SAP102 in dendrites and modifies surface expression of NMDARs. mPins changes the number and morphology of dendritic spines and these effects depend on its Galphai interaction domain, thus implicating G-protein signalling in the regulation of postsynaptic structure and trafficking of GluRs.

Resistance to inhibitors of cholinesterase 8A catalyzes release of Galphai-GTP and nuclear mitotic apparatus protein (NuMA) from NuMA/LGN/Galphai-GDP complexes

Resistance to inhibitors of cholinesterase (Ric) 8A is a guanine nucleotide exchange factor that activates certain G protein alpha-subunits. Genetic studies in Caenorhabditis elegans and Drosophila melanogaster have placed RIC-8 in a previously uncharacterized G protein signaling pathway that regulates centrosome movements during cell division. Components of this pathway include G protein subunits of the Galphai class, GPR or GoLoco domain-containing proteins, RGS (regulator of G protein signaling) proteins, and accessory factors. These proteins interact to regulate microtubule pulling forces during mitotic movement of chromosomes. It is unclear how the GTP-binding and hydrolysis cycle of Galphai functions in the context of this pathway. In mammals, the GoLoco domain-containing protein LGN (GPSM2), the LGN- and microtubule-binding nuclear mitotic apparatus protein (NuMA), and Galphai regulate a similar process. We find that mammalian Ric-8A dissociates Galphai-GDP/LGN/NuMA complexes catalytically, releasing activated Galphai-GTP in vitro. Ric-8A-stimulated activation of Galphai caused concomitant liberation of NuMA from LGN. We conclude that Ric-8A efficiently utilizes GoLoco/Galphai-GDP complexes as substrates in vitro and suggest that Ric-8A-stimulated release of Galphai-GTP and/or NuMA regulates the microtubule pulling forces on centrosomes during cell division.

G proteins in development

The focus of developmental biologists has expanded from the analysis of gene expression to include the analysis of cell signalling. Heterotrimeric G proteins (G proteins) mediate signalling from a superfamily of heptahelical receptors (G-protein-coupled receptors) to a smaller number of effector units that include adenylyl cyclases, phospholipase C and various ion channels. The convergence of developmental biology with cell signalling has now revealed overlaps in which G proteins mediate complex pathways in embryonic development.

Mammalian Inscuteable Regulates Spindle Orientation and Cell Fate in the Developing Retina

During mammalian neurogenesis, progenitor cells can divide with the mitotic spindle oriented parallel or perpendicular to the surface of the neuroepithelium. Perpendicular divisions are more likely to be asymmetric and generate one progenitor and one neuronal precursor. Whether the orientation of the mitotic spindle actually determines their asymmetric outcome is unclear. Here, we characterize a mammalian homolog of Inscuteable (mInsc), a key regulator of spindle orientation in Drosophila. mInsc is expressed temporally and spatially in a manner that suggests a role in orienting the mitotic spindle in the developing nervous system. Using retroviral RNAi in rat retinal explants, we show that downregulation of mInsc inhibits vertical divisions. This results in enhanced proliferation, consistent with a higher frequency of symmetric divisions generating two proliferating cells. Our results suggest that the orientation of neural progenitor divisions is important for cell fate specification in the retina and determines their symmetric or asymmetric outcome.

Symmetric versus asymmetric cell division during neurogenesis in the developing vertebrate central nervous system

The type and number of cell divisions of neuronal progenitors determine the number of neurons generated during the development of the vertebrate central nervous system. Over the past several years, there has been substantial progress in characterizing the various kinds of neuronal progenitors and the types of symmetric and asymmetric divisions they undergo. The understanding of the cell-biological basis of symmetric versus asymmetric progenitor cell division has been consolidated, and the molecular machinery controlling these divisions is beginning to be unravelled. Other recent advances include comparative studies of brain development in rodents and primates, as well as the identification of gene mutations in humans that affect the balance between the various types of cell division of neuronal progenitors.

Heterotrimeric G proteins and regulation of size asymmetry during cell division

The generation of daughter cells of different fate and size depends on the orientation, positioning and morphology of the mitotic spindle. In both C. elegans and Drosophila, heterotrimeric G proteins have emerged as central and conserved regulators of this process. Although the same molecular players are involved in worms and flies, there are clear differences in the mechanisms used. Interestingly, recent work in mammalian cells suggests that heterotrimeric G proteins may control spindle positioning in higher organisms during symmetric and asymmetric cell divisions.

G alpha selectivity and inhibitor function of the multiple GoLoco motif protein GPSM2/LGN

GPSM2 (G-protein signalling modulator 2; also known as LGN or mammalian Pins) is a protein that regulates mitotic spindle organization and cell division. GPSM2 contains seven tetratricopeptide repeats (TPR) and four Galpha(i/o)-Loco (GoLoco) motifs. GPSM2 has guanine nucleotide dissociation inhibitor (GDI) activity towards both Galpha(o)- and Galpha(i)-subunits; however, a systematic analysis of its individual GoLoco motifs has not been described. We analyzed each of the four individual GoLoco motifs from GPSM2, assessing their relative binding affinities and GDI potencies for Galpha(i1), Galpha(i2), and Galpha(i3) and Galpha(o). Each of the four GPSM2 GoLoco motifs (36-43 amino acids in length) was expressed in bacteria as a GST-fusion protein and purified to homogeneity. The binding of each of the four GST-GoLoco motifs to Galpha(i1)-, Galpha(o)-, and Galpha(s)-subunits was assessed by surface plasmon resonance; all of the motifs bound Galpha(i1), but exhibited low affinity towards Galpha(o). GDI activity was assessed by a fluorescence-based nucleotide-binding assay, revealing that all four GoLoco motifs are functional as GDIs for Galpha(i1), Galpha(i2), and Galpha(i3). Consistent with our binding studies, the GDI activity of GPSM2 GoLoco motifs on Galpha(o) was significantly lower than that toward Galpha(i1), suggesting that the in vivo targets of GPSM2 are most likely to be Galpha(i)-subunits.

Molecular control of cell polarity and asymmetric cell division in Drosophila neuroblasts

In the embryonic central nervous system of the fruit fly Drosophila, most neurons and glial cells are generated by asymmetric division of neural stem cells called neuroblasts. Several genes have been identified that are required for the establishment of neuroblast polarity, for the asymmetric segregation of cell fate determinants and for the proper orientation and geometry of the mitotic spindle. However, little was known about the interactions between these genes and their respective gene products. It has emerged that most of the relevant proteins are assembled into three major protein complexes whose molecular interactions are conserved in evolution.

Cortical localization of the Galpha protein GPA-16 requires RIC-8 function during C. elegans asymmetric cell division

Understanding of the mechanisms governing spindle positioning during asymmetric division remains incomplete. During unequal division of one-cell stage C. elegans embryos, the Galpha proteins GOA-1 and GPA-16 act in a partially redundant manner to generate pulling forces along astral microtubules. Previous work focused primarily on GOA-1, whereas the mechanisms by which GPA-16 participates in this process are not well understood. Here, we report that GPA-16 is present predominantly at the cortex of one-cell stage embryos. Using co-immunoprecipitation and surface plasmon resonance binding assays, we find that GPA-16 associates with RIC-8 and GPR-1/2, two proteins known to be required for pulling force generation. Using spindle severing as an assay for pulling forces, we demonstrate that inactivation of the Gbeta protein GPB-1 renders GPA-16 and GOA-1 entirely redundant. This suggests that the two Galpha proteins can activate the same pathway and that their dual presence is normally needed to counter Gbetagamma. Using nucleotide exchange assays, we establish that whereas GPR-1/2 acts as a guanine nucleotide dissociation inhibitor (GDI) for GPA-16, as it does for GOA-1, RIC-8 does not exhibit guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) activity towards GPA-16, in contrast to its effect on GOA-1. We establish in addition that RIC-8 is required for cortical localization of GPA-16, whereas it is not required for that of GOA-1. Our analysis demonstrates that this requirement toward GPA-16 is distinct from the known function of RIC-8 in enabling interaction between Galpha proteins and GPR-1/2, thus providing novel insight into the mechanisms of asymmetric spindle positioning.

G protein betagamma subunits and AGS3 control spindle orientation and asymmetric cell fate of cerebral cortical progenitors

Neurons in the developing mammalian brain are generated from progenitor cells in the proliferative ventricular zone, and control of progenitor division is essential to produce the correct number of neurons during neurogenesis. Here we establish that Gbetagamma subunits of heterotrimeric G proteins are required for proper mitotic-spindle orientation of neural progenitors in the developing neocortex. Interfering with Gbetagamma function in progenitors causes a shift in spindle orientation from apical-basal divisions to planar divisions. This results in hyperdifferentiation of progenitors into neurons as a consequence of both daughter cells adopting a neural fate instead of the normal asymmetric cell fates. Silencing AGS3, a nonreceptor activator of Gbetagamma, results in defects similar to the impairment of Gbetagamma, providing evidence that AGS3-Gbetagamma signaling in progenitors regulates apical-basal division and asymmetric cell-fate decisions. Furthermore, our observations indicate that the cell-fate decision of daughter cells is coupled to mitotic-spindle orientation in progenitors.

Asymmetric cell divisions promote stratification and differentiation of mammalian skin

The epidermis is a stratified squamous epithelium forming the barrier that excludes harmful microbes and retains body fluids. To perform these functions, proliferative basal cells in the innermost layer periodically detach from an underlying basement membrane of extracellular matrix, move outward and eventually die. Once suprabasal, cells stop dividing and enter a differentiation programme to form the barrier. The mechanism of stratification is poorly understood. Although studies in vitro have led to the view that stratification occurs through the delamination and subsequent movement of epidermal cells, most culture conditions favour keratinocytes that lack the polarity and cuboidal morphology of basal keratinocytes in tissue. These features could be important in considering an alternative mechanism, that stratification occurs through asymmetric cell divisions in which the mitotic spindle orients perpendicularly to the basement membrane. Here we show that basal epidermal cells use their polarity to divide asymmetrically, generating a committed suprabasal cell and a proliferative basal cell. We further demonstrate that integrins and cadherins are essential for the apical localization of atypical protein kinase C, the Par3-LGN-Inscuteable complex and NuMA-dynactin to align the spindle.