Cyclophilin A: a key player for human disease

Metformin attenuates effects of cyclophilin A on macrophages, reduces lipid uptake and secretion of cytokines by repressing decreased AMPK activity

Growing evidence implicates cyclophilin A secreted by vascular wall cells and monocytes as a key mediator in atherosclerosis. Cyclophilin A in addition to its proliferative effects, during hyperglycemic conditions, increases lipid uptake in macrophages by increasing scavenger receptors on the cell's surface. It also promotes macrophage migration across endothelial cells and conversion of macrophages into foam cells. Given the known effects of metformin in reducing vascular complications of diabetes, we investigated the effect of metformin on cyclophilin A action in macrophages. Using an ex vivo model of cultured macrophages isolated from patients with type 2 diabetes with and without coronary artery disease (CAD), we measured the effect of metformin on cyclophilin A expression, lipid accumulation, expression of scavenger receptors, plasma cytokine levels and AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) activity in macrophages. In addition, the effects of metformin on migration of monocytes, reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation, lipid uptake in the presence of cyclophilin A inhibitors and comparison with pioglitazone were studied using THP-1 monocytes. Metformin reduced cyclophilin A expression in human monocyte-derived macrophages. Metformin also decreased the effects of cyclophilin A on macrophages such as oxidized low-density lipoprotein (oxLDL) uptake, scavenger receptor expression, ROS formation and secretion of inflammatory cytokines in high-glucose conditions. Metformin reversed cyclophilin A-induced decrease in AMPK-1α activity in macrophages. These effects of metformin were similar to those of cyclophilin A inhibitors. Metformin can thus function as a suppressor of pro-inflammatory effects of cyclophilin A in high-glucose conditions by attenuating its expression and repressing cyclophilin A-induced decrease in AMPK-1α activity in macrophages.

Cyclophilin J PPIase Inhibitors Derived from 2,3-Quinoxaline-6 Amine Exhibit Antitumor Activity

Cyclophilin J (CyPJ), also called peptidylprolyl isomerase like 3, has been identified as a novel member of the cyclophilin family. Our previous research has resolved the three-dimensional structure of CyPJ and demonstrated the peptidylprolyl cis–trans isomerase (PPIase) activity of CyPJ, which can be inhibited by the common immunosuppressive drug cyclosporine A (CsA). Importantly, CyPJ is upregulated in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and promotes tumor growth; CyPJ inhibition by CsA- or siRNA-based knockdown results in a remarkable suppression of HCC. These findings suggest that CyPJ may be a potential therapeutic target for HCC, and discovery of relevant inhibitors may facilitate development of a novel CyPJ-based targeting therapy. However, apart from the common inhibitor CsA, CyPJ has yet to be investigated as a target for cancer therapy. Here, we report structure-based identification of novel small molecule non-peptidic CyPJ inhibitors and their potential as antitumor lead compounds. Based on computer-aided virtual screening, in silico, and subsequently surface plasmon resonance analysis, 19 potential inhibitors of CyPJ were identified and selected for further evaluation of PPIase CyPJ inhibition in vitro. Thirteen out of 19 compounds exhibited notable inhibition against PPIase activity. Among them, the compound ZX-J-19, with a quinoxaline nucleus, showed potential for tumor inhibition; thus, we selected it for further structure–activity optimization. A total of 22 chemical derivatives with 2,3-substituted quinoxaline-6-amine modifications were designed and successfully synthesized. At least 2 out of the 22 derivatives, such as ZX-J-19j and ZX-J-19l, demonstrated remarkable inhibition of tumor cell growth, comparable to CsA but much stronger than 5-fluorouracil. These results indicate that these two small molecules represent novel potential lead compounds for CyPJ-based antitumor drug development.

The clinical implication of serum cyclophilin A in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

Background

Cyclophilin A (CyPA) is a secreted molecule that is regulated by inflammatory stimuli. Although inflammation has an important role in the pathogenesis of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), little is known regarding the relationship between serum CyPA and COPD.

Methods

Ninety-three COPD patients with acute exacerbation were enrolled in the study and were reassessed during the convalescence phase. Eighty-eight controls were matched for age, gender, body mass index, smoking index and comorbidity. The basic clinical information and pulmonary function of all participants were collected. Serum levels of CyPA and other inflammation indexes were further measured.

Results

Serum CyPA was significantly increased in convalescent COPD patients compared to healthy controls, and further elevated in COPD patients with acute exacerbation. Serum CyPA positively correlated with serum interleukin-6, matrix metalloproteinase-9 and high-sensitivity C-reactive protein in both the exacerbation and convalescence phases of COPD. Furthermore, it negatively correlated with percent value of forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV₁%) predicted and FEV₁/forced vital capacity in convalescent COPD patients.

Conclusion

These results suggest that serum CyPA can be used as a potential inflammatory biomarker for COPD and assessment of serum CyPA may reflect the severity of inflammation in COPD.

L1CAM promotes epithelial to mesenchymal transition and formation of cancer initiating cells in human endometrial cancer

Identification of novel factors critical for epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) and cancer initiating cell (CIC) formation may aid in the identification of novel therapeutics for the treatment of endometrial cancer. The present study demonstrated that L1 cell adhesion molecule (CAM) is critical for EMT and formation of CICs in endometrial cancer. Overexpression of L1CAM may promote EMT with increased formation of CICs in HEC-1A endometrial cancer cells. CICs and mesenchymal status resist chemotherapeutic drugs and may regenerate the various cell types in tumors, thereby resulting in relapse of the disease. The present study demonstrated that overexpressing L1CAM promoted paclitaxel resistance and regulated paclitaxel resistance-associated microRNA expression in HEC-1A cells. Furthermore, it was demonstrated that overexpressing L1CAM promoted anoikis resistance in HEC-1A cells. This link between L1CAM and EMT/CICs may provide a novel target for advancing anticancer therapy.

Synthesis and biochemical evaluation of two novel N-hydroxyalkylated cyclosporin A analogs

N-Hydroxyalkylation of cyclosporine A residues Val5 and d-Ala8 significantly influenced their conformation behavior and pharmacological properties.

Coronaviruses and arteriviruses display striking differences in their cyclophilin A-dependence during replication in cell culture

Cyclophilin A (CypA) is an important host factor in the replication of a variety of RNA viruses. Also the replication of several nidoviruses was reported to depend on CypA, although possibly not to the same extent. These prior studies are difficult to compare, since different nidoviruses, cell lines and experimental set-ups were used. Here, we investigated the CypA dependence of three distantly related nidoviruses that can all replicate in Huh7 cells: the arterivirus equine arteritis virus (EAV), the alphacoronavirus human coronavirus 229E (HCoV-229E), and the betacoronavirus Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV). The replication of these viruses was compared in the same parental Huh7 cells and in CypA-knockout Huh7 cells generated using CRISPR/Cas9-technology. CypA depletion reduced EAV yields by ~ 3-log, whereas MERS-CoV progeny titers were modestly reduced (3-fold) and HCoV-229E replication was unchanged. This study reveals that the replication of nidoviruses can differ strikingly in its dependence on cellular CypA.

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Nidoviruses display differences in sensitivity towards cyclophilin A depletion.

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Replication of MERS-coronavirus is reduced modestly in cyclophilin A-knockout cells.

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Equine arteritis virus replication is strongly inhibited by cyclophilin A depletion.

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Chromosomal anomalies complicate CRISPR/Cas9-mediated gene editing in Huh7 cells.

