3351
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Larsen BR, Stoica A, MacAulay N. Managing Brain Extracellular K(+) during Neuronal Activity: The Physiological Role of the Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase Subunit Isoforms. Front Physiol 2016; 7:141. [PMID: 27148079 PMCID: PMC4841311 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2016.00141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2016] [Accepted: 04/04/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
During neuronal activity in the brain, extracellular K+ rises and is subsequently removed to prevent a widespread depolarization. One of the key players in regulating extracellular K+ is the Na+/K+-ATPase, although the relative involvement and physiological impact of the different subunit isoform compositions of the Na+/K+-ATPase remain unresolved. The various cell types in the brain serve a certain temporal contribution in the face of network activity; astrocytes respond directly to the immediate release of K+ from neurons, whereas the neurons themselves become the primary K+ absorbers as activity ends. The kinetic characteristics of the catalytic α subunit isoforms of the Na+/K+-ATPase are, partly, determined by the accessory β subunit with which they combine. The isoform combinations expressed by astrocytes and neurons, respectively, appear to be in line with the kinetic characteristics required to fulfill their distinct physiological roles in clearance of K+ from the extracellular space in the face of neuronal activity. Understanding the nature, impact and effects of the various Na+/K+-ATPase isoform combinations in K+ management in the central nervous system might reveal insights into pathological conditions such as epilepsy, migraine, and spreading depolarization following cerebral ischemia. In addition, particular neurological diseases occur as a result of mutations in the α2- (familial hemiplegic migraine type 2) and α3 isoforms (rapid-onset dystonia parkinsonism/alternating hemiplegia of childhood). This review addresses aspects of the Na+/K+-ATPase in the regulation of extracellular K+ in the central nervous system as well as the related pathophysiology. Understanding the physiological setting in non-pathological tissue would provide a better understanding of the pathological events occurring during disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian Roland Larsen
- Department of Neuroscience and Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Anca Stoica
- Department of Neuroscience and Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Nanna MacAulay
- Department of Neuroscience and Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen Copenhagen, Denmark
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3352
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Molumby MJ, Keeler AB, Weiner JA. Homophilic Protocadherin Cell-Cell Interactions Promote Dendrite Complexity. Cell Rep 2016; 15:1037-1050. [PMID: 27117416 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2016.03.093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2015] [Revised: 02/16/2016] [Accepted: 03/27/2016] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Growth of a properly complex dendrite arbor is a key step in neuronal differentiation and a prerequisite for neural circuit formation. Diverse cell surface molecules, such as the clustered protocadherins (Pcdhs), have long been proposed to regulate circuit formation through specific cell-cell interactions. Here, using transgenic and conditional knockout mice to manipulate γ-Pcdh repertoire in the cerebral cortex, we show that the complexity of a neuron's dendritic arbor is determined by homophilic interactions with other cells. Neurons expressing only one of the 22 γ-Pcdhs can exhibit either exuberant or minimal dendrite complexity, depending only on whether surrounding cells express the same isoform. Furthermore, loss of astrocytic γ-Pcdhs, or disruption of astrocyte-neuron homophilic matching, reduces dendrite complexity cell non-autonomously. Our data indicate that γ-Pcdhs act locally to promote dendrite arborization via homophilic matching, and they confirm that connectivity in vivo depends on molecular interactions between neurons and between neurons and astrocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael J Molumby
- Department of Biology, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA; Graduate Program in Genetics, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA
| | - Austin B Keeler
- Department of Biology, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA; Graduate Program in Neuroscience, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA
| | - Joshua A Weiner
- Department of Biology, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA; Graduate Program in Genetics, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA; Graduate Program in Neuroscience, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA; Department of Psychiatry, Carver College of Medicine, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA.
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3353
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Progranulin Deficiency Promotes Circuit-Specific Synaptic Pruning by Microglia via Complement Activation. Cell 2016; 165:921-35. [PMID: 27114033 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2016.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 501] [Impact Index Per Article: 62.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2015] [Revised: 03/10/2016] [Accepted: 03/31/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Microglia maintain homeostasis in the brain, but whether aberrant microglial activation can cause neurodegeneration remains controversial. Here, we use transcriptome profiling to demonstrate that deficiency in frontotemporal dementia (FTD) gene progranulin (Grn) leads to an age-dependent, progressive upregulation of lysosomal and innate immunity genes, increased complement production, and enhanced synaptic pruning in microglia. During aging, Grn(-/-) mice show profound microglia infiltration and preferential elimination of inhibitory synapses in the ventral thalamus, which lead to hyperexcitability in the thalamocortical circuits and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)-like grooming behaviors. Remarkably, deleting C1qa gene significantly reduces synaptic pruning by Grn(-/-) microglia and mitigates neurodegeneration, behavioral phenotypes, and premature mortality in Grn(-/-) mice. Together, our results uncover a previously unrecognized role of progranulin in suppressing aberrant microglia activation during aging. These results represent an important conceptual advance that complement activation and microglia-mediated synaptic pruning are major drivers, rather than consequences, of neurodegeneration caused by progranulin deficiency.
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3354
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Astrocytes Grown in Alvetex(®) Three Dimensional Scaffolds Retain a Non-reactive Phenotype. Neurochem Res 2016; 41:1857-67. [PMID: 27099962 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-016-1911-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2015] [Revised: 05/21/2015] [Accepted: 06/22/2015] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Protocols which permit the extraction of primary astrocytes from either embryonic or postnatal mice are well established however astrocytes in culture are different to those in the mature CNS. Three dimensional (3D) cultures, using a variety of scaffolds may enable better phenotypic properties to be developed in culture. We present data from embryonic (E15) and postnatal (P4) murine primary cortical astrocytes grown on coated coverslips or a 3D polystyrene scaffold, Alvetex. Growth of both embryonic and postnatal primary astrocytes in the 3D scaffold changed astrocyte morphology to a mature, protoplasmic phenotype. Embryonic-derived astrocytes in 3D expressed markers of mature astrocytes, namely the glutamate transporter GLT-1 with low levels of the chondroitin sulphate proteoglycans, NG2 and SMC3. Embryonic astrocytes derived in 3D show lower levels of markers of reactive astrocytes, namely GFAP and mRNA levels of LCN2, PTX3, Serpina3n and Cx43. Postnatal-derived astrocytes show few protein changes between 2D and 3D conditions. Our data shows that Alvetex is a suitable scaffold for growth of astrocytes, and with appropriate choice of cells allows the maintenance of astrocytes with the properties of mature cells and a non-reactive phenotype.
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3355
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Srinivasan K, Friedman BA, Larson JL, Lauffer BE, Goldstein LD, Appling LL, Borneo J, Poon C, Ho T, Cai F, Steiner P, van der Brug MP, Modrusan Z, Kaminker JS, Hansen DV. Untangling the brain's neuroinflammatory and neurodegenerative transcriptional responses. Nat Commun 2016; 7:11295. [PMID: 27097852 PMCID: PMC4844685 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms11295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 247] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2015] [Accepted: 03/10/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
A common approach to understanding neurodegenerative disease is comparing gene expression in diseased versus healthy tissues. We illustrate that expression profiles derived from whole tissue RNA highly reflect the degenerating tissues' altered cellular composition, not necessarily transcriptional regulation. To accurately understand transcriptional changes that accompany neuropathology, we acutely purify neurons, astrocytes and microglia from single adult mouse brains and analyse their transcriptomes by RNA sequencing. Using peripheral endotoxemia to establish the method, we reveal highly specific transcriptional responses and altered RNA processing in each cell type, with Tnfr1 required for the astrocytic response. Extending the method to an Alzheimer's disease model, we confirm that transcriptomic changes observed in whole tissue are driven primarily by cell type composition, not transcriptional regulation, and identify hundreds of cell type-specific changes undetected in whole tissue RNA. Applying similar methods to additional models and patient tissues will transform our understanding of aberrant gene expression in neurological disease. Whole tissue RNA profiling can help identify altered molecular pathways underlying neurodegenerative disease, but often masks cell type-specific transcriptional changes. Here, the authors compare transcriptomes of neurons, astrocytes, and microglia from Alzheimer's disease model brains and identify hundreds of cell-type specific changes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karpagam Srinivasan
- Department of Neuroscience, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, California 94080, USA
| | - Brad A Friedman
- Department of Bioinformatics, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, California 94080, USA
| | - Jessica L Larson
- Department of Bioinformatics, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, California 94080, USA
| | - Benjamin E Lauffer
- Department of Neuroscience, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, California 94080, USA
| | - Leonard D Goldstein
- Department of Bioinformatics, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, California 94080, USA.,Department of Molecular Biology, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, California 94080, USA
| | - Laurie L Appling
- Department of Immunology, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, California 94080, USA
| | - Jovencio Borneo
- Department of Immunology, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, California 94080, USA
| | - Chungkee Poon
- Department of Immunology, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, California 94080, USA
| | - Terence Ho
- Department of Immunology, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, California 94080, USA
| | - Fang Cai
- Department of Diagnostics, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, California 94080, USA
| | - Pascal Steiner
- Department of Neuroscience, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, California 94080, USA
| | - Marcel P van der Brug
- Department of Diagnostics, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, California 94080, USA
| | - Zora Modrusan
- Department of Molecular Biology, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, California 94080, USA
| | - Joshua S Kaminker
- Department of Bioinformatics, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, California 94080, USA
| | - David V Hansen
- Department of Neuroscience, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, California 94080, USA
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3356
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Andrae J, Gouveia L, Gallini R, He L, Fredriksson L, Nilsson I, Johansson BR, Eriksson U, Betsholtz C. A role for PDGF-C/PDGFRα signaling in the formation of the meningeal basement membranes surrounding the cerebral cortex. Biol Open 2016; 5:461-74. [PMID: 26988758 PMCID: PMC4890675 DOI: 10.1242/bio.017368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Platelet-derived growth factor-C (PDGF-C) is one of three known ligands for the tyrosine kinase receptor PDGFRα. Analysis ofPdgfcnull mice has demonstrated roles for PDGF-C in palate closure and the formation of cerebral ventricles, but redundancy with other PDGFRα ligands might obscure additional functions. In search of further developmental roles for PDGF-C, we generated mice that were double mutants forPdgfc(-/-)andPdgfra(GFP/+) These mice display a range of severe phenotypes including spina bifida, lung emphysema, abnormal meninges and neuronal over-migration in the cerebral cortex. We focused our analysis on the central nervous system (CNS), where PDGF-C was identified as a critical factor for the formation of meninges and assembly of the glia limitans basement membrane. We also present expression data onPdgfa,PdgfcandPdgfrain the cerebral cortex and microarray data on cerebral meninges.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johanna Andrae
- Department of Immunology, Genetics and Pathology, Rudbeck Laboratory, Uppsala University, Uppsala 751 85, Sweden
| | - Leonor Gouveia
- Department of Immunology, Genetics and Pathology, Rudbeck Laboratory, Uppsala University, Uppsala 751 85, Sweden
| | - Radiosa Gallini
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm 171 77, Sweden
| | - Liqun He
- Department of Immunology, Genetics and Pathology, Rudbeck Laboratory, Uppsala University, Uppsala 751 85, Sweden
| | - Linda Fredriksson
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm 171 77, Sweden
| | - Ingrid Nilsson
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm 171 77, Sweden
| | - Bengt R Johansson
- The Electron Microscopy Unit, Institute of Biomedicine, Sahlgrenska Academy at University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg 405 30, Sweden
| | - Ulf Eriksson
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm 171 77, Sweden
| | - Christer Betsholtz
- Department of Immunology, Genetics and Pathology, Rudbeck Laboratory, Uppsala University, Uppsala 751 85, Sweden
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3357
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Liu SJ, Nowakowski TJ, Pollen AA, Lui JH, Horlbeck MA, Attenello FJ, He D, Weissman JS, Kriegstein AR, Diaz AA, Lim DA. Single-cell analysis of long non-coding RNAs in the developing human neocortex. Genome Biol 2016; 17:67. [PMID: 27081004 PMCID: PMC4831157 DOI: 10.1186/s13059-016-0932-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 235] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2015] [Accepted: 04/01/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) comprise a diverse class of transcripts that can regulate molecular and cellular processes in brain development and disease. LncRNAs exhibit cell type- and tissue-specific expression, but little is known about the expression and function of lncRNAs in the developing human brain. Furthermore, it has been unclear whether lncRNAs are highly expressed in subsets of cells within tissues, despite appearing lowly expressed in bulk populations. Results We use strand-specific RNA-seq to deeply profile lncRNAs from polyadenylated and total RNA obtained from human neocortex at different stages of development, and we apply this reference to analyze the transcriptomes of single cells. While lncRNAs are generally detected at low levels in bulk tissues, single-cell transcriptomics of hundreds of neocortex cells reveal that many lncRNAs are abundantly expressed in individual cells and are cell type-specific. Notably, LOC646329 is a lncRNA enriched in single radial glia cells but is detected at low abundance in tissues. CRISPRi knockdown of LOC646329 indicates that this lncRNA regulates cell proliferation. Conclusion The discrete and abundant expression of lncRNAs among individual cells has important implications for both their biological function and utility for distinguishing neural cell types. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13059-016-0932-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siyuan John Liu
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, Ray and Dagmar Dolby Regeneration Medicine Building, 35 Medical Center Way, RMB 1037, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA.,Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regeneration Medicine and Stem Cell Research, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA.,University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA
| | - Tomasz J Nowakowski
- Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regeneration Medicine and Stem Cell Research, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA.,Department of Neurology, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA.,University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA
| | - Alex A Pollen
- Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regeneration Medicine and Stem Cell Research, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA.,Department of Neurology, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA.,University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA
| | - Jan H Lui
- Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regeneration Medicine and Stem Cell Research, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA.,Department of Neurology, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA.,University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA.,Present Address: Department of Biology and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Max A Horlbeck
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA.,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA.,California Institute for Quantitative Biomedical Research, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA.,Center for RNA Systems Biology, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA.,University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA
| | - Frank J Attenello
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, Ray and Dagmar Dolby Regeneration Medicine Building, 35 Medical Center Way, RMB 1037, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA.,Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regeneration Medicine and Stem Cell Research, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA.,University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA
| | - Daniel He
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, Ray and Dagmar Dolby Regeneration Medicine Building, 35 Medical Center Way, RMB 1037, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA.,Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regeneration Medicine and Stem Cell Research, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA.,University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA
| | - Jonathan S Weissman
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA.,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA.,California Institute for Quantitative Biomedical Research, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA.,Center for RNA Systems Biology, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA.,University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA
| | - Arnold R Kriegstein
- Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regeneration Medicine and Stem Cell Research, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA.,Department of Neurology, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA.,University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA
| | - Aaron A Diaz
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, Ray and Dagmar Dolby Regeneration Medicine Building, 35 Medical Center Way, RMB 1037, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA. .,Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regeneration Medicine and Stem Cell Research, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA. .,University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA.
| | - Daniel A Lim
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, Ray and Dagmar Dolby Regeneration Medicine Building, 35 Medical Center Way, RMB 1037, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA. .,Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regeneration Medicine and Stem Cell Research, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA. .,University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA. .,San Francisco Veterans Affairs Medical Center, San Francisco, CA, 94121, USA.
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3358
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Moyon S, Huynh JL, Dutta D, Zhang F, Ma D, Yoo S, Lawrence R, Wegner M, John GR, Emery B, Lubetzki C, Franklin RJM, Fan G, Zhu J, Dupree JL, Casaccia P. Functional Characterization of DNA Methylation in the Oligodendrocyte Lineage. Cell Rep 2016; 15:748-760. [PMID: 27149841 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2016.03.060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2015] [Revised: 02/08/2016] [Accepted: 03/15/2016] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Oligodendrocytes derive from progenitors (OPCs) through the interplay of epigenomic and transcriptional events. By integrating high-resolution methylomics, RNA-sequencing, and multiple transgenic lines, this study defines the role of DNMT1 in developmental myelination. We detected hypermethylation of genes related to cell cycle and neurogenesis during differentiation of OPCs, yet genetic ablation of Dnmt1 resulted in inefficient OPC expansion and severe hypomyelination associated with ataxia and tremors in mice. This phenotype was not caused by lineage switch or massive apoptosis but was characterized by a profound defect of differentiation associated with changes in exon-skipping and intron-retention splicing events and by the activation of an endoplasmic reticulum stress response. Therefore, loss of Dnmt1 in OPCs is not sufficient to induce a lineage switch but acts as an important determinant of the coordination between RNA splicing and protein synthesis necessary for myelin formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Moyon
- Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Jimmy L Huynh
- Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA; Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Dipankar Dutta
- Department of Neurology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Fan Zhang
- Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Dan Ma
- Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Cambridge Stem Cell Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0AH, UK; Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0AH, UK
| | - Seungyeul Yoo
- Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Rebecca Lawrence
- Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Michael Wegner
- Institut für Biochemie, Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Fahrstrasse 17, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Gareth R John
- Department of Neurology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA; Corinne Goldsmith Dickinson Center for Multiple Sclerosis, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Ben Emery
- Jungers Center for Neurosciences Research and Department of Neurology, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR 97239, USA
| | - Catherine Lubetzki
- Sorbonne Universités UPMC Université, Paris 06, UMR_S 1127, ICM-GHU Pitié-Salpêtrière, 75013 Paris, France
| | - Robin J M Franklin
- Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Cambridge Stem Cell Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0AH, UK; Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0AH, UK
| | - Guoping Fan
- Department of Human Genetics, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Jun Zhu
- Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Jeffrey L Dupree
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23298, USA
| | - Patrizia Casaccia
- Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA; Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA; Department of Neurology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA; Corinne Goldsmith Dickinson Center for Multiple Sclerosis, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA.
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3359
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Microglia-specific targeting by novel capsid-modified AAV6 vectors. MOLECULAR THERAPY-METHODS & CLINICAL DEVELOPMENT 2016; 3:16026. [PMID: 27308302 PMCID: PMC4909093 DOI: 10.1038/mtm.2016.26] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2015] [Revised: 02/29/2016] [Accepted: 02/29/2016] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Recombinant adeno-associated viruses (rAAV) have been widely used in gene therapy
applications for central nervous system diseases. Though rAAV can efficiently target
neurons and astrocytes in mouse brains, microglia, the immune cells of the brain, are
refractile to rAAV. To identify AAV capsids with microglia-specific transduction
properties, we initially screened the most commonly used serotypes, AAV1–9 and
rh10, on primary mouse microglia cultures. While these capsids were not permissive, we
then tested the microglial targeting properties of a newly characterized set of modified
rAAV6 capsid variants with high tropism for monocytes. Indeed, these newly characterized
rAAV6 capsid variants, specially a triply mutated Y731F/Y705F/T492V form, carrying a
self-complementary genome and microglia-specific promoters (F4/80 or CD68) could
efficiently and selectively transduce microglia in vitro. Delivery of these
constructs in mice brains resulted in microglia-specific expression of green fluorescent
protein, albeit at modest levels. We further show that CD68 promoter–driven
expression of the inflammatory cytokine, interleukin-6, using this capsid variant leads to
increased astrogliosis in the brains of wild-type mice. Our study describes the first
instance of AAV-targeted microglial gene expression leading to functional modulation of
the innate immune system in mice brains. This provides the rationale for utilizing these
unique capsid/promoter combinations for microglia-specific gene targeting for modeling or
functional studies.
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3360
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O'Rourke JG, Bogdanik L, Yáñez A, Lall D, Wolf AJ, Muhammad AKMG, Ho R, Carmona S, Vit JP, Zarrow J, Kim KJ, Bell S, Harms MB, Miller TM, Dangler CA, Underhill DM, Goodridge HS, Lutz CM, Baloh RH. C9orf72 is required for proper macrophage and microglial function in mice. Science 2016; 351:1324-9. [PMID: 26989253 DOI: 10.1126/science.aaf1064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 406] [Impact Index Per Article: 50.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Expansions of a hexanucleotide repeat (GGGGCC) in the noncoding region of the C9orf72 gene are the most common genetic cause of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and frontotemporal dementia. Decreased expression of C9orf72 is seen in expansion carriers, suggesting that loss of function may play a role in disease. We found that two independent mouse lines lacking the C9orf72 ortholog (3110043O21Rik) in all tissues developed normally and aged without motor neuron disease. Instead, C9orf72 null mice developed progressive splenomegaly and lymphadenopathy with accumulation of engorged macrophage-like cells. C9orf72 expression was highest in myeloid cells, and the loss of C9orf72 led to lysosomal accumulation and altered immune responses in macrophages and microglia, with age-related neuroinflammation similar to C9orf72 ALS but not sporadic ALS human patient tissue. Thus, C9orf72 is required for the normal function of myeloid cells, and altered microglial function may contribute to neurodegeneration in C9orf72 expansion carriers.
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Affiliation(s)
- J G O'Rourke
- Board of Governors Regenerative Medicine Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, 8700 Beverly Boulevard, Los Angeles, CA 90048, USA
| | - L Bogdanik
- The Jackson Laboratory, Bar Harbor, ME, USA
| | - A Yáñez
- Board of Governors Regenerative Medicine Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, 8700 Beverly Boulevard, Los Angeles, CA 90048, USA
| | - D Lall
- Board of Governors Regenerative Medicine Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, 8700 Beverly Boulevard, Los Angeles, CA 90048, USA
| | - A J Wolf
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, 8700 Beverly Boulevard, Los Angeles, CA 90048, USA
| | - A K M G Muhammad
- Board of Governors Regenerative Medicine Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, 8700 Beverly Boulevard, Los Angeles, CA 90048, USA
| | - R Ho
- Board of Governors Regenerative Medicine Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, 8700 Beverly Boulevard, Los Angeles, CA 90048, USA
| | - S Carmona
- Board of Governors Regenerative Medicine Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, 8700 Beverly Boulevard, Los Angeles, CA 90048, USA
| | - J P Vit
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, 8700 Beverly Boulevard, Los Angeles, CA 90048, USA
| | - J Zarrow
- Board of Governors Regenerative Medicine Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, 8700 Beverly Boulevard, Los Angeles, CA 90048, USA
| | - K J Kim
- Board of Governors Regenerative Medicine Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, 8700 Beverly Boulevard, Los Angeles, CA 90048, USA
| | - S Bell
- Board of Governors Regenerative Medicine Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, 8700 Beverly Boulevard, Los Angeles, CA 90048, USA
| | - M B Harms
- Department of Neurology, Washington University School of Medicine, 660 South Euclid Avenue, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - T M Miller
- Department of Neurology, Washington University School of Medicine, 660 South Euclid Avenue, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | | | - D M Underhill
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, 8700 Beverly Boulevard, Los Angeles, CA 90048, USA
| | - H S Goodridge
- Board of Governors Regenerative Medicine Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, 8700 Beverly Boulevard, Los Angeles, CA 90048, USA
| | - C M Lutz
- The Jackson Laboratory, Bar Harbor, ME, USA
| | - R H Baloh
- Board of Governors Regenerative Medicine Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, 8700 Beverly Boulevard, Los Angeles, CA 90048, USA. Department of Neurology, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, 8700 Beverly Boulevard, Los Angeles, CA 90048, USA
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3361
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Gómez-López S, Martínez-Silva AV, Montiel T, Osorio-Gómez D, Bermúdez-Rattoni F, Massieu L, Escalante-Alcalde D. Neural ablation of the PARK10 candidate Plpp3 leads to dopaminergic transmission deficits without neurodegeneration. Sci Rep 2016; 6:24028. [PMID: 27063549 PMCID: PMC4827058 DOI: 10.1038/srep24028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2015] [Accepted: 03/18/2016] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a multifactorial neurodegenerative disorder, characterised by the progressive loss of midbrain dopaminergic neurons and a variety of motor symptoms. The gene coding for the phospholipid phosphatase 3, PLPP3 (formerly PPAP2B or LPP3), maps within the PARK10 locus, a region that has been linked with increased risk to late-onset PD. PLPP3 modulates the levels of a range of bioactive lipids controlling fundamental cellular processes within the central nervous system. Here we show that PLPP3 is enriched in astroglial cells of the adult murine ventral midbrain. Conditional inactivation of Plpp3 using a Nestin::Cre driver results in reduced mesencephalic levels of sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor 1 (S1P1), a well-known mediator of pro-survival responses. Yet, adult PLPP3-deficient mice exhibited no alterations in the number of dopaminergic neurons or in the basal levels of striatal extracellular dopamine (DA). Potassium-evoked DA overflow in the striatum, however, was significantly decreased in mutant mice. Locomotor evaluation revealed that, although PLPP3-deficient mice exhibit motor impairment, this is not progressive or responsive to acute L-DOPA therapy. These findings suggest that disruption of Plpp3 during early neural development leads to dopaminergic transmission deficits in the absence of nigrostriatal degeneration, and without causing an age-related locomotor decline consistent with PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Gómez-López
- Instituto de Fisiología Celular, División de Neurociencias, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Circuito Exterior s/n, Ciudad Universitaria, Mexico City, 04510, Mexico
| | - Ana Valeria Martínez-Silva
- Instituto de Fisiología Celular, División de Neurociencias, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Circuito Exterior s/n, Ciudad Universitaria, Mexico City, 04510, Mexico
| | - Teresa Montiel
- Instituto de Fisiología Celular, División de Neurociencias, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Circuito Exterior s/n, Ciudad Universitaria, Mexico City, 04510, Mexico
| | - Daniel Osorio-Gómez
- Instituto de Fisiología Celular, División de Neurociencias, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Circuito Exterior s/n, Ciudad Universitaria, Mexico City, 04510, Mexico
| | - Federico Bermúdez-Rattoni
- Instituto de Fisiología Celular, División de Neurociencias, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Circuito Exterior s/n, Ciudad Universitaria, Mexico City, 04510, Mexico
| | - Lourdes Massieu
- Instituto de Fisiología Celular, División de Neurociencias, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Circuito Exterior s/n, Ciudad Universitaria, Mexico City, 04510, Mexico
| | - Diana Escalante-Alcalde
- Instituto de Fisiología Celular, División de Neurociencias, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Circuito Exterior s/n, Ciudad Universitaria, Mexico City, 04510, Mexico
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3362
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Wallace SW, Singhvi A, Liang Y, Lu Y, Shaham S. PROS-1/Prospero Is a Major Regulator of the Glia-Specific Secretome Controlling Sensory-Neuron Shape and Function in C. elegans. Cell Rep 2016; 15:550-562. [PMID: 27068465 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2016.03.051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2016] [Revised: 02/25/2016] [Accepted: 03/12/2016] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Sensory neurons are an animal's gateway to the world, and their receptive endings, the sites of sensory signal transduction, are often associated with glia. Although glia are known to promote sensory-neuron functions, the molecular bases of these interactions are poorly explored. Here, we describe a post-developmental glial role for the PROS-1/Prospero/PROX1 homeodomain protein in sensory-neuron function in C. elegans. Using glia expression profiling, we demonstrate that, unlike previously characterized cell fate roles, PROS-1 functions post-embryonically to control sense-organ glia-specific secretome expression. PROS-1 functions cell autonomously to regulate glial secretion and membrane structure, and non-cell autonomously to control the shape and function of the receptive endings of sensory neurons. Known glial genes controlling sensory-neuron function are PROS-1 targets, and we identify additional PROS-1-dependent genes required for neuron attributes. Drosophila Prospero and vertebrate PROX1 are expressed in post-mitotic sense-organ glia and astrocytes, suggesting conserved roles for this class of transcription factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sean W Wallace
- Laboratory of Developmental Genetics, The Rockefeller University, 1230 York Avenue, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Aakanksha Singhvi
- Laboratory of Developmental Genetics, The Rockefeller University, 1230 York Avenue, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Yupu Liang
- CCTS Research Bioinformatics, The Rockefeller University, 1230 York Avenue, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Yun Lu
- Laboratory of Developmental Genetics, The Rockefeller University, 1230 York Avenue, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Shai Shaham
- Laboratory of Developmental Genetics, The Rockefeller University, 1230 York Avenue, New York, NY 10065, USA.
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3363
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Gitler AD, Tsuiji H. There has been an awakening: Emerging mechanisms of C9orf72 mutations in FTD/ALS. Brain Res 2016; 1647:19-29. [PMID: 27059391 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2016.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2016] [Revised: 03/30/2016] [Accepted: 04/03/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The discovery of C9orf72 mutations as the most common genetic cause of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and frontotemporal dementia (FTD) has awakened a surge of interest in deciphering how mutations in this mysterious gene cause disease and what can be done to stop it. C9orf72 harbors a hexanucleotide repeat, GGGGCC, in a non-coding region of the gene and a massive expansion of this repeat causes ALS, FTD, or both (FTD/ALS). Many questions lie ahead. What does this gene normally do? What is the consequence of an enormous GGGGCC repeat expansion on that gene's function? Could that hexanucleotide repeat expansion have additional pathological actions unrelated to C9orf72 function? There has been tremendous progress on all fronts in the quest to define how C9orf72 mutations cause disease. Many new experimental models have been constructed and unleashed in powerful genetic screens. Studies in mouse and human patient samples, including iPS-derived neurons, have provided unprecedented insights into pathogenic mechanisms. Three major hypotheses have emerged and are still being hotly debated in the field. These include (1) loss of function owing to decrease in the abundance of C9orf72 protein and its ability to carryout its still unknown cellular role; (2) RNA toxicity from bidirectionally transcribed sense (GGGGCC) and antisense (GGCCCC) transcripts that accumulate in RNA foci and might sequester critical RNA-binding proteins; (3) proteotoxicity from dipeptide repeat proteins produced by an unconventional form of translation from the expanded nucleotide repeats. Here we review the evidence in favor and against each of these three hypotheses. We also suggest additional experiments and considerations that we propose will help clarify which mechanism(s) are most important for driving disease and therefore most critical for considering during the development of therapeutic interventions. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled SI:RNA Metabolism in Disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron D Gitler
- Department of Genetics, Stanford University School of Medicine, 300 Pasteur Drive, M322 Alway Building, Stanford, CA 94305, USA.
| | - Hitomi Tsuiji
- Department of Biomedical Science, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Nagoya City University, 3-1 Tanabedori, Mizuhoku, Nagoya, Aichi 467-8603, Japan.
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3364
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Couttas TA, Kain N, Suchowerska AK, Quek LE, Turner N, Fath T, Garner B, Don AS. Loss of ceramide synthase 2 activity, necessary for myelin biosynthesis, precedes tau pathology in the cortical pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol Aging 2016; 43:89-100. [PMID: 27255818 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2016.03.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2015] [Revised: 03/01/2016] [Accepted: 03/27/2016] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
The anatomical progression of neurofibrillary tangle pathology throughout Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathogenesis runs inverse to the pattern of developmental myelination, with the disease preferentially affecting thinly myelinated regions. Myelin is comprised 80% of lipids, and the prototypical myelin lipids, galactosylceramide, and sulfatide are critical for neurological function. We observed severe depletion of galactosylceramide and sulfatide in AD brain tissue, which can be traced metabolically to the loss of their biosynthetic precursor, very long chain ceramide. The synthesis of very long chain ceramides is catalyzed by ceramide synthase 2 (CERS2). We demonstrate a significant reduction in CERS2 activity as early as Braak stage I/II in temporal cortex, and Braak stage III/IV in hippocampus and frontal cortex, indicating that loss of myelin-specific ceramide synthase activity precedes neurofibrillary tangle pathology in cortical regions. These findings open a new vista on AD pathogenesis by demonstrating a defect in myelin lipid biosynthesis at the preclinical stages of the disease. We posit that, over time, this defect contributes significantly to myelin deterioration, synaptic dysfunction, and neurological decline.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy A Couttas
- Prince of Wales Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Nupur Kain
- Prince of Wales Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Alexandra K Suchowerska
- School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Lake-Ee Quek
- School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Nigel Turner
- School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Thomas Fath
- School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Brett Garner
- Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, School of Biological Sciences, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, Australia
| | - Anthony S Don
- Prince of Wales Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia.
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3365
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Martini-Stoica H, Xu Y, Ballabio A, Zheng H. The Autophagy-Lysosomal Pathway in Neurodegeneration: A TFEB Perspective. Trends Neurosci 2016; 39:221-234. [PMID: 26968346 PMCID: PMC4928589 DOI: 10.1016/j.tins.2016.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 288] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2015] [Revised: 02/03/2016] [Accepted: 02/09/2016] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
The autophagy-lysosomal pathway (ALP) is involved in the degradation of long-lived proteins. Deficits in the ALP result in protein aggregation, the generation of toxic protein species, and accumulation of dysfunctional organelles, which are hallmarks of Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), Huntington's disease (HD), and prion disease. Decades of research have therefore focused on enhancing the ALP in neurodegenerative diseases. More recently, transcription factor EB (TFEB), a major regulator of autophagy and lysosomal biogenesis, has emerged as a leading factor in addressing disease pathology. We review the regulation of the ALP and TFEB and their impact on neurodegenerative diseases. We also offer our perspective on the complex role of autophagy and TFEB in disease pathogenesis and its therapeutic implications through the examination of prion disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heidi Martini-Stoica
- Huffington Center on Aging, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA; Interdepartmental Program in Translational Biology and Molecular Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA; Medical Scientist Training Program, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Yin Xu
- Huffington Center on Aging, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Andrea Ballabio
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX; Dan and Jan Duncan Neurological Research Institute, Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, TX, USA; Telethon Institute of Genetics and Medicine (TIGEM) and Department of Translational Medical Sciences, Frederico II University, Naples, Italy
| | - Hui Zheng
- Huffington Center on Aging, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA; Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX.
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3366
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Geoffroy CG, Hilton BJ, Tetzlaff W, Zheng B. Evidence for an Age-Dependent Decline in Axon Regeneration in the Adult Mammalian Central Nervous System. Cell Rep 2016; 15:238-46. [PMID: 27050519 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2016.03.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2015] [Revised: 01/28/2016] [Accepted: 03/07/2016] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
Abstract
How aging impacts axon regeneration after CNS injury is not known. We assessed the impact of age on axon regeneration induced by Pten deletion in corticospinal and rubrospinal neurons, two neuronal populations with distinct innate regenerative abilities. As in young mice, Pten deletion in older mice remains effective in preventing axotomy-induced decline in neuron-intrinsic growth state, as assessed by mTOR activity, neuronal soma size, and axonal growth proximal to a spinal cord injury. However, axonal regeneration distal to injury is greatly diminished, accompanied by increased expression of astroglial and inflammatory markers at the injury site. Thus, the mammalian CNS undergoes an age-dependent decline in axon regeneration, as revealed when neuron-intrinsic growth state is elevated. These results have important implications for developing strategies to promote axonal repair after CNS injuries or diseases, which increasingly affect middle-aged to aging populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cédric G Geoffroy
- Department of Neurosciences, School of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0691, USA
| | - Brett J Hilton
- International Collaboration on Repair Discoveries, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada; Department of Zoology, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Wolfram Tetzlaff
- International Collaboration on Repair Discoveries, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada; Department of Zoology, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada; Department of Surgery, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada.
| | - Binhai Zheng
- Department of Neurosciences, School of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0691, USA.
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3367
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Hwang HW, Park CY, Goodarzi H, Fak JJ, Mele A, Moore MJ, Saito Y, Darnell RB. PAPERCLIP Identifies MicroRNA Targets and a Role of CstF64/64tau in Promoting Non-canonical poly(A) Site Usage. Cell Rep 2016; 15:423-35. [PMID: 27050522 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2016.03.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2015] [Revised: 01/11/2016] [Accepted: 03/04/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Accurate and precise annotation of 3' UTRs is critical for understanding how mRNAs are regulated by microRNAs (miRNAs) and RNA-binding proteins (RBPs). Here, we describe a method, poly(A) binding protein-mediated mRNA 3' end retrieval by crosslinking immunoprecipitation (PAPERCLIP), that shows high specificity for mRNA 3' ends and compares favorably with existing 3' end mapping methods. PAPERCLIP uncovers a previously unrecognized role of CstF64/64tau in promoting the usage of a selected group of non-canonical poly(A) sites, the majority of which contain a downstream GUKKU motif. Furthermore, in the mouse brain, PAPERCLIP discovers extended 3' UTR sequences harboring functional miRNA binding sites and reveals developmentally regulated APA shifts, including one in Atp2b2 that is evolutionarily conserved in humans and results in the gain of a functional binding site of miR-137. PAPERCLIP provides a powerful tool to decipher post-transcriptional regulation of mRNAs through APA in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hun-Way Hwang
- Laboratory of Molecular Neuro-Oncology and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, The Rockefeller University, 1230 York Avenue, New York, New York 10065, USA.
| | - Christopher Y Park
- Laboratory of Molecular Neuro-Oncology and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, The Rockefeller University, 1230 York Avenue, New York, New York 10065, USA; New York Genome Center, 101 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10013, USA
| | - Hani Goodarzi
- Laboratory of Systems Cancer Biology, The Rockefeller University, 1230 York Avenue, New York, New York 10065, USA
| | - John J Fak
- Laboratory of Molecular Neuro-Oncology and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, The Rockefeller University, 1230 York Avenue, New York, New York 10065, USA
| | - Aldo Mele
- Laboratory of Molecular Neuro-Oncology and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, The Rockefeller University, 1230 York Avenue, New York, New York 10065, USA
| | - Michael J Moore
- Laboratory of Molecular Neuro-Oncology and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, The Rockefeller University, 1230 York Avenue, New York, New York 10065, USA
| | - Yuhki Saito
- Laboratory of Molecular Neuro-Oncology and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, The Rockefeller University, 1230 York Avenue, New York, New York 10065, USA
| | - Robert B Darnell
- Laboratory of Molecular Neuro-Oncology and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, The Rockefeller University, 1230 York Avenue, New York, New York 10065, USA; New York Genome Center, 101 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10013, USA.
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3368
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Pearson BL, Simon JM, McCoy ES, Salazar G, Fragola G, Zylka MJ. Identification of chemicals that mimic transcriptional changes associated with autism, brain aging and neurodegeneration. Nat Commun 2016; 7:11173. [PMID: 27029645 PMCID: PMC4821887 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms11173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2015] [Accepted: 02/29/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Environmental factors, including pesticides, have been linked to autism and neurodegeneration risk using retrospective epidemiological studies. Here we sought to prospectively identify chemicals that share transcriptomic signatures with neurological disorders, by exposing mouse cortical neuron-enriched cultures to hundreds of chemicals commonly found in the environment and on food. We find that rotenone, a pesticide associated with Parkinson's disease risk, and certain fungicides, including pyraclostrobin, trifloxystrobin, famoxadone and fenamidone, produce transcriptional changes in vitro that are similar to those seen in brain samples from humans with autism, advanced age and neurodegeneration (Alzheimer's disease and Huntington's disease). These chemicals stimulate free radical production and disrupt microtubules in neurons, effects that can be reduced by pretreating with a microtubule stabilizer, an antioxidant, or with sulforaphane. Our study provides an approach to prospectively identify environmental chemicals that transcriptionally mimic autism and other brain disorders. This study presents gene expression responses of cultured brain cells to hundreds of chemicals found in the environment and in food. The authors identified chemicals that induce transcriptomic profiles that overlap those seen in human brains affected with autism, aging, and neurodegeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandon L Pearson
- Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, UNC Neuroscience Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 111 Mason Farm Road, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-7545, USA.,Carolina Institute for Developmental Disabilities, University of North Carolina Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-7255, USA
| | - Jeremy M Simon
- Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, UNC Neuroscience Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 111 Mason Farm Road, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-7545, USA.,Carolina Institute for Developmental Disabilities, University of North Carolina Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-7255, USA
| | - Eric S McCoy
- Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, UNC Neuroscience Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 111 Mason Farm Road, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-7545, USA
| | - Gabriela Salazar
- Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, UNC Neuroscience Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 111 Mason Farm Road, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-7545, USA
| | - Giulia Fragola
- Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, UNC Neuroscience Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 111 Mason Farm Road, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-7545, USA
| | - Mark J Zylka
- Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, UNC Neuroscience Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 111 Mason Farm Road, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-7545, USA.,Carolina Institute for Developmental Disabilities, University of North Carolina Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-7255, USA
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3369
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Astrocyte scar formation aids central nervous system axon regeneration. Nature 2016; 532:195-200. [PMID: 27027288 DOI: 10.1038/nature17623] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1227] [Impact Index Per Article: 153.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2015] [Accepted: 02/26/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Transected axons fail to regrow in the mature central nervous system. Astrocytic scars are widely regarded as causal in this failure. Here, using three genetically targeted loss-of-function manipulations in adult mice, we show that preventing astrocyte scar formation, attenuating scar-forming astrocytes, or ablating chronic astrocytic scars all failed to result in spontaneous regrowth of transected corticospinal, sensory or serotonergic axons through severe spinal cord injury (SCI) lesions. By contrast, sustained local delivery via hydrogel depots of required axon-specific growth factors not present in SCI lesions, plus growth-activating priming injuries, stimulated robust, laminin-dependent sensory axon regrowth past scar-forming astrocytes and inhibitory molecules in SCI lesions. Preventing astrocytic scar formation significantly reduced this stimulated axon regrowth. RNA sequencing revealed that astrocytes and non-astrocyte cells in SCI lesions express multiple axon-growth-supporting molecules. Our findings show that contrary to the prevailing dogma, astrocyte scar formation aids rather than prevents central nervous system axon regeneration.
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3370
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Miro1 Regulates Activity-Driven Positioning of Mitochondria within Astrocytic Processes Apposed to Synapses to Regulate Intracellular Calcium Signaling. J Neurosci 2016; 35:15996-6011. [PMID: 26631479 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.2068-15.2015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
It is fast emerging that maintaining mitochondrial function is important for regulating astrocyte function, although the specific mechanisms that govern astrocyte mitochondrial trafficking and positioning remain poorly understood. The mitochondrial Rho-GTPase 1 protein (Miro1) regulates mitochondrial trafficking and detachment from the microtubule transport network to control activity-dependent mitochondrial positioning in neurons. However, whether Miro proteins are important for regulating signaling-dependent mitochondrial dynamics in astrocytic processes remains unclear. Using live-cell confocal microscopy of rat organotypic hippocampal slices, we find that enhancing neuronal activity induces transient mitochondrial remodeling in astrocytes, with a concomitant, transient reduction in mitochondrial trafficking, mediated by elevations in intracellular Ca(2+). Stimulating neuronal activity also induced mitochondrial confinement within astrocytic processes in close proximity to synapses. Furthermore, we show that the Ca(2+)-sensing EF-hand domains of Miro1 are important for regulating mitochondrial trafficking in astrocytes and required for activity-driven mitochondrial confinement near synapses. Additionally, activity-dependent mitochondrial positioning by Miro1 reciprocally regulates the levels of intracellular Ca(2+) in astrocytic processes. Thus, the regulation of intracellular Ca(2+) signaling, dependent on Miro1-mediated mitochondrial positioning, could have important consequences for astrocyte Ca(2+) wave propagation, gliotransmission, and ultimately neuronal function.
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3371
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Jolly S, Fudge A, Pringle N, Richardson WD, Li H. Combining Double Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization with Immunolabelling for Detection of the Expression of Three Genes in Mouse Brain Sections. J Vis Exp 2016:e53976. [PMID: 27077668 DOI: 10.3791/53976] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Detection of gene expression in different types of brain cells e.g., neurons, astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, oligodendrocyte precursors and microglia, can be hampered by the lack of specific primary or secondary antibodies for immunostaining. Here we describe a protocol to detect the expression of three different genes in the same brain section using double fluorescence in situ hybridization with two gene-specific probes followed by immunostaining with an antibody of high specificity directed against the protein encoded by a third gene. The Aspartoacyclase (ASPA) gene, mutations of which can lead to a rare human white matter disease - Canavan disease - is thought to be expressed in oligodendrocytes and microglia but not in astrocytes and neurons. However, the precise expression pattern of ASPA in the brain has yet to be established. This protocol has allowed us to determine that ASPA is expressed in a subset of mature oligodendrocytes and it can be generally applied to a wide range of gene expression pattern studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Jolly
- Wolfson Institute for Biomedical Research, University College London
| | - Alexander Fudge
- Wolfson Institute for Biomedical Research, University College London
| | - Nigel Pringle
- Wolfson Institute for Biomedical Research, University College London
| | | | - Huiliang Li
- Wolfson Institute for Biomedical Research, University College London;
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3372
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Mironova YA, Lenk GM, Lin JP, Lee SJ, Twiss JL, Vaccari I, Bolino A, Havton LA, Min SH, Abrams CS, Shrager P, Meisler MH, Giger RJ. PI(3,5)P2 biosynthesis regulates oligodendrocyte differentiation by intrinsic and extrinsic mechanisms. eLife 2016; 5. [PMID: 27008179 PMCID: PMC4889328 DOI: 10.7554/elife.13023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2015] [Accepted: 03/23/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Proper development of the CNS axon-glia unit requires bi-directional communication between axons and oligodendrocytes (OLs). We show that the signaling lipid phosphatidylinositol-3,5-bisphosphate [PI(3,5)P2] is required in neurons and in OLs for normal CNS myelination. In mice, mutations of Fig4, Pikfyve or Vac14, encoding key components of the PI(3,5)P2 biosynthetic complex, each lead to impaired OL maturation, severe CNS hypomyelination and delayed propagation of compound action potentials. Primary OLs deficient in Fig4 accumulate large LAMP1+ and Rab7+ vesicular structures and exhibit reduced membrane sheet expansion. PI(3,5)P2 deficiency leads to accumulation of myelin-associated glycoprotein (MAG) in LAMP1+perinuclear vesicles that fail to migrate to the nascent myelin sheet. Live-cell imaging of OLs after genetic or pharmacological inhibition of PI(3,5)P2 synthesis revealed impaired trafficking of plasma membrane-derived MAG through the endolysosomal system in primary cells and brain tissue. Collectively, our studies identify PI(3,5)P2 as a key regulator of myelin membrane trafficking and myelinogenesis. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.13023.001 Neurons communicate with each other through long cable-like extensions called axons. An insulating sheath called myelin (or white matter) surrounds each axon, and allows electrical impulses to travel more quickly. Cells in the brain called oligodendrocytes produce myelin. If the myelin sheath is not properly formed during development, or is damaged by injury or disease, the consequences can include paralysis, impaired thought, and loss of vision. Oligodendrocytes have complex shapes, and each can generate myelin for as many as 50 axons. Oligodendrocytes produce the building blocks of myelin inside their cell bodies, by following instructions encoded by genes within the nucleus. However, the signals that regulate the trafficking of these components to the myelin sheath are poorly understood. Mironova et al. set out to determine whether signaling molecules called phosphoinositides help oligodendrocytes to mature and move myelin building blocks from the cell bodies to remote contact points with axons. Genetic techniques were used to manipulate an enzyme complex in mice that controls the production and turnover of a phosphoinositide called PI(3,5)P2. Mironova et al. found that reducing the levels of PI(3,5)P2 in oligodendrocytes caused the trafficking of certain myelin building blocks to stall. Key myelin components instead accumulated inside bubble-like structures near the oligodendrocyte’s cell body. This showed that PI(3,5)P2 in oligodendrocytes is essential for generating myelin. Further experiments then revealed that reducing PI(3,5)P2 in the neurons themselves indirectly prevented the oligodendrocytes from maturing. This suggests that PI(3,5)P2 also takes part in communication between axons and oligodendrocytes during development of the myelin sheath. A key next step will be to identify the regulatory mechanisms that control the production of PI(3,5)P2 in oligodendrocytes and neurons. Future studies could also explore what PI(3,5)P2 acts upon inside the axons, and which signaling molecules support the maturation of oligodendrocytes. Finally, it remains unclear whether PI(3,5)P2signaling is also required for stabilizing mature myelin, and for repairing myelin after injury in the adult brain. Further work could therefore address these questions as well. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.13023.002
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Affiliation(s)
- Yevgeniya A Mironova
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan School of Medicine, Ann Arbor, United States.,Cellular and Molecular Biology Graduate Program, University of Michigan School of Medicine, Ann Arbor, United States
| | - Guy M Lenk
- Department of Human Genetics, University of Michigan School of Medicine, Ann Arbor, United States
| | - Jing-Ping Lin
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan School of Medicine, Ann Arbor, United States
| | - Seung Joon Lee
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of South Carolina, Columbia, United States
| | - Jeffery L Twiss
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of South Carolina, Columbia, United States
| | - Ilaria Vaccari
- Human Inherited Neuropathies Unit, INSPE-Institute for Experimental Neurology, San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
| | - Alessandra Bolino
- Human Inherited Neuropathies Unit, INSPE-Institute for Experimental Neurology, San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
| | - Leif A Havton
- Department of Neurology, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, United States
| | - Sang H Min
- Department of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, Philadelphia, United States
| | - Charles S Abrams
- Department of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, Philadelphia, United States
| | - Peter Shrager
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, United States
| | - Miriam H Meisler
- Department of Human Genetics, University of Michigan School of Medicine, Ann Arbor, United States.,Department of Neurology, University of Michigan School of Medicine, Ann Arbor, United States
| | - Roman J Giger
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan School of Medicine, Ann Arbor, United States.,Department of Neurology, University of Michigan School of Medicine, Ann Arbor, United States
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3373
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Astroglial glutamate transporters coordinate excitatory signaling and brain energetics. Neurochem Int 2016; 98:56-71. [PMID: 27013346 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2016.03.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2016] [Revised: 03/15/2016] [Accepted: 03/17/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
In the mammalian brain, a family of sodium-dependent transporters maintains low extracellular glutamate and shapes excitatory signaling. The bulk of this activity is mediated by the astroglial glutamate transporters GLT-1 and GLAST (also called EAAT2 and EAAT1). In this review, we will discuss evidence that these transporters co-localize with, form physical (co-immunoprecipitable) interactions with, and functionally couple to various 'energy-generating' systems, including the Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase, the Na(+)/Ca(2+) exchanger, glycogen metabolizing enzymes, glycolytic enzymes, and mitochondria/mitochondrial proteins. This functional coupling is bi-directional with many of these systems both being regulated by glutamate transport and providing the 'fuel' to support glutamate uptake. Given the importance of glutamate uptake to maintaining synaptic signaling and preventing excitotoxicity, it should not be surprising that some of these systems appear to 'redundantly' support the energetic costs of glutamate uptake. Although the glutamate-glutamine cycle contributes to recycling of neurotransmitter pools of glutamate, this is an over-simplification. The ramifications of co-compartmentalization of glutamate transporters with mitochondria for glutamate metabolism are discussed. Energy consumption in the brain accounts for ∼20% of the basal metabolic rate and relies almost exclusively on glucose for the production of ATP. However, the brain does not possess substantial reserves of glucose or other fuels. To ensure adequate energetic supply, increases in neuronal activity are matched by increases in cerebral blood flow via a process known as 'neurovascular coupling'. While the mechanisms for this coupling are not completely resolved, it is generally agreed that astrocytes, with processes that extend to synapses and endfeet that surround blood vessels, mediate at least some of the signal that causes vasodilation. Several studies have shown that either genetic deletion or pharmacologic inhibition of glutamate transport impairs neurovascular coupling. Together these studies strongly suggest that glutamate transport not only coordinates excitatory signaling, but also plays a pivotal role in regulating brain energetics.
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3374
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Wang LC, Almazan G. Cdon, a cell surface protein, mediates oligodendrocyte differentiation and myelination. Glia 2016; 64:1021-33. [PMID: 26988125 DOI: 10.1002/glia.22980] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2015] [Accepted: 02/11/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
During central nervous system development, oligodendrocyte progenitors (OLPs) establish multiple branched processes and axonal contacts to initiate myelination. A complete understanding of the molecular signals implicated in cell surface interaction to initiate myelination/remyelination is currently lacking. The objective of our study was to assess whether Cdon, a cell surface protein that was shown to participate in muscle and neuron cell development, is involved in oligodendrocyte (OLG) differentiation and myelination. Here, we demonstrate that endogenous Cdon protein is expressed in OLPs, increasing in the early differentiation stages and decreasing in mature OLGs. Immunocytochemistry of endogenous Cdon showed localization on both OLG cell membranes and cellular processes exhibiting puncta- or varicosity-like structures. Cdon knockdown with siRNA decreased protein levels by 62% as well as two myelin-specific proteins, MBP and MAG. Conversely, overexpression of full-length rat Cdon increased myelin proteins in OLGs. The complexity of OLGs branching and contact point numbers with axons were also increased in Cdon overexpressing cells growing alone or in coculture with dorsal root ganglion neurons (DRGNs). Furthermore, myelination of DRGNs was decreased when OLPs were transfected with Cdon siRNA. Altogether, our results suggest that Cdon participates in OLG differentiation and myelination, most likely in the initial stages of development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li-Chun Wang
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, 3655 Promenade Sir William Osler, Montreal, Quebec, Canada, H3G 1Y6
| | - Guillermina Almazan
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, 3655 Promenade Sir William Osler, Montreal, Quebec, Canada, H3G 1Y6
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3375
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Bolaños JP. Bioenergetics and redox adaptations of astrocytes to neuronal activity. J Neurochem 2016; 139 Suppl 2:115-125. [PMID: 26968531 PMCID: PMC5018236 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.13486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 181] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2015] [Revised: 11/19/2015] [Accepted: 11/23/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Neuronal activity is a high‐energy demanding process recruiting all neural cells that adapt their metabolism to sustain the energy and redox balance of neurons. During neurotransmission, synaptic cleft glutamate activates its receptors in neurons and in astrocytes, before being taken up by astrocytes through energy costly transporters. In astrocytes, the energy requirement for glutamate influx is likely to be met by glycolysis. To enable this, astrocytes are constitutively glycolytic, robustly expressing 6‐phosphofructo‐2‐kinase/fructose‐2,6‐bisphosphatase‐3 (PFKFB3), an enzyme that is negligibly present in neurons by continuous degradation because of the ubiquitin‐proteasome pathway via anaphase‐promoting complex/cyclosome (APC)‐Cdh1. Additional factors contributing to the glycolytic frame of astrocytes may include 5′‐AMP‐activated protein kinase (AMPK), hypoxia‐inducible factor‐1 (HIF‐1), pyruvate kinase muscle isoform‐2 (PKM2), pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase‐4 (PDK4), lactate dehydrogenase‐B, or monocarboxylate transporter‐4 (MCT4). Neurotransmission‐associated messengers, such as nitric oxide or ammonium, stimulate lactate release from astrocytes. Astrocyte‐derived glycolytic lactate thus sustains the energy needs of neurons, which in contrast to astrocytes mainly rely on oxidative phosphorylation. Neuronal activity unavoidably triggers reactive oxygen species, but the antioxidant defense of neurons is weak; hence, they use glucose for oxidation through the pentose‐phosphate pathway to preserve the redox status. Furthermore, neural activity is coupled with erythroid‐derived erythroid‐derived 2‐like 2 (Nrf2) mediated transcriptional activation of antioxidant genes in astrocytes, which boost the de novo glutathione biosynthesis in neighbor neurons. Thus, the bioenergetics and redox programs of astrocytes are adapted to sustain neuronal activity and survival. Developing therapeutic strategies to interfere with these pathways may be useful to combat neurological diseases.
Our current knowledge on brain's management of bioenergetics and redox requirements associated with neural activity is herein revisited. The astrocyte‐neuronal lactate shuttle (ANLS) explains the energy needs of neurotransmission. Furthermore, neurotransmission unavoidably triggers increased mitochondrial reactive oxygen species in neurons. By coupling glutamatergic activity with transcriptional activation of antioxidant genes, astrocytes provide neurons with neuroprotective glutathione through an astrocyte‐neuronal glutathione shuttle (ANGS).
This article is part of the60th Anniversary special issue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan P Bolaños
- Institute of Functional Biology and Genomics (IBFG), University of Salamanca-CSIC-IBSAL, Salamanca, Spain.
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3376
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G protein-coupled receptor 37 is a negative regulator of oligodendrocyte differentiation and myelination. Nat Commun 2016; 7:10884. [PMID: 26961174 PMCID: PMC4792952 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms10884] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2015] [Accepted: 01/29/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
While the formation of myelin by oligodendrocytes is critical for the function of the
central nervous system, the molecular mechanism controlling oligodendrocyte
differentiation remains largely unknown. Here we identify G protein-coupled receptor
37 (GPR37) as an inhibitor of late-stage oligodendrocyte differentiation and
myelination. GPR37 is enriched in oligodendrocytes and its expression increases
during their differentiation into myelin forming cells. Genetic deletion of
Gpr37 does not affect the number of oligodendrocyte precursor cells, but
results in precocious oligodendrocyte differentiation and hypermyelination. The
inhibition of oligodendrocyte differentiation by GPR37 is mediated by suppression of
an exchange protein activated by cAMP (EPAC)-dependent activation of Raf-MAPK-ERK1/2
module and nuclear translocation of ERK1/2. Our data suggest that GPR37 regulates
central nervous system myelination by controlling the transition from
early-differentiated to mature oligodendrocytes. The molecular mechanism controlling oligodendrocyte differentiation is
not fully understood. Here the authors show that G protein coupled receptor 37 acts as a
negative regulator of CNS myelination, and this effect is mediated by suppression of ERK
signalling.
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3377
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Berto S, Perdomo-Sabogal A, Gerighausen D, Qin J, Nowick K. A Consensus Network of Gene Regulatory Factors in the Human Frontal Lobe. Front Genet 2016; 7:31. [PMID: 27014338 PMCID: PMC4782181 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2016.00031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2015] [Accepted: 02/18/2016] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Cognitive abilities, such as memory, learning, language, problem solving, and planning, involve the frontal lobe and other brain areas. Not much is known yet about the molecular basis of cognitive abilities, but it seems clear that cognitive abilities are determined by the interplay of many genes. One approach for analyzing the genetic networks involved in cognitive functions is to study the coexpression networks of genes with known importance for proper cognitive functions, such as genes that have been associated with cognitive disorders like intellectual disability (ID) or autism spectrum disorders (ASD). Because many of these genes are gene regulatory factors (GRFs) we aimed to provide insights into the gene regulatory networks active in the human frontal lobe. Using genome wide human frontal lobe expression data from 10 independent data sets, we first derived 10 individual coexpression networks for all GRFs including their potential target genes. We observed a high level of variability among these 10 independently derived networks, pointing out that relying on results from a single study can only provide limited biological insights. To instead focus on the most confident information from these 10 networks we developed a method for integrating such independently derived networks into a consensus network. This consensus network revealed robust GRF interactions that are conserved across the frontal lobes of different healthy human individuals. Within this network, we detected a strong central module that is enriched for 166 GRFs known to be involved in brain development and/or cognitive disorders. Interestingly, several hubs of the consensus network encode for GRFs that have not yet been associated with brain functions. Their central role in the network suggests them as excellent new candidates for playing an essential role in the regulatory network of the human frontal lobe, which should be investigated in future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefano Berto
- Bioinformatics Group, Department of Computer Science, and Interdisciplinary Center for Bioinformatics, University LeipzigLeipzig, Germany; Paul-Flechsig Institute for Brain Research, University of LeipzigLeipzig, Germany; Department of Neuroscience, University of Texas Southwestern Medical CenterDallas, TX, USA
| | - Alvaro Perdomo-Sabogal
- Bioinformatics Group, Department of Computer Science, and Interdisciplinary Center for Bioinformatics, University Leipzig Leipzig, Germany
| | - Daniel Gerighausen
- Bioinformatics Group, Department of Computer Science, and Interdisciplinary Center for Bioinformatics, University Leipzig Leipzig, Germany
| | - Jing Qin
- Department of Mathematics and Computer Sciences, University of Southern DenmarkOdense, Denmark; Institute for Theoretical Chemistry, University of ViennaVienna, Austria
| | - Katja Nowick
- Bioinformatics Group, Department of Computer Science, and Interdisciplinary Center for Bioinformatics, University LeipzigLeipzig, Germany; Paul-Flechsig Institute for Brain Research, University of LeipzigLeipzig, Germany
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3378
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Sipe GO, Lowery RL, Tremblay MÈ, Kelly EA, Lamantia CE, Majewska AK. Microglial P2Y12 is necessary for synaptic plasticity in mouse visual cortex. Nat Commun 2016; 7:10905. [PMID: 26948129 PMCID: PMC4786684 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms10905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 338] [Impact Index Per Article: 42.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2015] [Accepted: 02/01/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Microglia are the resident immune cells of the brain. Increasingly, they are recognized as important mediators of normal neurophysiology, particularly during early development. Here we demonstrate that microglia are critical for ocular dominance plasticity. During the visual critical period, closure of one eye elicits changes in the structure and function of connections underlying binocular responses of neurons in the visual cortex. We find that microglia respond to monocular deprivation during the critical period, altering their morphology, motility and phagocytic behaviour as well as interactions with synapses. To explore the underlying mechanism, we focused on the P2Y12 purinergic receptor, which is selectively expressed in non-activated microglia and mediates process motility during early injury responses. We find that disrupting this receptor alters the microglial response to monocular deprivation and abrogates ocular dominance plasticity. These results suggest that microglia actively contribute to experience-dependent plasticity in the adolescent brain. Microglia play key roles during early neurodevelopment. Here the authors show that microglia are important mediators of ocular dominance plasticity (ODP). Microglia respond to monocular deprivation during the visual critical period, and disrupting microglial P2Y12 purinergic receptor abrogates ODP.
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Affiliation(s)
- G O Sipe
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Rochester, 601 Elmwood Avenue, box 603, Rochester, New York 14642, USA.,Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Rochester, 601 Elmwood Avenue, box 603, Rochester, New York 14642, USA
| | - R L Lowery
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Rochester, 601 Elmwood Avenue, box 603, Rochester, New York 14642, USA.,Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Rochester, 601 Elmwood Avenue, box 603, Rochester, New York 14642, USA
| | - M-È Tremblay
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Rochester, 601 Elmwood Avenue, box 603, Rochester, New York 14642, USA
| | - E A Kelly
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Rochester, 601 Elmwood Avenue, box 603, Rochester, New York 14642, USA
| | - C E Lamantia
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Rochester, 601 Elmwood Avenue, box 603, Rochester, New York 14642, USA
| | - A K Majewska
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Rochester, 601 Elmwood Avenue, box 603, Rochester, New York 14642, USA.,Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Rochester, 601 Elmwood Avenue, box 603, Rochester, New York 14642, USA
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3379
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Tsou JH, Yang YC, Pao PC, Lin HC, Huang NK, Lin ST, Hsu KS, Yeh CM, Lee KH, Kuo CJ, Yang DM, Lin JH, Chang WC, Lee YC. Important Roles of Ring Finger Protein 112 in Embryonic Vascular Development and Brain Functions. Mol Neurobiol 2016; 54:2286-2300. [PMID: 26951452 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-016-9812-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2016] [Accepted: 02/22/2016] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Rnf112 is a member of the RING finger protein family. The expression of Rnf112 is abundant in the brain and is regulated during brain development. Our previous study has revealed that Rnf112 can promote neuronal differentiation by inhibiting the progression of the cell cycle in cell models. In this study, we further revealed the important functions of Rnf112 in embryo development and in adult brain. Our data showed that most of the Rnf112 -/- embryos exhibited blood vascular defects and died in utero. Upon further investigation, we found that the survival rate of homozygous Rnf112 knockout mice in 129/sv and C57BL/6 mixed genetic background was increased. The survived newborns of Rnf112 -/- mice manifested growth retardation as indicated by smaller size and a reduced weight. Although the overall organization of the brain did not appear to be severely affected in Rnf112 -/- mice, using in vivo 3D MRI imaging, we found that when compared to wild-type littermates, brains of Rnf112 -/- mice were smaller. In addition, Rnf112 -/- mice displayed impairment of brain functions including motor balance, and spatial learning and memory. Our results provide important aspects for the study of Rnf112 gene functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jen-Hui Tsou
- Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Ying-Chen Yang
- Department of Biotechnology and Animal Science, College of Bioresources, National Ilan University, Ilan, Taiwan
| | - Ping-Chieh Pao
- Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Hui-Ching Lin
- Department and Institute of Physiology, School of Medicine, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan.,Brain Research Center, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Nai-Kuei Huang
- National Research Institute of Chinese Medicine, Taipei, Taiwan.,Ph.D. Program for Neural Regenerative Medicine, College of Medical Science and Technology, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, 11031, Taiwan
| | - Shih-Ting Lin
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Kuei-Sen Hsu
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Che-Ming Yeh
- Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Kuen-Haur Lee
- Graduate Institute of Cancer Biology and Drug Discovery, College of Medical Science and Technology, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Chu-Jen Kuo
- Ph.D. Program for Neural Regenerative Medicine, College of Medical Science and Technology, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, 11031, Taiwan.,Department of Radiology, Shin Kong Wu Ho-Su Memorial Hospital, School of Medicine, Fu Jen Catholic University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - De-Ming Yang
- Department of Medical Research and Education, Taipei Veterans General Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan.,Institute of Biophotonics, School of Medical Technology and Engineering, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Jiann-Her Lin
- Ph.D. Program for Neural Regenerative Medicine, College of Medical Science and Technology, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, 11031, Taiwan
| | - Wen-Chang Chang
- Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Yi-Chao Lee
- Ph.D. Program for Neural Regenerative Medicine, College of Medical Science and Technology, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, 11031, Taiwan. .,Center for Neurotrauma and Neuroregeneration, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan.
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3380
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Farmer WT, Abrahamsson T, Chierzi S, Lui C, Zaelzer C, Jones EV, Bally BP, Chen GG, Théroux JF, Peng J, Bourque CW, Charron F, Ernst C, Sjöström PJ, Murai KK. Neurons diversify astrocytes in the adult brain through sonic hedgehog signaling. Science 2016; 351:849-54. [PMID: 26912893 DOI: 10.1126/science.aab3103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 189] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Astrocytes are specialized and heterogeneous cells that contribute to central nervous system function and homeostasis. However, the mechanisms that create and maintain differences among astrocytes and allow them to fulfill particular physiological roles remain poorly defined. We reveal that neurons actively determine the features of astrocytes in the healthy adult brain and define a role for neuron-derived sonic hedgehog (Shh) in regulating the molecular and functional profile of astrocytes. Thus, the molecular and physiological program of astrocytes is not hardwired during development but, rather, depends on cues from neurons that drive and sustain their specialized properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- W Todd Farmer
- Centre for Research in Neuroscience, Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Brain Repair and Integrative Neuroscience Program, The Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre, Montreal General Hospital, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Therése Abrahamsson
- Centre for Research in Neuroscience, Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Brain Repair and Integrative Neuroscience Program, The Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre, Montreal General Hospital, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Sabrina Chierzi
- Centre for Research in Neuroscience, Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Brain Repair and Integrative Neuroscience Program, The Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre, Montreal General Hospital, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Christopher Lui
- Centre for Research in Neuroscience, Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Brain Repair and Integrative Neuroscience Program, The Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre, Montreal General Hospital, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Cristian Zaelzer
- Centre for Research in Neuroscience, Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Brain Repair and Integrative Neuroscience Program, The Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre, Montreal General Hospital, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Emma V Jones
- Centre for Research in Neuroscience, Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Brain Repair and Integrative Neuroscience Program, The Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre, Montreal General Hospital, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Blandine Ponroy Bally
- Centre for Research in Neuroscience, Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Brain Repair and Integrative Neuroscience Program, The Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre, Montreal General Hospital, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Gary G Chen
- Department of Psychiatry, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada. McGill Group for Suicide Studies, Douglas Hospital, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Jean-Francois Théroux
- Department of Psychiatry, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada. McGill Group for Suicide Studies, Douglas Hospital, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Jimmy Peng
- Molecular Biology of Neural Development, Institut de Recherches Cliniques de Montréal, Department of Medicine, University of Montreal, Montreal, Quebec, Canada. Department of Biology, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Charles W Bourque
- Centre for Research in Neuroscience, Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Brain Repair and Integrative Neuroscience Program, The Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre, Montreal General Hospital, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Frédéric Charron
- Molecular Biology of Neural Development, Institut de Recherches Cliniques de Montréal, Department of Medicine, University of Montreal, Montreal, Quebec, Canada. Department of Biology, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Carl Ernst
- Department of Psychiatry, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada. McGill Group for Suicide Studies, Douglas Hospital, Montreal, Quebec, Canada. Department of Human Genetics, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada. Douglas Hospital Research Institute, Verdun, Quebec, Canada
| | - P Jesper Sjöström
- Centre for Research in Neuroscience, Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Brain Repair and Integrative Neuroscience Program, The Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre, Montreal General Hospital, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Keith K Murai
- Centre for Research in Neuroscience, Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Brain Repair and Integrative Neuroscience Program, The Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre, Montreal General Hospital, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
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3381
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Abstract
Glia account for more than half of the cells in the mammalian nervous system, and the past few decades have witnessed a flood of studies that detail novel functions for glia in nervous system development, plasticity and disease. Here, and in the accompanying poster, we review the origins of glia and discuss their diverse roles during development, in the adult nervous system and in the context of disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Bradley Zuchero
- Department of Neurobiology, Stanford University, School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Ben A Barres
- Department of Neurobiology, Stanford University, School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
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3382
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Krishnaswami SR, Grindberg RV, Novotny M, Venepally P, Lacar B, Bhutani K, Linker SB, Pham S, Erwin JA, Miller JA, Hodge R, McCarthy JK, Kelder M, McCorrison J, Aevermann BD, Fuertes FD, Scheuermann RH, Lee J, Lein ES, Schork N, McConnell MJ, Gage FH, Lasken RS. Using single nuclei for RNA-seq to capture the transcriptome of postmortem neurons. Nat Protoc 2016; 11:499-524. [PMID: 26890679 PMCID: PMC4941947 DOI: 10.1038/nprot.2016.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 261] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
A protocol is described for sequencing the transcriptome of a cell nucleus. Nuclei are isolated from specimens and sorted by FACS, cDNA libraries are constructed and RNA-seq is performed, followed by data analysis. Some steps follow published methods (Smart-seq2 for cDNA synthesis and Nextera XT barcoded library preparation) and are not described in detail here. Previous single-cell approaches for RNA-seq from tissues include cell dissociation using protease treatment at 30 °C, which is known to alter the transcriptome. We isolate nuclei at 4 °C from tissue homogenates, which cause minimal damage. Nuclear transcriptomes can be obtained from postmortem human brain tissue stored at -80 °C, making brain archives accessible for RNA-seq from individual neurons. The method also allows investigation of biological features unique to nuclei, such as enrichment of certain transcripts and precursors of some noncoding RNAs. By following this procedure, it takes about 4 d to construct cDNA libraries that are ready for sequencing.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Mark Novotny
- J. Craig Venter Institute, La Jolla, California, USA
| | | | - Benjamin Lacar
- Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Kunal Bhutani
- J. Craig Venter Institute, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Sara B Linker
- Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Son Pham
- Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Jennifer A Erwin
- Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, California, USA
| | | | - Rebecca Hodge
- Allen Institute for Brain Science, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | | | - Martin Kelder
- Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, California, USA
| | | | | | - Francisco Diez Fuertes
- J. Craig Venter Institute, La Jolla, California, USA
- Centro Nacional de Microbiología, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | | | - Jun Lee
- LeGene Biosciences, San Diego, California, USA
| | - Ed S Lein
- Allen Institute for Brain Science, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | | | - Michael J McConnell
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA
| | - Fred H Gage
- Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, California, USA
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3383
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Capone C, Cognat E, Ghezali L, Baron-Menguy C, Aubin D, Mesnard L, Stöhr H, Domenga-Denier V, Nelson MT, Joutel A. Reducing Timp3 or vitronectin ameliorates disease manifestations in CADASIL mice. Ann Neurol 2016; 79:387-403. [PMID: 26648042 PMCID: PMC5359978 DOI: 10.1002/ana.24573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2015] [Revised: 11/25/2015] [Accepted: 11/28/2015] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE CADASIL is a genetic paradigm of cerebral small vessel disease caused by NOTCH3 mutations that stereotypically lead to the extracellular deposition of NOTCH3 ectodomain (Notch3(ECD) ) on the vessels. TIMP3 and vitronectin are 2 extracellular matrix proteins that abnormally accumulate in Notch3(ECD) -containing deposits on brain vessels of mice and patients with CADASIL. Herein, we investigated whether increased levels of TIMP3 and vitronectin are responsible for aspects of CADASIL disease phenotypes. METHODS Timp3 and vitronectin expression were genetically reduced in TgNotch3(R169C) mice, a well-established preclinical model of CADASIL. A mouse overexpressing human TIMP3 (TgBAC-TIMP3) was developed. Disease-related phenotypes, including cerebral blood flow (CBF) deficits, white matter lesions, and Notch3(ECD) deposition, were evaluated between 6 and 20 months of age. RESULTS CBF responses to neural activity (functional hyperemia), topical application of vasodilators, and decreases in blood pressure (CBF autoregulation) were similarly reduced in TgNotch3(R169C) and TgBAC-TIMP3 mice, and myogenic responses of brain arteries were likewise attenuated. These defects were rescued in TgNotch3(R169C) mice by haploinsufficiency of Timp3, although the number of white matter lesions was unaffected. In contrast, haploinsufficiency or loss of vitronectin in TgNotch3(R169C) mice ameliorated white matter lesions, although CBF responses were unchanged. Amelioration of cerebrovascular reactivity or white matter lesions in these mice was not associated with reduced Notch3(ECD) deposition in brain vessels. INTERPRETATION Elevated levels of TIMP3 and vitronectin, acting downstream of Notch3(ECD) deposition, play a role in CADASIL, producing divergent influences on early CBF deficits and later white matter lesions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carmen Capone
- Genetics and Pathogenesis of Cerebrovascular Diseases, Inserm, U1161 and Univ Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, UMRS 1161, F-75010, Paris, France
- DHU NeuroVasc, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - Emmanuel Cognat
- Genetics and Pathogenesis of Cerebrovascular Diseases, Inserm, U1161 and Univ Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, UMRS 1161, F-75010, Paris, France
- DHU NeuroVasc, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - Lamia Ghezali
- Genetics and Pathogenesis of Cerebrovascular Diseases, Inserm, U1161 and Univ Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, UMRS 1161, F-75010, Paris, France
- DHU NeuroVasc, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - Céline Baron-Menguy
- Genetics and Pathogenesis of Cerebrovascular Diseases, Inserm, U1161 and Univ Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, UMRS 1161, F-75010, Paris, France
- DHU NeuroVasc, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - Déborah Aubin
- Genetics and Pathogenesis of Cerebrovascular Diseases, Inserm, U1161 and Univ Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, UMRS 1161, F-75010, Paris, France
- DHU NeuroVasc, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - Laurent Mesnard
- Rare and Common Kidney Diseases, Matrix Remodeling and Tissue Repair, Inserm U1155 and Pierre and Marie Curie University, Sorbonne Universities UMR-S 1155, F-75020, Paris, France
- Department of Emergency Nephrological and Renal Transplantation, Tenon Hospital, AP-HP, F-75020, Paris, France
| | - Heidi Stöhr
- Institute of Human Genetics, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Valérie Domenga-Denier
- Genetics and Pathogenesis of Cerebrovascular Diseases, Inserm, U1161 and Univ Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, UMRS 1161, F-75010, Paris, France
- DHU NeuroVasc, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - Mark T Nelson
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT
- Institute of Cardiovascular Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Anne Joutel
- Genetics and Pathogenesis of Cerebrovascular Diseases, Inserm, U1161 and Univ Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, UMRS 1161, F-75010, Paris, France
- DHU NeuroVasc, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France
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3384
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Crotti A, Ransohoff RM. Microglial Physiology and Pathophysiology: Insights from Genome-wide Transcriptional Profiling. Immunity 2016; 44:505-515. [DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2016.02.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 190] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2016] [Revised: 02/06/2016] [Accepted: 02/17/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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3385
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Kong L, Albano R, Madayag A, Raddatz N, Mantsch JR, Choi S, Lobner D, Baker DA. Pituitary Adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide orchestrates neuronal regulation of the astrocytic glutamate-releasing mechanism system xc (.). J Neurochem 2016; 137:384-93. [PMID: 26851652 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.13566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2015] [Revised: 01/28/2016] [Accepted: 02/01/2016] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Glutamate signaling is achieved by an elaborate network involving neurons and astrocytes. Hence, it is critical to better understand how neurons and astrocytes interact to coordinate the cellular regulation of glutamate signaling. In these studies, we used rat cortical cell cultures to examine whether neurons or releasable neuronal factors were capable of regulating system xc (-) (Sxc), a glutamate-releasing mechanism that is expressed primarily by astrocytes and has been shown to regulate synaptic transmission. We found that astrocytes cultured with neurons or exposed to neuronal-conditioned media displayed significantly higher levels of Sxc activity. Next, we demonstrated that the pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) may be a neuronal factor capable of regulating astrocytes. In support, we found that PACAP expression was restricted to neurons, and that PACAP receptors were expressed in astrocytes. Interestingly, blockade of PACAP receptors in cultures comprised of astrocytes and neurons significantly decreased Sxc activity to the level observed in purified astrocytes, whereas application of PACAP to purified astrocytes increased Sxc activity to the level observed in cultures comprised of neurons and astrocytes. Collectively, these data reveal that neurons coordinate the actions of glutamate-related mechanisms expressed by astrocytes, such as Sxc, a process that likely involves PACAP. A critical gap in modeling excitatory signaling is how distinct components of the glutamate system expressed by neurons and astrocytes are coordinated. In these studies, we found that system xc (-) (Sxc), a glutamate release mechanism expressed by astrocytes, is regulated by releasable neuronal factors including PACAP. This represents a novel form of neuron-astrocyte communication, and highlights the possibility that pathological changes involving astrocytic Sxc may stem from altered neuronal activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linghai Kong
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Marquette University, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Rebecca Albano
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Marquette University, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Aric Madayag
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Marquette University, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Nicholas Raddatz
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Marquette University, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA
| | - John R Mantsch
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Marquette University, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA
| | - SuJean Choi
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Marquette University, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Doug Lobner
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Marquette University, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA
| | - David A Baker
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Marquette University, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA
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3386
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Wang GZ, Belgard TG, Mao D, Chen L, Berto S, Preuss TM, Lu H, Geschwind DH, Konopka G. Correspondence between Resting-State Activity and Brain Gene Expression. Neuron 2016; 88:659-66. [PMID: 26590343 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2015.10.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2015] [Revised: 08/28/2015] [Accepted: 10/13/2015] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
The relationship between functional brain activity and gene expression has not been fully explored in the human brain. Here, we identify significant correlations between gene expression in the brain and functional activity by comparing fractional amplitude of low-frequency fluctuations (fALFF) from two independent human fMRI resting-state datasets to regional cortical gene expression from a newly generated RNA-seq dataset and two additional gene expression datasets to obtain robust and reproducible correlations. We find significantly more genes correlated with fALFF than expected by chance and identify specific genes correlated with the imaging signals in multiple expression datasets in the default mode network. Together, these data support a population-level relationship between regional steady-state brain gene expression and resting-state brain activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guang-Zhong Wang
- Department of Neuroscience, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390, USA
| | - T Grant Belgard
- Program in Neurobehavioral Genetics, Center for Autism Treatment and Research, Semel Institute, Program in Neurogenetics, Department of Neurology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Deng Mao
- Advanced Imaging Research Center, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390, USA
| | - Leslie Chen
- Department of Human Genetics, Center for Autism Treatment and Research, Semel Institute, Program in Neurogenetics, Department of Neurology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Stefano Berto
- Department of Neuroscience, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390, USA
| | - Todd M Preuss
- Division of Neuropharmacology and Neurologic Diseases, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, and Department of Pathology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA
| | - Hanzhang Lu
- Advanced Imaging Research Center, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390, USA; Departments of Psychiatry and Radiology, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390, USA
| | - Daniel H Geschwind
- Department of Human Genetics, Center for Autism Treatment and Research, Semel Institute, Program in Neurogenetics, Department of Neurology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA.
| | - Genevieve Konopka
- Department of Neuroscience, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390, USA.
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3387
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Nuvolone M, Hermann M, Sorce S, Russo G, Tiberi C, Schwarz P, Minikel E, Sanoudou D, Pelczar P, Aguzzi A. Strictly co-isogenic C57BL/6J-Prnp-/- mice: A rigorous resource for prion science. J Exp Med 2016; 213:313-27. [PMID: 26926995 PMCID: PMC4813672 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20151610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2015] [Accepted: 01/25/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Although its involvement in prion replication and neurotoxicity during transmissible spongiform encephalopathies is undisputed, the physiological role of the cellular prion protein (PrP(C)) remains enigmatic. A plethora of functions have been ascribed to PrP(C) based on phenotypes of Prnp(-/-) mice. However, all currently available Prnp(-/-) lines were generated in embryonic stem cells from the 129 strain of the laboratory mouse and mostly crossed to non-129 strains. Therefore, Prnp-linked loci polymorphic between 129 and the backcrossing strain resulted in systematic genetic confounders and led to erroneous conclusions. We used TALEN-mediated genome editing in fertilized mouse oocytes to create the Zurich-3 (ZH3) Prnp-ablated allele on a pure C57BL/6J genetic background. Genomic, transcriptional, and phenotypic characterization of Prnp(ZH3/ZH3) mice failed to identify phenotypes previously described in non-co-isogenic Prnp(-/-) mice. However, aged Prnp(ZH3/ZH3) mice developed a chronic demyelinating peripheral neuropathy, confirming the crucial involvement of PrP(C) in peripheral myelin maintenance. This new line represents a rigorous genetic resource for studying the role of PrP(C) in physiology and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario Nuvolone
- Institute of Neuropathology, University Hospital of Zurich, 8091 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Mario Hermann
- Institute of Neuropathology, University Hospital of Zurich, 8091 Zurich, Switzerland Institute of Laboratory Animal Science, University of Zurich, 8091 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Silvia Sorce
- Institute of Neuropathology, University Hospital of Zurich, 8091 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Giancarlo Russo
- Functional Genomics Center Zurich (FGCZ), 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Cinzia Tiberi
- Institute of Neuropathology, University Hospital of Zurich, 8091 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Petra Schwarz
- Institute of Neuropathology, University Hospital of Zurich, 8091 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Eric Minikel
- Prion Alliance, Cambridge, MA 02139 Broad Institute, Cambridge, MA 02142 Analytical and Translational Genetics Unit, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114
| | - Despina Sanoudou
- Fourth Department of Internal Medicine, Attikon Hospital, Medical School, University of Athens, 115 27 Athens, Greece
| | - Pawel Pelczar
- Institute of Laboratory Animal Science, University of Zurich, 8091 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Adriano Aguzzi
- Institute of Neuropathology, University Hospital of Zurich, 8091 Zurich, Switzerland
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3388
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Chd7 cooperates with Sox10 and regulates the onset of CNS myelination and remyelination. Nat Neurosci 2016; 19:678-689. [PMID: 26928066 PMCID: PMC4846514 DOI: 10.1038/nn.4258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2015] [Accepted: 02/01/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Mutations in CHD7, encoding ATP-dependent chromodomain-helicase-DNA-binding protein 7, in CHARGE syndrome leads to multiple congenital anomalies including craniofacial malformations, neurological dysfunction and growth delay. Currently, mechanisms underlying the CNS phenotypes remain poorly understood. Here, we show that Chd7 is a direct transcriptional target of oligodendrogenesis-promoting factors Olig2 and Smarca4/Brg1, and is required for proper onset of CNS myelination and remyelination. Genome-occupancy analyses, coupled with transcriptome profiling, reveal that Chd7 interacts with Sox10 and targets the enhancers of key myelinogenic genes, and identify novel Chd7 targets including bone formation regulators Osterix/Sp7 and Creb3l2, which are also critical for oligodendrocyte maturation. Thus, Chd7 coordinates with Sox10 to regulate the initiation of myelinogenesis and acts as a molecular nexus of regulatory networks that account for the development of a seemingly diverse array of lineages including oligodendrocytes and osteoblasts, pointing to the hitherto previously uncharacterized Chd7 functions in white matter pathogenesis in CHARGE syndrome.
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3389
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Holt LM, Olsen ML. Novel Applications of Magnetic Cell Sorting to Analyze Cell-Type Specific Gene and Protein Expression in the Central Nervous System. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0150290. [PMID: 26919701 PMCID: PMC4769085 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0150290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2015] [Accepted: 02/11/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The isolation and study of cell-specific populations in the central nervous system (CNS) has gained significant interest in the neuroscience community. The ability to examine cell-specific gene and protein expression patterns in healthy and pathological tissue is critical for our understanding of CNS function. Several techniques currently exist to isolate cell-specific populations, each having their own inherent advantages and shortcomings. Isolation of distinct cell populations using magnetic sorting is a technique which has been available for nearly 3 decades, although rarely used in adult whole CNS tissue homogenate. In the current study we demonstrate that distinct cell populations can be isolated in rodents from early postnatal development through adulthood. We found this technique to be amendable to customization using commercially available membrane-targeted antibodies, allowing for cell-specific isolation across development and animal species. This technique yields RNA which can be utilized for downstream applications—including quantitative PCR and RNA sequencing—at relatively low cost and without the need for specialized equipment or fluorescently labeled cells. Adding to its utility, we demonstrate that cells can be isolated largely intact, retaining their processes, enabling analysis of extrasomatic proteins. We propose that magnetic cell sorting will prove to be a highly useful technique for the examination of cell specific CNS populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leanne Melissa Holt
- Department of Cell, Developmental and Integrative Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, United States of America
| | - Michelle Lynne Olsen
- Department of Cell, Developmental and Integrative Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, United States of America
- Center for Glial Biology in Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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3390
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Karch CM, Ezerskiy LA, Bertelsen S, Goate AM. Alzheimer's Disease Risk Polymorphisms Regulate Gene Expression in the ZCWPW1 and the CELF1 Loci. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0148717. [PMID: 26919393 PMCID: PMC4769299 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0148717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2015] [Accepted: 12/17/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Late onset Alzheimer’s disease (LOAD) is a genetically complex and clinically heterogeneous disease. Recent large-scale genome wide association studies (GWAS) have identified more than twenty loci that modify risk for AD. Despite the identification of these loci, little progress has been made in identifying the functional variants that explain the association with AD risk. Thus, we sought to determine whether the novel LOAD GWAS single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) alter expression of LOAD GWAS genes and whether expression of these genes is altered in AD brains. The majority of LOAD GWAS SNPs occur in gene dense regions under large linkage disequilibrium (LD) blocks, making it unclear which gene(s) are modified by the SNP. Thus, we tested for brain expression quantitative trait loci (eQTLs) between LOAD GWAS SNPs and SNPs in high LD with the LOAD GWAS SNPs in all of the genes within the GWAS loci. We found a significant eQTL between rs1476679 and PILRB and GATS, which occurs within the ZCWPW1 locus. PILRB and GATS expression levels, within the ZCWPW1 locus, were also associated with AD status. Rs7120548 was associated with MTCH2 expression, which occurs within the CELF1 locus. Additionally, expression of several genes within the CELF1 locus, including MTCH2, were highly correlated with one another and were associated with AD status. We further demonstrate that PILRB, as well as other genes within the GWAS loci, are most highly expressed in microglia. These findings together with the function of PILRB as a DAP12 receptor supports the critical role of microglia and neuroinflammation in AD risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Celeste M. Karch
- Department of Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
- Hope Center Program on Protein Aggregation and Neurodegeneration, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
- * E-mail: (CMK); (AMG)
| | - Lubov A. Ezerskiy
- Department of Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Sarah Bertelsen
- Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, 1425 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10029, United States of America
| | | | - Alison M. Goate
- Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, 1425 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10029, United States of America
- * E-mail: (CMK); (AMG)
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3391
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Olmos-Serrano JL, Kang HJ, Tyler WA, Silbereis JC, Cheng F, