Is smartphone addiction really an addiction?

Does excessive use of smartphones and apps make us more impulsive? An approach from behavioural economics

PURPOSE

Problematic smartphone use has been associated with negative effects in work and school environments. This study proposes the application of a behavioural economics perspective to establish whether heavy smartphone users show a tendency to devalue the consequences of their behaviour in the long term. To address this proposition, the study sought to establish how an objective measurement of usage time of smartphones and apps might help to predict, firstly, participants' choice behaviour and, secondly, their perceived dependence levels.

DESIGN/METHODOLOGY/APPROACH

An objective measurement of the usage time of smartphones and apps was conducted over four weeks (N = 560 data points), and a computer-based intertemporal choice task and the Spanish version of the Smartphone Addiction Inventory (SPAI) were applied. The participants were twenty undergraduate college students.

FINDINGS

Although the usage time of devices and apps failed to predict the choice behaviour, a correlation was found between the total usage time of smartphones and WhatsApp and Facebook apps and users' dependence level. On the other hand, dependence had a positive effect on the average selection of the impulsive choice.

ORIGINALITY/VALUE

This paper proposes the application of a behavioural economics perspective to explore the relationship between objectively measured usage time of smartphone and apps, choice behaviours in an intertemporal task and users' perceived dependence levels. This allows us to consider an alternative to the traditional psychiatric approach in an environment of increasing access to and use of mobile digital platforms.

mPulse Mobile Sensing Model for Passive Detection of Impulsive Behavior: Exploratory Prediction Study

BACKGROUND

Mobile health technology has demonstrated the ability of smartphone apps and sensors to collect data pertaining to patient activity, behavior, and cognition. It also offers the opportunity to understand how everyday passive mobile metrics such as battery life and screen time relate to mental health outcomes through continuous sensing. Impulsivity is an underlying factor in numerous physical and mental health problems. However, few studies have been designed to help us understand how mobile sensors and self-report data can improve our understanding of impulsive behavior.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study was to explore the feasibility of using mobile sensor data to detect and monitor self-reported state impulsivity and impulsive behavior passively via a cross-platform mobile sensing application.

METHODS

We enrolled 26 participants who were part of a larger study of impulsivity to take part in a real-world, continuous mobile sensing study over 21 days on both Apple operating system (iOS) and Android platforms. The mobile sensing system (mPulse) collected data from call logs, battery charging, and screen checking. To validate the model, we used mobile sensing features to predict common self-reported impulsivity traits, objective mobile behavioral and cognitive measures, and ecological momentary assessment (EMA) of state impulsivity and constructs related to impulsive behavior (ie, risk-taking, attention, and affect).

RESULTS

Overall, the findings suggested that passive measures of mobile phone use such as call logs, battery charging, and screen checking can predict different facets of trait and state impulsivity and impulsive behavior. For impulsivity traits, the models significantly explained variance in sensation seeking, planning, and lack of perseverance traits but failed to explain motor, urgency, lack of premeditation, and attention traits. Passive sensing features from call logs, battery charging, and screen checking were particularly useful in explaining and predicting trait-based sensation seeking. On a daily level, the model successfully predicted objective behavioral measures such as present bias in delay discounting tasks, commission and omission errors in a cognitive attention task, and total gains in a risk-taking task. Our models also predicted daily EMA questions on positivity, stress, productivity, healthiness, and emotion and affect. Perhaps most intriguingly, the model failed to predict daily EMA designed to measure previous-day impulsivity using face-valid questions.

CONCLUSIONS

The study demonstrated the potential for developing trait and state impulsivity phenotypes and detecting impulsive behavior from everyday mobile phone sensors. Limitations of the current research and suggestions for building more precise passive sensing models are discussed.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov NCT03006653; https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03006653.

A test of the pathway model of problematic smartphone use

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Problematic smartphone use (PSU) has been described as a growing public health issue. In the current study, we aimed to provide a unique and comprehensive test of the pathway model of PSU. This model posits three distinct developmental pathways leading to PSU: (1) the excessive reassurance pathway, (2) the impulsive pathway and (3) the extraversion pathway.

METHODS

Undergraduate students (n = 795, 69.8% female, mean age = 23.80 years, sd = 3.02) completed online self-report measures of PSU (addictive use, antisocial use and dangerous use) and the psychological features (personality traits and psychopathological symptoms) underlying the three pathways.

RESULTS

Bayesian analyses revealed that addictive use is mainly driven by the excessive reassurance pathway and the impulsive pathway, for which candidate etiopathological factors include heightened negative urgency, a hyperactive behavioural inhibition system and symptoms of social anxiety. Dangerous and antisocial use are mainly driven by the impulsive pathway and the extraversion pathway, for which candidate etiopathological factors include specific impulsivity components (lack of premeditation and sensation seeking) and primary psychopathy (inclination to lie, lack of remorse, callousness and manipulativeness).

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

The present study constitutes the first comprehensive test of the pathway model of PSU. We provide robust and original results regarding the psychological dimensions associated with each of the postulated pathways of PSU, which should be taken into account when considering regulation of smartphone use or tailoring prevention protocols to reduce problematic usage patterns.

How to overcome taxonomical problems in the study of Internet use disorders and what to do with "smartphone addiction"?

AIMS

The present theoretical paper introduces the smartphone technology as a challenge for diagnostics in the study of Internet use disorders and reflects on the term "smartphone addiction."

METHODS

Such a reflection is carried out against the background of a literature review and the inclusion of Gaming Disorder in ICD-11.

RESULTS

We believe that it is necessary to divide research on Internet use disorder (IUD) into a mobile and non-mobile IUD branch. This is important because certain applications such as the messenger application WhatsApp have originally been developed for smartphones and enfold their power and attractiveness mainly on mobile devices.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Going beyond the argumentation for distinguishing between mobile and non-mobile IUD, it is of high relevance for scientists to better describe and understand what persons are actually (over-)using. This is stressed by a number of examples, explicitly targeting not only the diverse contents used in the online world, but also the exact behavior on each platform. Among others, it matters if a person is more of an active producer of content or passive consumer of social media.

Being a Gambler during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Study with Italian Patients and the Effects of Reduced Exposition

The COVID-19 pandemic, with the consequent lockdown of about 3 months, can be viewed as an experimental model to observe the impact of the depletion of environmental factors that stimulate gambling, particularly electronic gambling machines (EGMs) that were set to zero. The effects of some structural characteristics of gambling activities that increase gambling behavior were studied among disordered gamblers in treatment in this unique scenario. In fact, studies investigating the effects of the lockdown on problem gamblers (PGs) under treatment are missing. The aims of this study were to analyze patients’ gambling behavior and craving during the lockdown and to conduct a comparison between gambling disorder (GD) symptoms at the beginning of the treatment and during lockdown. The study was conducted in Italy, the European country with the largest gambling market and the first to be affected by the virus. Data were collected through a semi-structured telephone interview conducted by healthcare professionals. Participants were 135 PGs under treatment (109 males, mean age = 50.07). Results showed that most PGs achieved a significant improvement in their quality of life, with less gambling behavior, GD symptoms, and lower craving. No shift toward online gambling and very limited shift towards other potential addictive and excessive behaviors occurred. The longer the treatment, the more monitoring is present and the better the results in terms of symptoms reduction. Individual and environmental characteristics during the lockdown favored the reduction in symptoms. Consideration for prevention and treatment are discussed.

Problematic Mobile Phone Use by Hong Kong Adolescents

Background

Recently there have been growing concerns about problematic mobile phone use by adolescent populations. This study aimed to address this concern through a study of severity and correlates of problematic mobile phone use with a sample of Hong Kong adolescents.

Methods

Data were collected from a sample of adolescents from three local secondary schools (ranging from high to low academic achievement levels) using a measuring scale (PCPU-Q, Yen et al., 2009) designated for Chinese adolescents. Participants were allocated into groups of “problematic users” and “non-problematic users” based on the number of occurrence of symptoms due to excessive and maladaptive use of mobile phone and possible functional impairments caused by problematic mobile phone use. A group of “at-risk users” was identified. A sample-based examination on distribution of these three groups of users was conducted via frequency counts and percentage calculation. A series of t-test were performed to make comparisons between “problematic” and “non-problematic” groups on selected personality and health related variable. Risk and protective factors were identified via correlational analysis and logistic regression analysis.

Results

Under a more stringent cut-off criterion of four or more reported symptoms (out of seven) plus one or more reported functional impairments (out of five), 22.9% of the adolescents participating in this study could be classified as problematic mobile phone users. However, a more lenient criterion (only 4 or more reported symptoms without consideration of functional impairment) reported a substantially more severe prevalence rate (29.3%). A new group of “at-risk” adolescents (6.4%) was identified with such a discrepancy of prevalence rate. Gender difference, some risk and protective factors were also identified for developing this technology-related problem.

Discussion and Conclusions

Adolescents who are vulnerable to suffer from this technology-related problem deserve more attention from helping professionals. Results of this study throw some insights on how to identify problematic mobile phone user applying a criterion-referenced approach. This study echoes a recent call for adopting a developmental perspective in understanding this problem and conducting research in this area. Anchored on present findings, effective interventions to tackle this rising problem among adolescents are suggested.

The Association Between Smartphone Addiction and Sleep: A UK Cross-Sectional Study of Young Adults

Background: In a large UK study we investigated the relationship between smartphone addiction and sleep quality in a young adult population. Methods: We undertook a large UK cross-sectional observational study of 1,043 participants aged 18 to 30 between January 21st and February 30th 2019. Participants completed the Smartphone Addiction Scale Short Version, an adapted Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Score Index and reported smartphone use reduction strategies using both in-person (n = 968) and online (n = 75) questionnaires. A crude and adjusted logistic regression was fitted to assess risk factors for smartphone addiction, and the association between smartphone addiction and poor sleep. Results: One thousand seventy one questionnaires were returned, of which 1,043 participants were included, with median age 21.1 [interquartile range (IQR) 19-22]. Seven hundred and sixty three (73.2%) were female, and 406 reported smartphone addiction (38.9%). A large proportion of participants disclosed poor sleep (61.6%), and in those with smartphone addiction, 68.7% had poor sleep quality, compared to 57.1% of those without. Smartphone addiction was associated with poor sleep (aOR = 1.41, 95%CI: 1.06-1.87, p = 0.018). Conclusions: Using a validated instrument, 39% young adults reported smartphone addiction. Smartphone addiction was associated with poor sleep, independent of duration of usage, indicating that length of time should not be used as a proxy for harmful usage.

The Effect of College Students' Adaptability on Nomophobia: Based on Lasso Regression

Smartphones can improve our lives, but also consume our lives. It is known that problematic mobile phone use, such as nomophobia, can lead to some mental health problems. So far, psychological factors behind nomophobia were yet to be fully discovered. Previous studies showed that individuals' adaptability was closely related to nomophobia. However, adaptability was a complex construct that contains various components, and it was unclear whether these components contributed equally to nomophobia. This study investigated 678 college students by using Chinese versions of the nomophobia questionnaire, mobile phone addiction tendency scale, and freshmen adaptability scale. Lasso regression was used to further explore the key factors that could affect nomophobia. Model results showed that the value of λ+1se was [0.303, 0.423] at the minimum mean squared error in the training data. Emotional adaptability significantly predicted the fear of being unable to access information (β = -0.022, p < 0.001), losing convenience (β = -0.067, p < 0.001), and losing Internet connection (β = -0.003, p < 0.01) after λ+1se was included in the testing data, and the R ² were 0.496, 0.483, and 0.493. Homesickness adaptability significantly predicted the fear of losing contact (β = -0.056, p < 0.05), and R ² was 0.508. In addition, similar results were obtained by using datasets of mobile phone addiction and adaptability. Therefore, we concluded that the emotional adaptability has an important effect on nomophobia. Additionally, we also found that homesickness adaptability has an important role in predicting fear of losing contact.

Smartphone Addiction and Quality of Sleep among Indian Medical Students

Background: Smartphone is an indispensable miracle of artificial intelligence in the hands of global netizens. Medical students overburdened and sleep-deprived due to the curricular demands can have serious health effects due to further sleep deprivation caused by problematic smartphone use, affecting their work proficiency as practicing physicians. This study aimed to evaluate the association of smartphone addiction and quality of sleep among medical students across all semesters, along with other background variables.Methodology: This cross-sectional study was conducted on 224 medical students of a tertiary care teaching hospital in North India using a self-administered questionnaire with four parts -Socio-demographic characteristics, General health questionnaire (GHQ-12), Smartphone addiction scale-short version (SAS-SV), and Pittsburgh sleep quality index (PSQI).Results: The prevalence of smartphone addiction is was found out to be 33.33% in females and 46.15% in males. In the study, 63.39% were poor sleepers as assessed by their PQSI scores, and 62.05% reported poor health status as per their GHQ scores. There was a positive correlation between overall PQSI scores and smartphone use duration per day, SAS-SV scores, and GHQ scores.Conclusion: The high prevalence of excessive smartphone usage among medical students is a cause for concern and is detrimental to their health and sleep quality. The research addresses current lacunae in correlating smartphone addiction with smartphone usage before sleeping and right after waking up. Risky behavior adoption and pervasive mood changes associated with excessive smartphone use are addressed with equal representation across semesters. The study recommends increasing self-awareness for help-seeking to regulate smartphone usage and providing counseling services for students in their formative years.