Human Cyclophilin B forms part of a multi-protein complex during erythrocyte invasion by Plasmodium falciparum

Invasion of human erythrocytes by Plasmodium falciparum merozoites involves multiple interactions between host receptors and their merozoite ligands. Here we report human Cyclophilin B as a receptor for PfRhopH3 during merozoite invasion. Localization and binding studies show that Cyclophilin B is present on the erythrocytes and binds strongly to merozoites. We demonstrate that PfRhopH3 binds to the RBCs and their treatment with Cyclosporin A prevents merozoite invasion. We also show a multi-protein complex involving Cyclophilin B and Basigin, as well as PfRhopH3 and PfRh5 that aids the invasion. Furthermore, we report identification of a de novo peptide CDP3 that binds Cyclophilin B and blocks invasion by up to 80%. Collectively, our data provide evidence of compounded interactions between host receptors and merozoite surface proteins and paves the way for developing peptide and small-molecules that inhibit the protein−protein interactions, individually or in toto, leading to abrogation of the invasion process.

Invasion of red blood cells by Plasmodium falciparum is a complex process and relies on several receptor-ligand interactions. Here, the authors show that human cyclophilin B binds Plasmodium surface protein PfRhopH3 and that interruption of this interaction reduces invasion by 80%.

Natural products used as a chemical library for protein-protein interaction targeted drug discovery

Protein-protein interactions (PPIs), which are essential for cellular processes, have been recognized as attractive therapeutic targets. Therefore, the construction of a PPI-focused chemical library is an inevitable necessity for future drug discovery. Natural products have been used as traditional medicines to treat human diseases for millennia; in addition, their molecular scaffolds have been used in diverse approved drugs and drug candidates. The recent discovery of the ability of natural products to inhibit PPIs led us to use natural products as a chemical library for PPI-targeted drug discovery. In this study, we collected natural products (NPDB) from non-commercial and in-house databases to analyze their similarities to small-molecule PPI inhibitors (iPPIs) and FDA-approved drugs by using eight molecular descriptors. Then, we evaluated the distribution of NPDB and iPPIs in the chemical space, represented by the molecular fingerprint and molecular scaffolds, to identify the promising scaffolds, which could interfere with PPIs. To investigate the ability of natural products to inhibit PPI targets, molecular docking was used. Then, we predicted a set of high-potency natural products by using the iPPI-likeness score based on a docking score-weighted model. These selected natural products showed high binding affinities to the PPI target, namely XIAP, which were validated in an in vitro experiment. In addition, the natural products with novel scaffolds might provide a promising starting point for further medicinal chemistry developments. Overall, our study shows the potency of natural products in targeting PPIs, which might help in the design of a PPI-focused chemical library for future drug discovery.

Cyclophilin A expression and its prognostic significance in lung adenocarcinoma

Cyclophilin A (CypA) has been reported to be upregulated in malignant tumors. CypA expression is thought to be associated with acquisition of tumor growth and anti-apoptotic function. Although upregulation of CypA has been reported in lung adenocarcinoma, its clinicopathological significance and roles in malignant progression remain unclear. Here we investigated the implications of CypA expression for outcome in patients with lung adenocarcinoma. Lung adenocarcinoma specimens from 198 cases were selected and reclassified according to the World Health Organization classification (4th edition) and the Noguchi classification. CypA expression was assessed by immunohistochemistry, and the H-score was calculated on the basis of intensity and proportion. The specificity of the antibody used was confirmed by Western blotting and the cut-off point was determined from the ROC curve. Sixty-seven cases (33.8%) had low CypA expression (CypA-L group) and 131 (66.2%) had high CypA expression (CypA-H group). Many cases of adenocarcinoma in situ were CypA-L, and advanced adenocarcinomas tended to be classified as CypA-H. Clinically, patients with CypA-H tumors showed a significantly poorer prognosis than those with CypA-L tumors. This is the first investigation of the implications of the CypA expression level in terms of the clinical characteristics of resected lung adenocarcinomas.

An overview on molecular chaperones enhancing solubility of expressed recombinant proteins with correct folding

The majority of research topics declared that most of the recombinant proteins have been expressed by Escherichia coli in basic investigations. But the majority of high expressed proteins formed as inactive recombinant proteins that are called inclusion body. To overcome this problem, several methods have been used including suitable promoter, environmental factors, ladder tag to secretion of proteins into the periplasm, gene protein optimization, chemical chaperones and molecular chaperones sets. Co-expression of the interest protein with molecular chaperones is one of the common methods The chaperones are a group of proteins, which are involved in making correct folding of recombinant proteins. Chaperones are divided two groups including; cytoplasmic and periplasmic chaperones. Moreover, periplasmic chaperones and proteases can be manipulated to increase the yields of secreted proteins. In this article, we attempted to review cytoplasmic chaperones such as Hsp families and periplasmic chaperones including; generic chaperones, specialized chaperones, PPIases, and proteins involved in disulfide bond formation.

A miniaturized peptidyl-prolyl isomerase enzyme assay

Prolyl-peptidyl isomerases (PPIases) are enzymes that are found in all living organisms. They form an essential part of the cellular protein folding homeostasis machinery. PPIases are associated with many important human diseases, e.g. cardiovascular disease, cancer and Alzheimer's. The development of novel PPIase inhibitors has been limited by the lack of a rapid, laboratory-based assay for these enzymes, as their substrates and products are challenging to distinguish. A well described continuous assay, coupled with the hydrolysis of a peptide by chymotrypsin is highly effective, but comparatively slow. To address this, we developed an improved version of the traditional assay using a temperature controlled plate reader. This assay allows semi-automated medium throughput assays in an academic laboratory for 84 samples per day. The assay shows lower errors, with an average Z' of 0.72. We further developed the assay using a fluorogenic peptide-based FRET probe. This provides an extremely sensitive PPIase assay using substrate at 200 nM, which approaches single turnover conditions. The fluorescent probe achieves an excellent quenching efficiency of 98.6%, and initial experiments showed acceptable Z' of 0.31 and 0.30 for cyclophilin A and hFKBP12 respectively. The assays provide an improved toolset for the quantitative, biochemical analysis of PPIases.

Microbial cyclophilins: specialized functions in virulence and beyond

Cyclophilins belong to the superfamily of peptidyl-prolyl cis/trans isomerases (PPIases, EC: 5.2.1.8), the enzymes that catalyze the cis/trans isomerization of peptidyl-prolyl peptide bonds in unfolded and partially folded polypeptide chains and native state proteins. Cyclophilins have been extensively studied, since they are involved in multiple cellular processes related to human pathologies, such as neurodegenerative disorders, infectious diseases, and cancer. However, the presence of cyclophilins in all domains of life indicates a broader biological importance. In this mini-review, we summarize current advances in the study of microbial cyclophilins. Apart from their anticipated role in protein folding and chaperoning, cyclophilins are involved in several other biological processes, such as cellular signal transduction, adaptation to stress, control of pathogens virulence, and modulation of host immune response. Since many existing family members do not have well-defined functions and novel ones are being characterized, the requirement for further studies on their biological role and molecular mechanism of action is apparent.

Immune balance in Hepatitis B Infection: Present and Future Therapies

Chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection affects millions of people worldwide and about half a million people die every year. India represents the second largest pool of chronic HBV infections with an estimated 40 million chronically infected patients. Persistence or clearance of HBV infection mainly depends upon host immune responses. Chronically infected individuals remain in immune tolerant phase unless HBV flares and leads to the development of chronic active hepatitis or acute-on-chronic liver failure. Strategies based on inhibition of viral replication (nucleoside analogues) or immune modulation (interferons) as monotherapy, or in combination in sequential therapies, are currently being used globally for reducing HBV viral load and mediating HBsAg clearance. However, the immune status and current therapies for promoting sustained virological responses in HBV-infected patients remain suboptimal. Elimination of cccDNA is major challenge for future therapies, and new molecules such as NTCP, Toll-like receptor (TLR)7 agonist (GS9620) and cyclophilin have emerged as potential targets for preventing HBV entry and replication. Other than these, HBV cccDNA elimination is the major target for future therapies.

Unfolding of CPR3 Gets Initiated at the Active Site and Proceeds via Two Intermediates

Cyclophilin catalyzes the ubiquitous process "peptidyl-prolyl cis-trans isomerization," which plays a key role in protein folding, regulation, and function. Here, we present a detailed characterization of the unfolding of yeast mitochondrial cyclophilin (CPR3) induced by urea. It is seen that CPR3 unfolding is reversible and proceeds via two intermediates, I1 and I2. The I1 state has native-like secondary structure and shows strong anilino-8-naphthalenesulphonate binding due to increased exposure of the solvent-accessible cluster of non-polar groups. Thus, it has some features of a molten globule. The I2 state is more unfolded, but it retains some residual secondary structure, and shows weak anilino-8-naphthalenesulphonate binding. Chemical shift perturbation analysis by ¹H-¹⁵N heteronuclear single quantum coherence spectra reveals disruption of the tertiary contacts among the regions close to the active site in the first step of unfolding, i.e., the N-I1 transition. Both of the intermediates, I1 and I2, showed a propensity to self-associate under stirring conditions, but their kinetic profiles are different; the native protein did not show any such tendency under the same conditions. All these observations could have significant implications for the function of the protein.

A potential role of the unfolded protein response in post-transplant cancer

Cancer is one of the major causes of mortality in organ transplant patients receiving immunosuppressive regimen based on Cyclosporin A (CsA). Organ transplantation and chronic immunosuppression are typically associated with skin cancers (both squamous cell carcinoma and melanoma) and renal cell carcinoma (RCC). Recent studies have shown that in addition to its immunosuppressive effects, accounted for by the inhibition of calcineurin and the modulation of the transcriptional programme of lymphocytes, CsA also directly stimulates the growth and aggressive behaviour of various cancer cells. Using renal carcinogenesis as an example, we discuss the current evidence for a role of cellular proteostasis, i.e. the regulation of the production, maturation and turnover of proteins in eukaryotic cells, in tumorigenesis arising under conditions of chronic immunosuppression. We present the recent studies showing that CsA induces the unfolded protein response (UPR) in normal and transformed kidney cells. We examine how the UPR might be important, considering in particular the genomic analyses showing the existence of a correlation between the levels of expression of the actors of the UPR, the chaperones of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and the aggressiveness of renal carcinoma. The UPR may offer a possible explanation for how immunosuppressive regimens based on CsA promote renal carcinogenesis. We discuss the opportunities offered by this biological knowledge in terms of screening, diagnosis and treatment of post-transplant cancers, and propose possible future translational studies examining the role of tumour proteostasis and the UPR in this context.

Genetic Association and Risk Scores in a Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease Meta-analysis of 16,707 Subjects

The heritability of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) cannot be fully explained by recognized genetic risk factors identified as achieving genome-wide significance. In addition, the combined contribution of genetic variation to COPD risk has not been fully explored. We sought to determine: (1) whether studies of variants from previous studies of COPD or lung function in a larger sample could identify additional associated variants, particularly for severe COPD; and (2) the impact of genetic risk scores on COPD. We genotyped 3,346 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in 2,588 cases (1,803 severe COPD) and 1,782 control subjects from four cohorts, and performed association testing with COPD, combining these results with existing genotyping data from 6,633 cases (3,497 severe COPD) and 5,704 control subjects. In addition, we developed genetic risk scores from SNPs associated with lung function and COPD and tested their discriminatory power for COPD-related measures. We identified significant associations between SNPs near PPIC (P = 1.28 × 10^-8) and PPP4R4/SERPINA1 (P = 1.01 × 10^-8) and severe COPD; the latter association may be driven by recognized variants in SERPINA1. Genetic risk scores based on SNPs previously associated with COPD and lung function had a modest ability to discriminate COPD (area under the curve, ∼0.6), and accounted for a mean 0.9-1.9% lower forced expiratory volume in 1 second percent predicted for each additional risk allele. In a large genetic association analysis, we identified associations with severe COPD near PPIC and SERPINA1. A risk score based on combining genetic variants had modest, but significant, effects on risk of COPD and lung function.

Allosteric Fine-Tuning of the Binding Pocket Dynamics in the ITK SH2 Domain by a Distal Molecular Switch: An Atomistic Perspective

Although the regulation of function of proteins by allosteric interactions has been identified in many subcellular processes, molecular switches are also known to induce long-range conformational changes in proteins. A less well understood molecular switch involving cis-trans isomerization of a peptidyl-prolyl bond could induce a conformational change directly to the backbone that is propagated to other parts of the protein. However, these switches are elusive and hard to identify because they are intrinsic to biomolecules that are inherently dynamic. Here, we explore the conformational dynamics and free energy landscape of the SH2 domain of interleukin-2-inducible T-cell or tyrosine kinase (ITK) to fully understand the conformational coupling between the distal cis-trans molecular switch and its binding pocket of the phosphotyrosine motif. We use multiple microsecond-long all-atom molecular dynamics simulations in explicit water for over a total of 60 μs. We show that cis-trans isomerization of the Asn286-Pro287 peptidyl-prolyl bond is directly coupled to the dynamics of the binding pocket of the phosphotyrosine motif, in agreement with previous NMR experiments. Unlike the cis state that is localized and less dynamic in a single free energy basin, the trans state samples two distinct conformations of the binding pocket-one that recognizes the phosphotyrosine motif and the other that is somewhat similar to that of the cis state. The results provide an atomic-level description of a less well understood allosteric regulation by a peptidyl-prolyl cis-trans molecular switch that could aid in the understanding of normal and aberrant subcellular processes and the identification of these elusive molecular switches in other proteins.

Serum Cyclophilin A Correlates with Increased Tissue MMP-9 in Patients with Ulcerative Colitis, but Not with Crohn's Disease

BACKGROUND

Cyclophilin A (CyPA) is an immunomodulatory protein, high expression of which correlates with poor outcome of patients with inflammatory diseases. However, its role in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) has not been studied.

AIM

This study analyzes the correlation between cyclophilin A, matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-9, and tissue inhibitor of MMP (TIMP)/MMP-9 complexes in the inflamed and non-inflamed colon mucosa of UC and CD patients.

METHODS

Serum and biopsy specimens from inflamed and non-inflamed colonic mucosa of 38 patients with IBD (19 with UC and 19 with CD) and 16 controls were included in our study. We measured serum and tissue level of CyPA, and tissue level of TNF-α, MMP-9, TIMP-1/MMP-9, and TIMP-2/MMP-9 using ELISA method.

RESULTS

Our results indicated that serum, but not tissue CyPA is increased in UC, rather than in CD patients, compared to the control. The increase correlated with higher tissue concentration of MMP-9 and TNF-α, especially in the UC group. Moreover, we observed significantly higher level of TIMP-1/MMP-9 in UC and CD group, which overlapped with the change in MMP-9. There was no change in TIMP-2/MMP-9 in the analyzed groups.

CONCLUSION

The current study suggests that serum CyPA may be an independent additional marker of IBD, especially of UC. Higher CyPA level may be followed by increased MMP-9 in those patients. However, further studies are necessary to verify the role of CyPA in IBD development.

Human cyclophilin 40 unravels neurotoxic amyloids

The accumulation of amyloidogenic proteins is a pathological hallmark of neurodegenerative disorders. The aberrant accumulation of the microtubule associating protein tau (MAPT, tau) into toxic oligomers and amyloid deposits is a primary pathology in tauopathies, the most common of which is Alzheimer's disease (AD). Intrinsically disordered proteins, like tau, are enriched with proline residues that regulate both secondary structure and aggregation propensity. The orientation of proline residues is regulated by cis/trans peptidyl-prolyl isomerases (PPIases). Here we show that cyclophilin 40 (CyP40), a PPIase, dissolves tau amyloids in vitro. Additionally, CyP40 ameliorated silver-positive and oligomeric tau species in a mouse model of tau accumulation, preserving neuronal health and cognition. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) revealed that CyP40 interacts with tau at sites rich in proline residues. CyP40 was also able to interact with and disaggregate other aggregating proteins that contain prolines. Moreover, CyP40 lacking PPIase activity prevented its capacity for disaggregation in vitro. Finally, we describe a unique structural property of CyP40 that may permit disaggregation to occur in an energy-independent manner. This study identifies a novel human protein disaggregase and, for the first time, demonstrates its capacity to dissolve intracellular amyloids.

Proteomic analysis of filaggrin deficiency identifies molecular signatures characteristic of atopic eczema

BACKGROUND

Atopic eczema (AE) is characterized by skin barrier and immune dysfunction. Null mutations in filaggrin (FLG), a key epidermal barrier protein, strongly predispose to AE; however, the precise role of FLG deficiency in AE pathogenesis remains incompletely understood.

OBJECTIVES

We sought to identify global proteomic changes downstream of FLG deficiency in human epidermal living skin-equivalent (LSE) models and validate findings in skin of patients with AE.

METHODS

Differentially expressed proteins from paired control (nontargeting control short hairpin RNA [shNT]) and FLG knockdown (FLG knockdown short hairpin RNA [shFLG]) LSEs were identified by means of proteomic analysis (liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry) and Ingenuity Pathway Analysis. Expression of key targets was validated in independent LSE samples (quantitative RT-PCR and Western blotting) and in normal and AE skin biopsy specimens (immunofluorescence).

RESULTS

Proteomic analysis identified 17 (P ≤ .05) differentially expressed proteins after FLG knockdown, including kallikrein-7 (KLK7; 2.2-fold), cyclophilin A (PPIA; 0.9-fold), and cofilin-1 (CFL1, 1.3-fold). Differential protein expression was confirmed in shNT/shFLG LSEs; however, only KLK7 was transcriptionally dysregulated. Molecular pathways overrepresented after FLG knockdown included inflammation, protease activity, cell structure, and stress. Furthermore, KLK7 (1.8-fold) and PPIA (0.65-fold) proteins were differentially expressed in lesional biopsy specimens from patients with AE relative to normal skin.

CONCLUSIONS

For the first time, we show that loss of FLG in the absence of inflammation is sufficient to alter the expression level of proteins relevant to the pathogenesis of AE. These include proteins regulating inflammatory, proteolytic, and cytoskeletal functions. We identify PPIA as a novel protein with levels that are decreased in clinically active AE skin and show that the characteristic upregulation of KLK7 expression in patients with AE occurs downstream of FLG loss. Importantly, we highlight disconnect between the epidermal proteome and transcriptome, emphasizing the utility of global proteomic studies.

Structural and biochemical insights of CypA and AIF interaction

The Cyclophilin A (CypA)/Apoptosis Inducing Factor (AIF) complex is implicated in the DNA degradation in response to various cellular stress conditions, such as oxidative stress, cerebral hypoxia-ischemia and traumatic brain injury. The pro-apoptotic form of AIF (AIF(Δ1-121)) mainly interacts with CypA through the amino acid region 370–394. The AIF(370-394) synthetic peptide inhibits complex formation in vitro by binding to CypA and exerts neuroprotection in a model of glutamate-mediated oxidative stress. Here, the binding site of AIF(Δ1-121) and AIF(370-394) on CypA has been mapped by NMR spectroscopy and biochemical studies, and a molecular model of the complex has been proposed. We show that AIF(370-394) interacts with CypA on the same surface recognized by AIF(Δ1-121) protein and that the region is very close to the CypA catalytic pocket. Such region partially overlaps with the binding site of cyclosporin A (CsA), the strongest catalytic inhibitor of CypA. Our data point toward distinct CypA structural determinants governing the inhibitor selectivity and the differential biological effects of AIF and CsA, and provide new structural insights for designing CypA/AIF selective inhibitors with therapeutic relevance in neurodegenerative diseases.

Selective targeting p53WT lung cancer cells harboring homozygous p53 Arg72 by an inhibitor of CypA

TP53 plays essential roles in tumor initiation and progression, and is frequently mutated in cancer. However, pharmacological stabilization and reactivation of p53 have not been actively explored for targeted cancer therapies. Herein, we identify a novel Cyclophilin A (CypA) small molecule inhibitor (HL001) that induces non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cell cycle arrest and apoptosis via restoring p53 expression. We find that HL001 stabilizes p53 through inhibiting the MDM2-mediated p53 ubiquitination. Further mechanistic studies reveal that the downregulation of G3BP1 and the induction of reactive oxygen species and DNA damage by HL001 contribute to p53 stabilization. Surprisingly, HL001 selectively suppresses tumor growth in p53 wild-type NSCLC harboring Arg72 homozygous alleles (p53-72R) through disrupting interaction between MDM2 and p53-72R in a CypA-dependent manner. Moreover, combining HL001 with cisplatin synergistically enhance tumor regression in orthotopic NSCLC mouse model. Collectively, this study demonstrates that pharmacologic inhibition of CypA offers a potential therapeutic strategy via specific activation of p53-72R in NSCLC.

Prognostic Impacts of Plasma Levels of Cyclophilin A in Patients With Coronary Artery Disease

Objective—

Cyclophilin A (CyPA) is secreted from vascular smooth muscle cells, inflammatory cells, and activated platelets in response to oxidative stress. We have recently demonstrated that plasma CyPA level is a novel biomarker for diagnosing coronary artery disease. However, it remains to be elucidated whether plasma CyPA levels also have a prognostic impact in such patients.

Approach and Results—

In 511 consecutive patients undergoing diagnostic coronary angiography, we measured the plasma levels of CyPA, high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hsCRP), and brain natriuretic peptide and evaluated their prognostic impacts during the follow-up (42 months, interquartile range: 25–55 months). Higher CyPA levels (≥12 ng/mL) were significantly associated with all-cause death, rehospitalization, and coronary revascularization. Higher hsCRP levels (≥1 mg/L) were also significantly correlated with the primary end point and all-cause death, but not with rehospitalization or coronary revascularization. Similarly, higher brain natriuretic peptide levels (≥100 pg/mL) were significantly associated with all-cause death and rehospitalization, but not with coronary revascularization. Importantly, the combination of CyPA (≥12 ng/mL) and hsCRP (≥1 mg/L) was more significantly associated with all-cause death (hazard ratio, 21.2; 95% confidence interval, 4.9–92.3,; P <0.001) than CyPA (≥12 ng/mL) or hsCRP (≥1 mg/L) alone.

Conclusions—

The results indicate that plasma CyPA levels can be used to predict all-cause death, rehospitalization, and coronary revascularization in patients with coronary artery disease and that when combined with other biomarkers (hsCRP and brain natriuretic peptide levels), the CyPA levels have further enhanced prognostic impacts in those patients.

Different desmin peptides are distinctly deposited in cytoplasmic aggregations and cytoplasm of desmin-related cardiomyopathy patients

Desmin-related cardiomyopathy is a heterogeneous group of myofibrillar myopathies characterized by aggregates of desmin and related proteins in myocytes. It has been debated how the expression and protein structure are altered in the aggregates and other parts of myocytes in patients. To address this question, we investigated the proteome quantification as well as localization in formalin-fixed and paraffin-embedded specimens of the heart of patients by imaging mass spectrometry and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry analyses. Fifteen tryptic peptide signals were enriched in the desmin-related cardiomyopathy myocardium, twelve of which were identified as desmin peptides with 14.3- to 27.3-fold increase compared to normal hearts. High-intensity signals at m/z 1032.5 and 1002.5, which were desmin peptides 59-70 at the head portion and 213-222 at the 1B domain, were with infrequent colocalization distributed not only in desmin-positive intracytoplasmic aggregates but also in histologically normal cytoplasm, indicating that desmin protein is fragmented and different types of naturally-occurring truncated proteins ectopically assemble throughout the heart of patients. Thus, in addition to conventional histological identification of protein aggregates, specific desmin peptides show a marked difference in quantity and localization in a tissue section of desmin-related cardiomyopathy and differentiate from other cardiomyopathies. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: MALDI Imaging, edited by Dr. Corinna Henkel and Prof. Peter Hoffmann.

Thermo-kinetic analysis space expansion for cyclophilin-ligand interactions - identification of a new nonpeptide inhibitor using Biacore™ T200

We have established a refined methodology for generating surface plasmon resonance sensor surfaces of recombinant his‐tagged human cyclophilin‐A. Our orientation‐specific stabilisation approach captures his‐tagged protein under ‘physiological conditions’ (150 mm NaCl, pH 7.5) and covalently stabilises it on Ni²⁺‐nitrilotriacetic acid surfaces, very briefly activated for primary amine‐coupling reactions, producing very stable and active surfaces (≥ 95% specific activity) of cyclophilin‐A. Variation in protein concentration with the same contact time allows straightforward generation of variable density surfaces, with essentially no loss of activity, making the protocol easily adaptable for studying numerous interactions; from very small fragments, ~ 100 Da, to large protein ligands. This new method results in an increased stability and activity of the immobilised protein and allowed us to expand the thermo‐kinetic analysis space, and to determine accurate and robust thermodynamic parameters for the cyclophilin‐A–cyclosporin‐A interaction. Furthermore, the increased sensitivity of the surface allowed identification of a new nonpeptide inhibitor of cyclophilin‐A, from a screen of a fragment library. This fragment, 2,3‐diaminopyridine, bound specifically with a mean affinity of 248 ± 60 μm. The X‐ray structure of this 109‐Da fragment bound in the active site of cyclophilin‐A was solved to a resolution of 1.25 Å (PDB: 5LUD), providing new insight into the molecular details for a potential new series of nonpeptide cyclophilin‐A inhibitors.

RNA interference-mediated gene silencing of cyclophilin A enhances the radiosensitivity of PAa human lung adenocarcinoma cells in vitro

Radiotherapy is currently the major therapeutic strategy for patients with lung cancer. However, radioresistance and various side effects continue to present challenging issues for this form of treatment. A recent study demonstrated that cyclophilin A (CyPA) was overexpressed in non-small cell lung cancer and, therefore, presents a novel potential therapeutic target. In addition, gene-radiotherapy is a novel method for cancer treatment. Therefore, the objective of the present study was to investigate the potential effect of CyPA silencing on radiosensitivity in human lung adenocarcinoma in vitro. The stable CyPA-silencing lung adenocarcinoma (PAa) cell line was generated using lentivirus-mediated small hairpin RNAs. The knockdown of CyPA was determined using fluorescent microscopy and western blot analysis. Cells were irradiated using various doses of cobalt-60 (0, 2, 4, 6 and 8 Gy). The radiosensitizing effects were determined by a clonogenic survival assay. Apoptosis and cell cycle distribution were evaluated using flow cytometry. Silencing of CyPA significantly increased the apoptosis of PAa cells. In addition, the radiosensitivity of cells was markedly enhanced following CyPA silencing. Furthermore, silencing of CyPA, in combination with irradiation, induced G₂/M phase cell cycle arrest. Taken together, the data suggest that the silencing of CyPA, combined with radiation therapy, may increase the therapeutic efficacy of lung cancer treatment through regulation of the cell cycle and apoptosis-associated signaling pathways.

Interaction of cyclophilin A with a novel binding protein, SR-25, and characterization of their expression pattern in Chinese hepatocellular carcinoma patients

Cyclophilin (Cyp) A has been reported to be overexpressed in the majority of cancer cells, including hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). However, the biological functions of CypA in HCC are far from being understood. To determine the biological functions of CypA in HCC, the present study screened human fetal liver complementary DNA for proteins interacting with CypA using the yeast two-hybrid system. A nuclear protein, serine/arginine-rich (SR)-25, was isolated as a novel CypA-binding protein that is distinct from those previously described in the literature. Binding assays and co-immunoprecipitation confirmed the physical association between CypA and SR-25. The present study demonstrated that CypA may interact with SR-25 through its peptidyl-prolyl isomerase domain. In addition, CypA may induce the expression of SR-25 in Hep3B cells. The messenger RNA levels of CypA and SR-25 in HCC indicated that there was a significant correlation between the expression of CypA and the expression of SR-25 in HCC. It can be speculated that the interaction between CypA and SR-25 proteins may be involved in potential carcinogenic functions of CypA in HCC. Further studies will focus on elucidating in detail the molecular mechanisms of the interaction between CypA and SR-25.

Soybean cyclophilin GmCYP1 interacts with an isoflavonoid regulator GmMYB176

Cyclophilins (CYPs) belong to the immunophilin superfamily with peptidyl-prolyl cis-trans isomerase (PPIase) activity. They catalyze the interconversion of the cis- and trans-rotamers of the peptidyl-prolyl amide bond of peptides. A yeast-two-hybrid screening using the isoflavonoid regulator GmMYB176 as bait identified GmCYP1 as one of the interacting proteins in soybean embryos. GmCYP1 localizes both in the nucleus and cytoplasm, and interacts in planta with GmMYB176, in the nucleus, and with SGF14l (a soybean 14-3-3 protein) in the nucleus and the cytoplasm. GmCYP1 contains a single cyclophilin-like domain and displays a high sequence identity with other plant CYPs that are known to have stress-specific function. Tissue-specific expression of GmCYP1 revealed higher expression in developing seeds compared to other vegetative tissues, suggesting their seed-specific role. Furthermore, GmCYP1 transcript level was reduced in response to stress. Since isoflavonoids are involved in plant stress resistance against biotic and abiotic factors, the interaction of GmCYP1 with the isoflavonoid regulators GmMYB176 and 14-3-3 protein suggests its role in defense in soybean.

Targeting Extracellular Cyclophilin A Reduces Neuroinflammation and Extends Survival in a Mouse Model of Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis

Neuroinflammation is a major hallmark of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), which is currently untreatable. Several anti-inflammatory compounds have been evaluated in patients and in animal models of ALS, but have been proven disappointing in part because effective targets have not yet been identified. Cyclophilin A, also known as peptidylprolyl cis-/trans-isomerase A (PPIA), as a foldase is beneficial intracellularly, but extracellularly has detrimental functions. We found that extracellular PPIA is a mediator of neuroinflammation in ALS. It is a major inducer of matrix metalloproteinase 9 and is selectively toxic for motor neurons. High levels of PPIA were found in the CSF of SOD1^G93A mice and rats and sporadic ALS patients, suggesting that our findings may be relevant for familial and sporadic cases. A specific inhibitor of extracellular PPIA, MM218, given at symptom onset, rescued motor neurons and extended survival in the SOD1^G93A mouse model of familial ALS by 11 d. The treatment resulted in the polarization of glia toward a prohealing phenotype associated with reduced NF-κB activation, proinflammatory markers, endoplasmic reticulum stress, and insoluble phosphorylated TDP-43. Our results indicates that extracellular PPIA is a promising druggable target for ALS and support further studies to develop a therapy to arrest or slow the progression of the disease in patients.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT We provide evidence that extracellular cyclophilin A, also known as peptidylprolyl cis-/trans-isomerase A (PPIA), is a mediator of the neuroinflammatory reaction in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and is toxic for motor neurons. Supporting this, a specific extracellular PPIA inhibitor reduced neuroinflammation, rescued motor neurons, and extended survival in the SOD1^G93A mouse model of familial ALS. Our findings suggest selective pharmacological inhibition of extracellular PPIA as a novel therapeutic strategy, not only for SOD1-linked ALS, but possibly also for sporadic ALS. This approach aims to address the neuroinflammatory reaction that is a major hallmark of ALS. However, given the complexity of the disease, a combination of therapeutic approaches may be necessary.

Comparative proteomic analysis of paclitaxel resistance-related proteins in human breast cancer cell lines

Paclitaxel is widely used to treat various cancers; however, resistance to this drug is a major obstacle to breast cancer chemotherapy. To identify the proteins involved in paclitaxel resistance, the present study compared the proteomes of MCF-7 human breast cancer cells and its paclitaxel-resistant subclone MCF-7/PTX. Using two-dimensional gel electrophoresis and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time of flight mass spectrometry, 11 upregulated and 12 downregulated proteins were identified in MCF-7/PTX cells compared with the parental cell line. These 23 proteins were functionally classified as stress-induced chaperones, metabolic enzymes and cytoskeletal proteins. The anti-apoptotic proteins, stress-70 protein, 78-kD glucose-regulated protein, peptidyl-prolyl cis-trans isomerase A (PPIA) and heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein H3, were also upregulated in MCF-7/PTX cells. Notably, knockdown of the stress-response chaperone PPIA using small interfering RNA in MCF-7/PTX cells restored their sensitivity to paclitaxel. These findings indicated that PPIA may have an important role in paclitaxel resistance in MCF-7/PTX cells.

Identification of ER-000444793, a Cyclophilin D-independent inhibitor of mitochondrial permeability transition, using a high-throughput screen in cryopreserved mitochondria

Growing evidence suggests persistent mitochondrial permeability transition pore (mPTP) opening is a key pathophysiological event in cell death underlying a variety of diseases. While it has long been clear the mPTP is a druggable target, current agents are limited by off-target effects and low therapeutic efficacy. Therefore identification and development of novel inhibitors is necessary. To rapidly screen large compound libraries for novel mPTP modulators, a method was exploited to cryopreserve large batches of functionally active mitochondria from cells and tissues. The cryopreserved mitochondria maintained respiratory coupling and ATP synthesis, Ca2+ uptake and transmembrane potential. A high-throughput screen (HTS), using an assay of Ca2+-induced mitochondrial swelling in the cryopreserved mitochondria identified ER-000444793, a potent inhibitor of mPTP opening. Further evaluation using assays of Ca2+-induced membrane depolarisation and Ca2+ retention capacity also indicated that ER-000444793 acted as an inhibitor of the mPTP. ER-000444793 neither affected cyclophilin D (CypD) enzymatic activity, nor displaced of CsA from CypD protein, suggesting a mechanism independent of CypD inhibition. Here we identified a novel, CypD-independent inhibitor of the mPTP. The screening approach and compound described provides a workflow and additional tool to aid the search for novel mPTP modulators and to help understand its molecular nature.

Novel findings of secreted cyclophilin A in diabetic nephropathy and its association with renal protection of dipeptidyl peptidase 4 inhibitor

BACKGROUND

Our previous clinical indicated that urinary cyclophilin A was a good marker for diabetic nephropathy.

METHODS

We used animal and cell models of diabetic nephropathy to examine the role of cyclophilin A in disease progression.

RESULTS

Significantly increased urinary cyclophilin A could be detected in db/db at the 8th week. Linagliptin (3mg/kg/day and 15mg/kg/day) could suppress urinary 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine at the 8th and 16th week but only the high dose Linagliption could suppress cyclophilin A at the 8th week. Compared to 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine, cyclophilin A was a stronger, earlier, and more sensitive marker. Immunohistochemical staining for cyclophilin A was also positive for db/db. In cell studies, oxidative stress and hyperglycemia could stimulate MES-13 and HK-2 cells to secrete cyclophilin A. Hyperglycemia stimulated HK-2 cells to secrete TGFβ1, which caused secretion of cyclophilin A. The secreted cyclophilin A further stimulated CD 147 to move outward from cytosol onto cell membrane in confocal microscopy, which was associated with the p38 MAPK pathway in the downstream.

CONCLUSIONS

Secreted cyclophilin A may play an important role in diabetic nephropathy in the mouse model and is associated with TGFβ1, CD 147, and the p38 MAPK pathway.

Cyclophilin A enhances macrophage differentiation and lipid uptake in high glucose conditions: a cellular mechanism for accelerated macro vascular disease in diabetes mellitus

Background

Vascular disease in diabetes is initiated by monocyte adhesion to vascular endothelium, transmigration and formation of foam cells. Increasing clinical evidence supports a role for the secretory protein, cyclophilin A in diabetic vascular disease. The means by which cyclophilin A contributes to vascular lesion development in diabetes is however largely unknown.

Methods

In this study we investigated using THP1 cells and human monocytes whether cyclophilin A under hyperglycemic conditions, functions in the inflammatory cascade as a chemoattractant and increases lipid uptake by formation of foam cells invitro. We developed an invitro model of monocytes cultured in 20 mm glucose (high glucose) equivalent to 360 mg/dL of plasma glucose levels. These monocytes were then differentiated into macrophages using PMA and subsequently transformed to lipid laden foam cells using oxidized low density lipoproteins in the presence and absence of cyclophilin A. This cellular model was used to study monocyte to macrophage differentiation, transmigration and foam cell formation. A similar cellular model using siRNA mediated transient elimination of the cyclophilin A gene as well as chemical inhibitors were used to further confirm the role of cyclophilin A in the differentiation and foam cell formation process.

Results

Cyclophilin A effectively increased migration of high glucose treated monocytes to the endothelial cell monolayer (p < 0.0001). In the presence of cyclophilin A, differentiated macrophages, when treated with oxLDL had a 36 percent increase in intracellular lipid accumulation (p = 0.01) when compared to cells treated with oxLDL alone. An increased flux of reactive oxygen species was also observed (p = 0.01). Inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α, MCP-1 and cyclophilin A were significantly increased. Silencing cyclophilin A in THP-1 cells and human monocytes using siRNA or chemical inhibitor, TMN355 resulted in decrease in lipid uptake by 65–75% even after exposure to oxidized LDL. The expression of scavenger receptors expressed during differentiation process, CD36 and LOX-1 were decreased (p < 0.0001). Levels of extracellular cyclophilin A and other inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α and MCP-1also significantly reduced.

Conclusions

Taken together, we describe here a possible cellular basis by which cyclophilin A may accelerate atherogenesis in diabetes mellitus.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12933-016-0467-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Spongionella Secondary Metabolites, Promising Modulators of Immune Response through CD147 Receptor Modulation

The modulation of the immune system can have multiple applications such as cancer treatment, and a wide type of processes involving inflammation where the potent chemotactic agent cyclophilin A (Cyp A) is implicated. The Porifera phylum, in which Spongionella is encompassed, is the main producer of marine bioactive compounds. Four secondary metabolites obtained from Spongionella (Gracilin H, A, L, and Tetrahydroaplysulphurin-1) were described to hit Cyp A and to block the release of inflammation mediators. Based on these results, some role of Spongionella compounds on other steps of the signaling pathway mediated by this chemotactic agent can be hypothesized. In the present paper, we studied the effect of these four compounds on the surface membrane CD147 receptor expression, on the extracellular levels of Cyp A and on the ability to migrate of concanavalin (Con A)-activated T lymphocytes. Similar to a well-known immunosuppressive agent cyclosporine A (CsA), Gracilin H, A, L, and tetrahydroaplysulphurin-1 were able to reduce the CD147 membrane expression and to block the release of Cyp A to the medium. Besides, by using Cyp A as chemotactic agent, T cell migration was inhibited when cells were previously incubated with Gracilin A and Gracilin L. These positive results lead us to test the in vivo effect of Gracilin H and L in a mouse ear delayed hypersensitive reaction. Thus, both compounds efficiently reduce the ear swelling as well as the inflammatory cell infiltration. These results provide more evidences for their potential therapeutic application in immune-related diseases of Spongionella compounds.

Autumnalamide targeted proteins of the immunophilin family

Previous works with autumnalamide reported that Store Operated Calcium (SOC) channels were blocked through mitochondrial modulation. In the present paper we studied the effect of autumnalamide on ionomycin Ca²⁺ fluxes. Thus, autumnalamide did not modify ionomycin-sensitive intracellular pools while the ionomycin-induced Ca²⁺ influx was blocked with similar potency whether the incubation was done before or after ionomycin-sensitive pools depletion. Nevertheless, autumnalamide was not able to inhibit ionomycin-induced Ca²⁺ influx once the membrane channels were activated. Moreover, the compound efficiently inhibited flufenamic acid (FFA) Ca²⁺ release induced in this organelle but no the next influx. Since in previous work the effect of autumnalamide was inhibited by cyclosporine A (CsA), structures that target this drug were studied. Therefore, the affinity of autumnalamide for cyclophilin D (Cyp D) was examined. The K_D obtained for Cyp D- autumnalamide was 1.51±1.399. Moreover, the K_D for Cyp A- autumnalamide was calculated. The peptide had a similar order of Cyp A binding affinity than CsA (8.08±1.23 and 6.85±1.1μM respectively). After testing autumnalamide-binding capacity for Cyp A, the activity of this compound on Cyp A pathway was tested. Thus, the effect on interleukin (IL)-2 release on activated T-lymphocytes was checked. Autumnalamide was able to reduce IL-2 levels near to T cells in resting conditions. Next, the effect over calcineurin and NFATc1 was also evaluated. While CsA inhibits both calcineurin and NFATc1, autumnalamide did not produce any effect. From these results we can conclude that, autumnalamide targeted mitochondrion and prevent T-cells from IL-2 production through the modulation of SOC Ca²⁺ channels.

Fragment-based discovery of a new family of non-peptidic small-molecule cyclophilin inhibitors with potent antiviral activities

Cyclophilins are peptidyl-prolyl cis/trans isomerases (PPIase) that catalyse the interconversion of the peptide bond at proline residues. Several cyclophilins play a pivotal role in the life cycle of a number of viruses. The existing cyclophilin inhibitors, all derived from cyclosporine A or sanglifehrin A, have disadvantages, including their size, potential for side effects unrelated to cyclophilin inhibition and drug–drug interactions, unclear antiviral spectrum and manufacturing issues. Here we use a fragment-based drug discovery approach using nucleic magnetic resonance, X-ray crystallography and structure-based compound optimization to generate a new family of non-peptidic, small-molecule cyclophilin inhibitors with potent in vitro PPIase inhibitory activity and antiviral activity against hepatitis C virus, human immunodeficiency virus and coronaviruses. This family of compounds has the potential for broad-spectrum, high-barrier-to-resistance treatment of viral infections.

Cyclophilins play a key role in the life cycle of many viruses and represent important drug targets for broad-spectrum antiviral therapies. Here, the authors use fragment-based drug discovery to develop non-peptidic inhibitors of human cyclophilins with high activity against replication of a number of viral families.

Prediction of HBF-0259 interactions with hepatitis B Virus receptors and surface antigen secretory factors

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is an etiological agent of viral hepatitis, which may lead to cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma. Current treatment strategies have not shown promising effect to date but various complications such as, drug toxicity-resistance have been reported. Study on newly discovered compounds, with minimal side effects, as specific HBV inhibitors is a fundamental subject introducing new biologic drugs. Here, we aimed to, by prediction, estimate interactions of HBF-0259 as a non-toxic anti-HBV compound on inhibiting the HBV through either interaction with the viral entry or HBsAg secreting factors using In Silico procedure. Molecular docking was performed by Hex 8.0.0 software to predict the interaction energy (Etot) between HBF-0259 and known cellular factors involved in HBV entry and HBsAg secreting factors. Hex 8.0.0 also employed to create protein-protein complexes. These interactions were then used to analyze the binding site of HBF-0259 within the assumed receptors by MGLTools software. Finally, the amino acid sequences involved in this interaction were aligned for any conservancy. Here, we showed that HBF-0259 Etot with CypA (-545.41 kcal/mol) and SCCA1 (499.68 kcal/mol), involved in HBsAg secretion and HBV integration, respectively, was higher than other interactions. Furthermore, HBF-0259 predicted interaction energy was even higher than those of CypA inhibitors. In addition, we claim that preS1 and/or preS2 regions within HBsAg are not suitable targets for HBF-0259. HBF-0259 has higher interaction energy with CypA and SCCA1, even more than other known receptors, co-receptors, viral ligands, and secretory factors. HBF-0259 could be introduced as potent anti-viral compound in which CypA and or SCCA1, as previously shown, are involved.

Chemotactic Activity of Cyclophilin A in the Skin Mucus of Yellow Catfish (Pelteobagrus fulvidraco) and Its Active Site for Chemotaxis

Fish skin mucus is a dynamic barrier for invading pathogens with a variety of anti-microbial enzymes, including cyclophilin A (CypA), a multi-functional protein with peptidyl-prolyl cis/trans isomerase (PPIase) activity. Beside various other immunological functions, CypA induces leucocytes migration in vitro in teleost. In the current study, we have discovered several novel immune-relevant proteins in yellow catfish skin mucus by mass spectrometry (MS). The CypA present among them was further detected by Western blot. Moreover, the CypA present in the skin mucus displayed strong chemotactic activity for yellow catfish leucocytes. Interestingly, asparagine (like arginine in mammals) at position 69 was the critical site in yellow catfish CypA involved in leucocyte attraction. These novel efforts do not only highlight the enzymatic texture of skin mucus, but signify CypA to be targeted for anti-inflammatory therapeutics.

The Anisakis Transcriptome Provides a Resource for Fundamental and Applied Studies on Allergy-Causing Parasites

Background

Food-borne nematodes of the genus Anisakis are responsible for a wide range of illnesses (= anisakiasis), from self-limiting gastrointestinal forms to severe systemic allergic reactions, which are often misdiagnosed and under-reported. In order to enhance and refine current diagnostic tools for anisakiasis, knowledge of the whole spectrum of parasite molecules transcribed and expressed by this parasite, including those acting as potential allergens, is necessary.

Methodology/Principal Findings

In this study, we employ high-throughput (Illumina) sequencing and bioinformatics to characterise the transcriptomes of two Anisakis species, A. simplex and A. pegreffii, and utilize this resource to compile lists of potential allergens from these parasites. A total of ~65,000,000 reads were generated from cDNA libraries for each species, and assembled into ~34,000 transcripts (= Unigenes); ~18,000 peptides were predicted from each cDNA library and classified based on homology searches, protein motifs and gene ontology and biological pathway mapping. Using comparative analyses with sequence data available in public databases, 36 (A. simplex) and 29 (A. pegreffii) putative allergens were identified, including sequences encoding ‘novel’ Anisakis allergenic proteins (i.e. cyclophilins and ABA-1 domain containing proteins).

Conclusions/Significance

This study represents a first step towards providing the research community with a curated dataset to use as a molecular resource for future investigations of the biology of Anisakis, including molecules putatively acting as allergens, using functional genomics, proteomics and immunological tools. Ultimately, an improved knowledge of the biological functions of these molecules in the parasite, as well as of their immunogenic properties, will assist the development of comprehensive, reliable and robust diagnostic tools.

Nematodes within the genus Anisakis (i.e. A. simplex and A. pegreffii, also known as herring worms) are the causative agents of the fish-borne gastrointestinal illness known as ‘anisakiasis’, with infections resulting in symptoms ranging from mild gastric forms to severe allergic reactions leading to urticaria, gastrointestinal and/or respiratory signs and/or anaphylaxis (‘allergic anisakiasis’). Despite significant advances in knowledge of the pathobiology of allergic anisakiasis, thus far, the exact number and nature of parasite molecules acting as potential allergens are currently unknown; filling this gap is necessary to the development of robust and reliable diagnostics for allergic anisakiasis which, in turn, underpins the implementation of effective therapeutic strategies. Here, we use RNA-Seq and bioinformatics to sequence and annotate the transcriptomes of A. simplex and A. pegreffii, and, as an example application of these resources, mine this data to identify and characterise putative novel parasite allergens based on comparisons with known allergen sequence data from other parasites and other organisms.

Peptidyl-Proline Isomerases (PPIases): Targets for Natural Products and Natural Product-Inspired Compounds

Peptidyl-proline isomerases (PPIases) are a chaperone superfamily comprising the FK506-binding proteins (FKBPs), cyclophilins, and parvulins. PPIases catalyze the cis/trans isomerization of proline, acting as a regulatory switch during folding, activation, and/or degradation of many proteins. These "clients" include proteins with key roles in cancer, neurodegeneration, and psychiatric disorders, suggesting that PPIase inhibitors could be important therapeutics. However, the active site of PPIases is shallow, solvent-exposed, and well conserved between family members, making selective inhibitor design challenging. Despite these hurdles, macrocyclic natural products, including FK506, rapamycin, and cyclosporin, bind PPIases with nanomolar or better affinity. De novo attempts to derive new classes of inhibitors have been somewhat less successful, often showcasing the "undruggable" features of PPIases. Interestingly, the most potent of these next-generation molecules tend to integrate features of the natural products, including macrocyclization or proline mimicry strategies. Here, we review recent developments and ongoing challenges in the inhibition of PPIases, with a focus on how natural products might inform the creation of potent and selective inhibitors.

Validating reference genes using minimally transformed qpcr data: findings in human cortex and outcomes in schizophrenia

BACKGROUND

It is common practice, when using quantitative real time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR), to normalise levels of mRNA to reference gene mRNA which, by definition, should not vary between tissue, with any disease aetiology or after drug treatments. The complexity of human CNS means it unlikely that any gene could fulfil these criteria.

METHODS

To address this issue we measured levels of mRNA for six potential reference genes (GAPDH, PPIA, SNCA, NOL9, TFB1M and SKP1) in three cortical regions (Brodmann's areas (BA) 8, 9 and 44) from 30 subjects with schizophrenia and 30 age and sex matched controls. We used a structured statistical approach to examine the characteristics of these data to determine their suitability as reference genes. We also analysed our data using reference genes selected by rank as defined using the average of the standard deviation of pair-gene ΔCt and the BestKeeper, NormFinder and geNorm algorithms to determine if they suggested the same reference genes.

RESULTS

Our minimally derived data showed that levels of mRNA for all of the six genes varied between cortical regions and therefore no gene fulfilled the absolute requirements for use as reference genes. As levels of some mRNA for some genes did not vary with diagnoses within a cortical region from subjects with schizophrenia compared to controls, we normalised levels of mRNA for all the other genes to mRNA for one, two or three reference genes in each cortical region. This showed that using the geometric mean of at least two reference genes gave more reproducible results. Finally, using the reference gene ranking protocols the average of the standard deviation of pair-gene ΔCt, BestKeeper, NormFinder and geNorm we showed that these approaches ranked potential reference genes differently. We then showed that outcomes of comparing data from subjects with schizophrenia and controls varied depending on the reference genes chosen.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data shows that the selection of reference genes is a significant component of qPCR study design and therefore the process by which reference genes are selected must be clearly listed as a potential confound in studying gene expression in human CNS. This should include showing that, using minimally derived qPCR data, levels of mRNA for proposed reference genes does not vary with variables such as diagnoses and CNS region.

All-Atom Molecular Dynamics of Virus Capsids as Drug Targets

Virus capsids are protein shells that package the viral genome. Although their morphology and biological functions can vary markedly, capsids often play critical roles in regulating viral infection pathways. A detailed knowledge of virus capsids, including their dynamic structure, interactions with cellular factors, and the specific roles that they play in the replication cycle, is imperative for the development of antiviral therapeutics. The following Perspective introduces an emerging area of computational biology that focuses on the dynamics of virus capsids and capsid-protein assemblies, with particular emphasis on the effects of small-molecule drug binding on capsid structure, stability, and allosteric pathways. When performed at chemical detail, molecular dynamics simulations can reveal subtle changes in virus capsids induced by drug molecules a fraction of their size. Here, the current challenges of performing all-atom capsid-drug simulations are discussed, along with an outlook on the applicability of virus capsid simulations to reveal novel drug targets.

FRET-Protease-Coupled Peptidyl-Prolyl cis-trans Isomerase Assay: New Internally Quenched Fluorogenic Substrates for High-Throughput Screening

In this work, a sensitive and convenient protease-based fluorimetric high-throughput screening (HTS) assay for determining peptidyl-prolyl cis-trans isomerase activity was developed. The assay was based on a new intramolecularly quenched substrate, whose fluorescence and structural properties were examined together with kinetic constants and the effects of solvents on its isomerization process. Pilot screens performed using the Library of Pharmacologically Active Compounds (LOPAC) and cyclophilin A (CypA), as isomerase model enzyme, indicated that the assay was robust for HTS, and that comparable results were obtained with a CypA inhibitor tested both manually and automatically. Moreover, a new compound that inhibits CypA activity with an IC50 in the low micromolar range was identified. Molecular docking studies revealed that the molecule shows a notable shape complementarity with the catalytic pocket confirming the experimental observations. Due to its simplicity and precision in the determination of extent of inhibition and reaction rates required for kinetic analysis, this assay offers many advantages over other commonly used assays.