The influence of depressive symptoms and fear of missing out on severity of problematic smartphone use and Internet gaming disorder among Chinese young adults: A three-wave mediation model

Internet gaming disorder (IGD) and problematic smartphone use (PSU) symptoms are associated with increased depression symptom severity across studies. The current study aimed to examine the fear of missing out (FoMO) as a possible mediator in this relationship. We employed a three-wave longitudinal design among 341 Chinese university students. Results indicated that depression severity was significantly related to increased symptoms of PSU and IGD symptoms. FoMO significantly mediated the linkage between depression and PSU severity. IGD symptoms also partially mediated the relation between FoMO and PSU severity. This longitudinal study demonstrates the key role of FoMO in the linkage between psychopathology symptoms and Internet-related overuse.

Problematic Smartphone Use in Spanish and Italian University Students

Sustainable education requires the proper usage of technological devices. Among these is the smartphone, which is used by millions of young people around the world in today’s society. The objective of this study was to understand the smartphone usage profile of Spanish and Italian university students. It also aimed to identify possible problematic uses, and the differences in smartphone use (or abuse) between the participating subjects. The study was descriptive and comparative, with the intentional sampling of N = 1412 subjects studying at the education faculties of the University of Alicante (UA) and the Suor Orsola Benincasa University (UNISOB). A previously-validated questionnaire with 27 items was employed during the 2019–20 academic year. The data was analysed using the SPSS 25 programme. Descriptive and inferential analyses were carried out. The results obtained after the analysis of the data indicated that, of the four possible user types—occasional, habitual, at risk, and problematic—more than half of the sample identified themselves as habitual users. It can be concluded that there are significant differences between the universities: the UA students exhibited more problematic use than the UNISOB students. It is therefore necessary to prepare training programmes that are designed to avert problematic behaviours related to smartphone use.

Profiles of Mobile Phone Problem Use in Bullying and Cyberbullying Among Adolescents

Technology is being used by individuals of all ages; young children show a high tendency of problematic use of devices such as smartphones. This study aimed to identify different profiles that vary in conflicts related to problematic mobile phone use and maladaptive communication and emotional patterns. Therefore, we examined whether there are significant differences in bullying and cyberbullying among teenagers who have a problem utilizing mobile phones. The study participants were 810 students of Compulsory Secondary Education (M = 13.99, SD = 1.32), with 52.2% being girls. Questionnaires on school violence and experiences related to mobile phones were administered. The latent profile analysis identified three different types of problematic mobile phone use: (a) low levels of conflict was associated with mobile phone abuse and low levels of communication and emotional use; (b) moderate levels of conflict was associated with mobile phone abuse and moderate levels of communication and emotional use; and (c) high levels of conflict was associated with mobile phone abuse and high levels of communication and emotional use. The study results highlight significant differences in the manifestations of school violence between the profiles. Finally, this study’s findings form the basis for the development of education programs to prevent mobile phone abuse and school violence and therefore academic adjustment.

Discussing digital technology overuse in children and adolescents during the COVID-19 pandemic and beyond: On the importance of considering Affective Neuroscience Theory

INTRODUCTION

During the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic and associated lockdown/social distancing, many scientists pointed towards the problem of increased digital technology overuse in both children and adolescents.

METHODS

Although a review of the literature shows that digital technology overuse in youth represents an important topic to be studied itself (during the pandemic and afterwards), the present work also takes into account findings from Affective Neuroscience Theory (ANT).

RESULTS

An investigation of digital overuse while the COVID-19 pandemic (and beyond) against the background of ANT calls for a shift of perspective in research, at least as an important supplement to research efforts querying the actual nature of digital overuse. In the present work, we argue that it is high time to more comprehensively address why children spend too much time with screens and to also highlight the indirect media effects of screen time use (e.g. less mammalian rough and tumble PLAY time outside and elevated SADNESS due to parental neglect).

CONCLUSIONS

In sum, insights from ANT are put forward to guide research shedding light on detrimental aspects of too much screen time in youth.

The Smart Use of Smartphones in Pediatrics

The problematic overuse of electronic devices, in particular smartphones, is negatively affecting the lives of American youth. Cell phone technology has advanced its capabilities with smartphones to now easily provide children and teens with endless access to the internet, social media, and other online activities. Research is showing that addictive, smart phone activities of youth in their formative years is directly impacting their wellbeing. The excessive time youth spend on their smartphones results in less human interaction, sleep, exercise, and productivity, as well as, increased risk of exposure to inappropriate or violent online media, anxiety, and depression. The purpose of this column is to explore the potential behavioral and developmental problems in youth related to the problematic overuse of the smartphone; inform the importance of monitoring and controlling indiscriminate youth use of technology, and the approaches pediatric nurses can employ to guide youth and their families to prevent negative outcomes for this evolving public health problem.

Assessing Nomophobia: Validation Study of the European Portuguese Version of the Nomophobia Questionnaire

Nomophobia (no mobile phone phobia) can be defined as a situational phobia described by the fear of not having a smartphone available or being incapable of accessing the Internet. Based on these characteristics, the Nomophobia Questionnaire (NMP-Q) was designed, showing a four-factor structure and good psychometric characteristics. The current study intended to adapt the NMP-Q to European Portuguese (NMP-Q-PT) and test its factor structure and psychometric properties. Five hundred participants from the general population (convenience sampling) filled in the NMP-Q-PT, the Smartphone Addiction Scale-Short Version (SAS-SV) and the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scales (DASS-21). Three models were tested through confirmatory factor analysis. One higher order factor (global nomophobia) with four lower order factors revealed a good fit to the data. The NMP-Q-PT presented excellent consistency, construct and discriminant validity, as well as good concurrent and divergent validities. Overall, the NMP-Q-PT showed to be a reliable and valid instrument for measuring nomophobia.

Applying fairness in labeling various types of internet use disorders. •

We comment on arguments about internet and smartphone use disorders by Montag, Wegmann, Sariyska, Demetrovics, and Brand (2020). Although not currently official diagnoses, we emphasize that for some individuals, excessive internet/smartphone use can have dangerous consequences. We discuss the challenges with ICD-11 codifying only internet gaming as an internet use-related disorder, neglecting other types of excessive internet users. Montag et al.'s approach to classifying a broader range of internet use disorders seems more fair than the current system in aiding individuals needing treatment resources for excessive internet use.

The association between the Big Five personality traits and smartphone use disorder: A meta-analysis

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Personality is one of the most frequently investigated variables to shed light on the putatively addictive use of the smartphone. By investigating associations between personality and individual differences in addictive smartphone use, researchers aim to understand if some personality traits predispose technology users to develop addictive behaviors. Here, based on existing empirical literature, we aimed at determining the strength of associations between Big Five personality traits and smartphone use disorder (SmUD) by a meta-analytic approach.

METHOD

For each Big Five personality trait, we performed a meta-analysis of correlations representing their association with SmUD. We also investigated possible publication bias and the moderating effects of age, gender, nationality, length of personality assessments, and time of publication.

RESULTS

We found n = 26 eligible studies. In line with both the Interaction of Person-Affect-Cognition-Execution (I-PACE) model and the framework on problematic mobile-phone use by Billieux, we observed a positive association between Neuroticism and SmUD (r = 0.25), while the association between Extraversion and SmUD was not significant. Partially in line with the aforementioned theoretical frameworks, Conscientiousness was negatively associated with SmUD (r = -0.16). Remaining traits showed smaller associations. No significant publication bias emerged. Moderator analyses showed that time of publication moderated the link between Conscientiousness and SmUD. Moreover, Agreeableness and Conscientiousness showed a heightened inverse association with SmUD among older samples.

CONCLUSIONS

The present meta-analysis provides robust empirical evidence that Big Five personality traits can help to understand individual differences in SmUD, supporting the usefulness of their assessment when planning and targeting interventions aimed at at-risk individuals.

Metacognitions about problematic Smartphone use: Development of a self-report measure

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Recent research has suggested that metacognitions may play a role across the spectrum of addictive behaviours, including problematic use of technological devices. Metacognitions associated with problematic Smartphone use (PSU) have been scarcely investigated and measures to assess these beliefs are not yet available. The goal of the present study was: (i) to develop the first self-report scale of metacognitions about Smartphone use; and (ii) to investigate its predictive validity with respect to PSU.

METHODS

Twenty-four items concerning positive and negative metacognitions about PSU were framed and administered to a community sample of 701 Smartphone users (F = 66.2%; mean age: 28.08 ± 9.81; age range: 15-70). An exploratory factor analysis was first performed in a randomly allocated subsample of 350 participants. A confirmative factor analysis was then computed on a second subsample of 351 participants to test the fit of the factor structure identified.

RESULTS

Findings revealed a 3-factor solution consisting of positive metacognitions concerning emotional and cognitive regulation, positive metacognitions concerning social advantages, and negative metacognitions about uncontrollability and cognitive harm of Smartphone use. Regression analysis showed that all the Metacognitions about Smartphone Use Questionnaire (MSUQ) factors were significantly associated to PSU independently of anxiety and depressive symptoms.

CONCLUSIONS

The MSUQ might be a promising self-report measure and further support research into the role of metacognition in technological addictions.

Comparing Smartphone, WhatsApp, Facebook, Instagram, and Snapchat: Which Platform Elicits the Greatest Use Disorder Symptoms?

In recent years, smartphone and social networking services (SNS) use have received a great amount of scholarly attention regarding their potentially addictive effects. Conceptualized as smartphone or SNS use disorder, research has consistently demonstrated relations with daily-life impairments. However, Smartphone Use Disorder (SmUD), WhatsApp Use Disorder (WAUD), Facebook Use Disorder (FBUD), Instagram Use Disorder (IGUD), or Snapchat Use Disorder (SCUD) scores have not been compared with each other. This comparison could provide insight into which device/platform could be most related to daily-life impairments. The effective sample of this study comprised 439 German-speaking individuals (age M = 25.08, SD = 9.74; 271 women) who reported actively using a smartphone, as well as WhatsApp, Facebook, Instagram, and Snapchat, and responded to the respective use disorder scales. Within-subjects analysis of variance and post hoc tests (p values adjusted with the Holm method) were used to compare smartphone and SNS use disorder scale scores. The results suggest that SmUD scores are highest in comparison with other SNS platforms. Although WAUD and IGUD scores did not differ from each other, these scores were higher than for FBUD and SCUD. SCUD scores were higher than FBUD scores. These results provide novel insight into how the smartphone and different SNSs may relate to engagement in problematic digital technology use.

Does mindfulness reduce the effects of risk factors for problematic smartphone use? Comparing frequency of use versus self-reported addiction

BACKGROUND

There is growing concern regarding problematic smartphone overuse. Practiced mindfulness, the state of being aware of the present moment, may protect against problematic smartphone use by reducing the strength of risk factors.

PURPOSE

We hypothesized that trait mindfulness can reduce the impact of risk factors on a) objective smartphone use and b) subjective problematic smartphone use.

METHODS

Our sample (n = 135, M_age = 19.15, 68% female) consisted of college students from a large university. Participants completed self-report measures of boredom proneness, impulsivity, technology-related anxiety (nomophobia), trait mindfulness, smartphone use frequency, and problematic use.

RESULTS

Higher mindfulness was significantly associated with lower boredom proneness, impulsivity, and problematic use (F = 12.12, p < .01). Hierarchical regression revealed that the positive relationships between nomophobia, and problematic use decreased as mindfulness levels increased. A similar protective effect was observed for boredom proneness, although the effect dissipated as impulsivity rose. A second regression revealed no significant predictors of weekly smartphone use.

CONCLUSIONS

Effects of nomophobia and boredom proneness on problematic smartphone use diminish with increased mindfulness, but impulsivity may interfere with this. Risk and protective factors for 'addiction' appear unrelated to smartphone use frequency. Future research should examine benefits of mindfulness-based interventions in promoting emotional and cognitive self-regulation, focusing on those who use smartphones in dysfunctional ways.

Effect of the mobile phone-related background on inhibitory control of problematic mobile phone use: An event-related potentials study

The present study aims to provide electrophysiological evidence for deficient inhibitory control in problematic mobile phone use and to investigate whether reduced inhibition is more pronounced during exposure to a mobile phone related background cue. A screen scale of smartphone addiction was completed by 227 college students, and finally an experimental group and a control group consisting of 20 problematic mobile phone users and 19 controls were included in the study. Event-related potentials were recorded during a backgrounded Go/NoGo task performed by those two groups, in which either a frequent Go signal (letter "M") or a rare NoGo signal (letter "W") was superimposed on three different background cues: neutral, mobile phone application-related and mobile phone using-related pictures. Results showed that problematic mobile phone users performed more commission errors than controls following mobile phone application background. Furthermore, problematic mobile phone users displayed a weaker NoGo P3 amplitude than controls on the mobile phone application background. The result might suggest that there is no general impairment of inhibitory control in problematic mobile phone use. The deficient inhibitory control on behavioral and psychophysiological level appeared merely in the mobile phone-related background. Such deficient stimuli-specific inhibitory control appears at the late stage of inhibitory control. Prevention programs should be designed to curtail exposure to the mobile phone-related stimulus and enhance cognitive control of potential problematic mobile phone users.

Systematic review and meta-analysis of epidemiology of internet addiction

BACKGROUND

The field of internet addiction has experienced significant debates on conflicting epidemiology. This meta-analysis investigated the prevalence rates of generalized internet addiction (GIA) and internet gaming disorder (IGD).

METHODS

We included 113 epidemiologic studies covering 693,306 subjects published from 1996 to 2018 (for 31 nations) that reported prevalence rates for GIA or IGD. We examined pooled prevalence of GIA and IGD and the hypothesized moderators including year, geographic regions, types of scales, and sample representativeness.

RESULTS

All 133 effect sizes included 53,184 subjects with GIA or IGD. Weighted average prevalence for GIA and IGD were 7.02 % (95 % CI, 6.09 %-8.08 %) and 2.47 % (95 % CI, 1.46 %-4.16 %) respectively. For GIA, prevalence was increased over time and prevalence rates variated among different scales. IGD prevalence was neither moderated by year, regions, nor sample representativeness.

CONCLUSIONS

The prevalence of GIA was higher than the prevalence of IGD. The GIA prevalence was increasing over time and variated with different assessments. Our results reveal that GIA may reflect a pattern of increasing human-machine interaction.

Developing a Mobile App (iGAM) to Promote Gingival Health by Professional Monitoring of Dental Selfies: User-Centered Design Approach

BACKGROUND

Dental visits are unpleasant; sometimes, patients only seek treatment when they are in intolerable pain. Recently, the novel coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic has highlighted the need for remote communication when patients and dentists cannot meet in person. Gingivitis is very common and characterized by red, swollen, bleeding gums. Gingivitis heals within 10 days of professional care and with daily, thorough oral hygiene practices. If left untreated, however, its progress may lead to teeth becoming mobile or lost. Of the many medical apps currently available, none monitor gingivitis.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to present a characterization and development model of a mobile health (mHealth) app called iGAM, which focuses on periodontal health and improves the information flow between dentists and patients.

METHODS

A focus group discussed the potential of an app to monitor gingivitis, and 3 semistructured in-depth interviews were conducted on the use of apps for monitoring gum infections. We used a qualitative design process based on the Agile approach, which incorporated the following 5 steps: (1) user story, (2) use cases, (3) functional requirements, (4) nonfunctional requirements, and (5) Agile software development cycles. In a pilot study with 18 participants aged 18-45 years and with different levels of health literacy, participants were given a toothbrush, toothpaste, mouthwash, toothpicks, and dental floss. After installing iGAM, they were asked to photograph their gums weekly for 4 weeks.

RESULTS

All participants in the focus group believed in the potential of a mobile app to monitor gingivitis and reduce its severity. Concerns about security and privacy issues were discussed. From the interviews, 2 themes were derived: (1) "what's in it for me?" and (2) the need for a take-home message. The 5 cycles of development highlighted the importance of communication between dentists, app developers, and the pilot group. Qualitative analysis of the data from the pilot study showed difficulty with: (1) the camera, which was alleviated with the provision of mouth openers, and (2) the operation of the phone, which was alleviated by changing the app to be fully automated, with a weekly reminder and an instructions document. Final interviews showed satisfaction.

CONCLUSIONS

iGAM is the first mHealth app for monitoring gingivitis using self-photography. iGAM facilitates the information flow between dentists and patients between checkups and may be useful when face-to-face consultations are not possible (such as during the COVID-19 pandemic).

Associations between symptoms of problematic smartphone, Facebook, WhatsApp, and Instagram use: An item-level exploratory graph analysis perspective

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Studies have demonstrated associations between both problematic smartphone and social networks use with everyday life adversities. However, examination of associations between problematic smartphone use (PSU) and problematic use of specific social networking platforms, especially on item-level data, has received relatively little attention. Therefore, the aim of the current study was to explore how items of problematic smartphone, Facebook, WhatsApp, and Instagram use are associated.

METHODS

949 German-speaking adults participated in a web survey study. The participants were queried about their socio-demographics as well as levels of problematic smartphone, Facebook, WhatsApp, and Instagram use. In addition to bivariate correlation analysis, exploratory graph analysis (EGA), a type of network analysis, was conducted.

RESULTS

The results showed that while problematic Facebook and Instagram use seem to be distinct phenomena, problematic smartphone and WhatsApp use were heavily intertwined. Furthermore, the only cross-platform symptom observed was the extent of reported pain in wrists and neck due to digital technology use. The EGA network models showed very good stability in bootstrap analyses.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

In general, the results of this study suggest that while Instagram and Facebook use may potentially constitute distinct problematic behaviors, problematic smartphone/WhatsApp use scales may be measuring highly similar or even the same construct.

Problematic Relationships with Smartphones of Spanish and Colombian University Students

The presence of smartphones in the lives of the population in general, and of youth in particular, is evident, and is derived from elements such as the diversity of prices as well as the ease of access of all the resources that can be reached through the internet. With the use of a descriptive approach using a quantitative poll, the objective of the present study was to discover the opinions of university students in Spain and Colombia about smartphone use, as well as the consequences of its use, and if this use could derive into so-called problematic smartphone use (PSU). For gathering the information, the Mobile Phone Problematic Use Scale (MPPUSA) was utilized, with a sample size n = 4009. The main result reached was that the model obtained is structured around six factors that determined the elements in light of PSU. The initial conclusion found was that the model applied can be utilized with Colombian students, with young Spanish women and students in the macro area of Social Sciences, the ones who had problematic behavior with the devices, as compared to the Health Sciences students who did not have it.

The Matthew Effect in Recovery from Smartphone Addiction in a 6-Month Longitudinal Study of Children and Adolescents

The clinical course of problematic smartphone use (PSU) remains largely unknown due to a lack of longitudinal studies. We recruited 193 subjects with smartphone addiction problems for the present study. After providing informed consent, the subjects completed surveys and underwent comprehensive interviews regarding smartphone usage. A total of 56 subjects among the 193 initially recruited subjects were followed up for six months. We compared baseline characteristics between persistent addicted users and recovered users at the end of the 6-month follow-up. Persistent problematic smartphone users displayed higher baseline smartphone addiction severity and were more prone to develop mental health problems at the follow-up. However, baseline depressive or anxiety status did not significantly influence the course of PSU. PSU behaved more like an addictive disorder rather than a secondary psychiatric disorder. Harm avoidance, impulsivity, higher Internet use, and less conversation time with mothers were identified as poor prognostic factors in PSU. Lower quality of life, low perceived happiness, and goal instability also contributed to persistent PSU, while recovery increased these scores as well as measures of self-esteem. These findings suggest that the Matthew effect is found in the recovery of PSU with better premorbid psychosocial adjustment leading to a more successful recovery. Greater clinical resources are required for interventions in vulnerable populations to modify the course of this increasingly prevalent problematic behavior worldwide.

Examining bi-directionality between Fear of Missing Out and problematic smartphone use. A two-wave panel study among adolescents

BACKGROUND

In recent years, the Fear of Missing Out (FoMO) construct has been the object of growing attention in digital technology research with previous studies finding support for the relationship between FoMO and problematic smartphone use (PSU) among adolescents and young adults. However, no previous studies clarified the causal link between FoMO and PSU using a longitudinal design.

METHODS

An auto-regressive, cross-lagged panel design was tested by using a longitudinal dataset with two waves of data collection (T0 and T1, one year apart). Participants included two hundred and forty-two adolescents (109 males and 133 females), with a mean age of 14.16 years, who filled out the Fear of Missing Out scale (FoMOs) and the Smartphone Addiction Scale (SAS). Moreover, participants filled out the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS), at the first time-point of data collection.

RESULTS

The findings of the study show that FoMO (both FoMO-Fear and FoMO-Control subscales) and PSU are positively related at both time-points (i.e. at a cross-sectional level). However no cross-lagged associations between them were longitudinally supported. Females and older adolescents show higher FoMO-Fear at T1.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings of the present study suggest caution when causal links between FoMO and PSU are inferred.

Hypnotised by Your Phone? Smartphone Addiction Correlates With Hypnotisability

Hypnosis and heavy smartphone use are both characterised by absorbed states in which one loses track of time and responds automatically to stimuli. In this pre-registered study, we tested whether there was a relationship between smartphone addiction and hypnotisability: one's tendency to follow suggestions under hypnosis. Over 11 public lectures, we hypnotised 641 student-aged participants; after the hypnosis session, participants completed the Smartphone Addiction Scale (Short Version). There was a positive correlation between hypnotisability and smartphone addiction (r = .17, 95% CI [.09, .24], p < .001) with a magnitude similar to standard predictors of hypnotisability. This correlation was small but unlikely spurious: it was positive in 10 of the 11 samples (including two from psychology courses) and persisted in a follow-up several months later. The addiction scores in this Canadian sample were unexpectedly high (M = 31.41) compared to other countries. We hypothesise that targeting the absorbed, time-distorted, and automatic use of smartphones may promote healthier phone habits.

Cross-cultural adaptation, factor structure, and evidence of reliability of the Smartphone Addiction Scale in Brazil

Objective:

To translate, adapt, and examine the factor structure and internal consistency of a Brazilian Portuguese version of the Smartphone Addiction Scale (SAS-BR) among university students.

Methods:

The SAS was translated and adapted for use with Brazilian samples. The resulting instrument (SAS-BR) was then administered to 356 college students. Parallel analysis was used to explore the maximum number of dimensions that underlie the assessment, and data modeling was undertaken using exploratory multidimensional item response theory (E-MIRT). The reliability of the SAS-BR was tested by computing McDonald’s omega (ω) and Cronbach’s alpha (α) coefficients.

Results:

Parallel analysis revealed a maximum of six factors. E-MIRT analysis revealed that a five-factor model was the best fit for the data. The five emergent factors were salience, positive anticipation, cyberspace-oriented relationship, preoccupation with smartphone, and physical symptoms; these factors together explained 50% of the variance. Confirmatory factor analysis, conducted using data from a second sample, replicated the five-factor structure. The internal consistency of the scale was found to be strong.

Conclusion:

The emergent factor structure of the SAS-BR was found to be similar to that of previous adaptations of this instrument for other Western countries.

The frequency of impairments in everyday activities due to the overuse of the internet, gaming, or smartphone, and its relationship to health-related quality of life in Korea

BACKGROUND

This study aimed to investigate the relationships between the frequency of impairments in daily activities due to the overuse of the Internet, gaming, or smartphones (IGS) and sociodemographic characteristics, social relationships (including family) & activities, psychosocial characteristics, health status, and health-related quality of life (HRQoL) of Korean adults.

METHODS

Secondary data from the 2017 Community Health Survey, a large-scale sample survey conducted yearly in South Korea, were analyzed for 190,066 adults over 19 years of age. Three categories were created for impairment groups due to IGS overuse: No Impairment, Mild Impairment, and Moderate-to-Severe groups. And between-group differences were examined using a one-way ANOVA for health status measured with the EQ-5D-3 L and chi-square tests for all categorical dependent variables, which included sociodemographic characteristics, social relationships & activities, and psychosocial factors. The association between frequencies of daily activity impairments due to IGS overuse and the dependent variables were examined using a multivariate logistic regression analysis and a linear regression model.

RESULTS

Approximately 21,345 (11.23%) of the 190,066 participants reported experiencing impairments in daily activities due to IGS overuse at least once in the previous year and the impairments were more severe in males than females. Participants experiencing impairments in daily activities contacted their friends a significantly higher number of times (4 times or more per month) and engaged in leisure activities more frequently (more than once per month) than those without impairments. There was also a significant positive relationship between IGS overuse and stress, depression, suicidal ideation, and suicide attempts. Among participants aged 19-64, impairments in daily activities due to IGS overuse were associated with a lower HRQoL. Conversely, for those aged 65 and over, mild and moderate-to-severe impairments due to IGS overuse were associated with a significantly higher HRQoL.

CONCLUSIONS

Increased impairments in daily activities due to IGS overuse may negatively affect mental health. However, among older adults, the frequency of such impairments was positively associated with HRQoL. This finding could be considered to apply interventions with Internet usage or ICT devices for older adults to enhance their quality of life.

Challenging the Concept of Smartphone Addiction: An Empirical Pilot Study of Smartphone Usage Patterns and Psychological Well-Being

Smartphone use is ubiquitous, however, scholarly debate regarding the addictive nature of smartphones abounds. In this context, it is integral to distinguish between the content that users experience and the medium that facilitates access to the former, as users may experience addictive-like responses to the specific activities they engage in through the context experienced rather than the device that facilitates access to these activities. The present study aimed to explore conceptualizations of smartphone addiction by (a) investigating user preferences for specific smartphone functionalities, (b) examining behavioral changes associated with limited access to preferred functionalities, and (c) exploring links between aspects of smartphone use and self-reported psychological well-being. A total of 471 participants completed an online survey, providing data on sociodemographics, actual and hypothetical smartphone usage, and psychological well-being (depression, anxiety, and stress symptoms). The results showed that communication functionalities were most frequently cited as being preferred among smartphone users. Notably, participants reported that they would check their smartphones significantly fewer times if their top-three functionalities were inaccessible. This suggests that smartphone users are likely to become addicted to the functionalities they access on their smartphones (content) and not the smartphones themselves (medium), rendering unviable the notion of smartphone addiction as a construct. Further analyses suggested negligible to small correlations between aspects of smartphone use and psychological well-being variables. The findings imply that rather than focusing on frequency of smartphone use, it is recommended that future research examines the type and quality of specific smartphone usages and their effects on user well-being.

Feedback Sensitivity as a Mediator of the Relationship Between Attachment Anxiety and Problematic Facebook Use

Past research has revealed positive associations between attachment anxiety and problematic social networking site (SNS) use and between attachment anxiety and sensitivity to feedback on an SNS. The aim of this study was to examine whether feedback sensitivity could account for the association between attachment anxiety and problematic SNS use. Two hundred eighty-three adults completed an online survey containing measures of adult attachment style in close relationships, sensitivity to feedback on Facebook, problematic Facebook use, and various control variables (Big Five personality traits, self-esteem, and demographics). A mediation analysis revealed the predicted indirect effect of attachment anxiety on problematic Facebook use through feedback sensitivity. Higher levels of attachment anxiety predicted greater sensitivity to feedback on Facebook, which in turn predicted higher levels of problematic Facebook use. Full mediation was observed with the control variables (attachment avoidance, extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, openness to experience, self-esteem, age, and gender) in the model, and partial mediation was observed without the control variables. These findings replicate past research on attachment anxiety and extend our understanding by establishing a positive association between sensitivity to comments and likes on Feedback and problematic Facebook use.

Moderating Role of Gender in the Relationship between Big Five Personality Traits and Smartphone Addiction

This study contributed to cyberpsychology literature by identifying moderating role of gender in the relationship between personality traits and smartphone addiction. A multi-group SEM analysis was employed to investigate the relationship between five factor personality traits (i.e. Big Five) and smartphone addiction among men and women. Big-Five-Inventory (BFI) and Smartphone Addiction Inventory (SPAI) were used to collect data from 320 undergraduate students. The results suggested a positively significant relationship between neuroticism (emotional imbalance) and smartphone addiction for women only. Whereas, conscientiousness was negatively related with smartphone addiction for women. Further, there was a negatively significant relationship between agreeableness and smartphone addiction for both genders. The findings suggested that gender has a moderating role in the relationship between neuroticism and smartphone addiction.

Depression, anxiety and fear of missing out as correlates of social, non-social and problematic smartphone use

Few studies have examined mental health variables in relation to social vs. non-social smartphone use, and how such types of use relate to problematic smartphone use (PSU). We conducted a web survey of 316 American undergraduate students about severity of depression, anxiety, fear of missing out (FOMO), social and non-social smartphone use, and PSU. Using structural equation modeling, we found that compared to social smartphone use, non-social use was more strongly linked with severity of PSU (β = 0.18, p < .05) and FOMO (β = 0.24, p < .05). FOMO mediated relations between depression severity and non-social smartphone use (β = 0.09, p = .04). Furthermore, FOMO mediated relations between both depression (β = 0.23, p < .001) and anxiety (β = 0.16, p = .04) with PSU severity. We discuss non-social smartphone use as a possible avoidance strategy among anxious individuals, and the role of FOMO in individuals desiring social connectedness but also feeling socially anxious. Results are discussed in the context of a comprehensive theoretical model on pathways toward excessive internet use.

Structural and functional correlates of smartphone addiction

Popularity and availability of smartphones have dramatically increased in the past years. This trend is accompanied by increased concerns regarding potentially adverse effects of excessive smartphone use, particularly with respect to physical and mental health. Recently, the term "smartphone addiction" (SPA) has been introduced to describe smartphone-related addictive behavior and associated physical and psychosocial impairment. Here, we used structural and functional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) at 3 T to investigate gray matter volume (GMV) and intrinsic neural activity in individuals with SPA (n = 22) compared to a control group (n = 26). SPA was assessed using the Smartphone Addiction Inventory (SPAI), GMV was investigated by means of voxel-based morphometry, and intrinsic neural activity was measured by the amplitude of low frequency fluctuations (ALFF). Compared to controls, individuals with SPA showed lower GMV in left anterior insula, inferior temporal and parahippocampal cortex (p < 0.001, uncorrected for height, followed by correction for spatial extent). Lower intrinsic activity in SPA was found in the right anterior cingulate cortex (ACC). A significant negative association was found between SPAI and both ACC volume and activity. In addition, a significant negative association between SPAI scores and left orbitofrontal GMV was found. This study provides first evidence for distinct structural and functional correlates of behavioral addiction in individuals meeting psychometric criteria for SPA. Given their widespread use and increasing popularity, the present study questions the harmlessness of smartphones, at least in individuals that may be at increased risk for developing smartphone-related addictive behaviors.

Predictors of problematic smartphone use among university students

Predictors of problematic smartphone use have been found mainly in studies on elementary and high school students. Few studies have focused on predictors related to social network and messaging apps or smartphone model. Thus, the objective of our study was to identify predictors of problematic smartphone use related to demographic characteristics, loneliness, social app use, and smartphone model among university students. This cross-sectional study involved 257 Brazilian university students who answered a smartphone addiction scale, a questionnaire about smartphone usage patterns, and the Brazilian version of the UCLA-R loneliness scale. Women, iPhone owners, and users of Instagram and Snapchat had significantly higher smartphone addiction scores. We found correlations between scores for the Brazilian version of smartphone addiction scale and the importance attributed to WhatsApp, Facebook, Instagram, and Snapchat, and the Brazilian version of the UCLA-R loneliness scale. Our hierarchical regression model predicted 32.2% of the scores of the Brazilian version of the smartphone addiction scale, with the greatest increase in predictive capability by the step that added smartphone social app importance, followed by the step that added loneliness. Adding the smartphone model produced the smallest increase in predictive capability. The theoretical and practical implications of these results are discussed.

Problematic Mobile Phone and Smartphone Use Scales: A Systematic Review

The popularity of smartphones is undeniable in nearly all facets of society. Despite the many benefits attributed to the technology, concern has grown over the potential for excessive smartphone use to become problematic in nature. Due to the growing concerns surrounding the recognized and unrecognized implications of smartphone use, great efforts have been made through research to evaluate, label and identify problematic smartphone use mostly through the development and administration of scales assessing the behavior. This study examines 78 existing validated scales that have been developed over the past 13 years to measure, identify or characterize excessive or problematic smartphone use by evaluating their theoretical foundations and their psychometric properties. Our review determined that, despite an abundance of self-report scales examining the construct, many published scales lack sufficient internal consistency and test-retest reliability. Additionally, there is a lack of research supporting the theoretical foundation of many of the scales evaluated. Future research is needed to better characterize problematic smartphone use so that assessment tools can be more efficiently developed to evaluate the behavior in order to avoid the excessive publication of seemingly redundant assessment tools.

Using machine learning to model problematic smartphone use severity: The significant role of fear of missing out

We examined a model of psychopathology variables, age and sex as correlates of problematic smartphone use (PSU) severity using supervised machine learning in a sample of Chinese undergraduate students. A sample of 1097 participants completed measures querying demographics, and psychological measures of PSU, depression and anxiety symptoms, fear of missing out (FOMO), and rumination. We used several different machine learning algorithms to train our statistical model of age, sex and the psychological variables in modeling PSU severity, trained using many simulated replications on a random subset of participants, and externally tested on the remaining subset of participants. Shrinkage algorithms (lasso, ridge, and elastic net regression) performing slightly but statistically better than other algorithms. Results from the training subset generalized to the test subset, without substantial worsening of fit using traditional fit indices. FOMO had the largest relative contribution in modeling PSU severity when adjusting for other covariates in the model. Results emphasize the significance of FOMO to the construct of PSU.

The effect of calling duration on cervical joint repositioning error angle and discomfort in university students

BACKGROUND

The time spent on mobile phone during daytime is increasing with the rapid life-style in young population for different purposes such as texting, calling etc. and the younger population is more dependent on networking with them.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of the present study was to compare joint repositioning error angle in the cervical region between groups with regard to their daily calling duration on smartphone and to determine the relationship between daily calling duration and potential cervical pain and disability.

METHODS

Sixty-three university students were included in the study. Participants were divided concerning to their durations of daily calling durations on smartphones. The joint-repositioning-error sense, craniovertebral angle, cervicothoracic muscle strength, and endurance of neck flexors were measured and potential pain and disability levels were assessed.

RESULTS

University students who spending twenty minutes or more for calling on smartphone daily had significantly higher joint repositioning error sense. Additionally, it was determined that there was fair relationship between the daily calling time on smartphone and potential neck pain and disability.

CONCLUSIONS

The prolonged calling duration on smartphone could affect cervical joint repositioning error sense in university students. This might be related to potential discomfort on cervical region in the further period.

Interactions of impulsivity, general executive functions, and specific inhibitory control explain symptoms of social-networks-use disorder: An experimental study

While the use of social media and online-communication applications has become an integral part of everyday life, some individuals suffer from an excessive, uncontrolled use of social media despite experiencing negative consequences. In accordance with neuropsychological models of addiction, we assume the tendency of a social-networks-use disorder to be related to an interplay of predisposing personality traits (e.g., impulsivity), and reductions in cognitive functions (e.g., executive functions, inhibitory control). The current study makes first strides towards examining this interplay. In addition to a newly developed social-networks-specific auditory Go-NoGo paradigm, other neuropsychological paradigms were used. Impulsivity and social-networks-use-disorder symptoms were assessed by standardized questionnaires. The results show that the symptom severity of a social-networks-use disorder is mainly associated with attentional impulsivity. General executive functions and specific inhibitory control of social-networks-related cues have no direct effect on symptom severity. However, moderated regression analyses emphasize that increased symptom severity is associated with higher attentional impulsivity, especially if there are additionally reductions in executive functions or specific inhibitory control. The results complement previous findings and inform future research on social-networks-use disorder. The findings support the applicability of theoretical models of addictive behaviors to the social-networks-use disorder and point to social-networks-related specificities regarding attention-related facets.

Parental Monitoring and Adolescent Problematic Mobile Phone Use: The Mediating Role of Escape Motivation and the Moderating Role of Shyness

In an attempt to reduce the negative consequences of adolescent media use, parents often monitor their children's online activities. However, research suggests that parental monitoring often does not reduce children's problematic mobile phone use as expected. Based on the results of a survey of 584 Chinese adolescents, we found that parental monitoring positively predicted children's problematic mobile phone use (PMPU) within a Chinese cultural context. The results also showed that children's escape motivation partially mediated this relationship, while their level of shyness moderated both the mediated path and the direct impact of parental monitoring on children's PMPU. The findings suggested that a higher level of shyness increased the likelihood that parental monitoring would increase the child's escape motivation and PMPU. The study results provide guidelines for parents and educators regarding interventions for adolescents' problematic phone use.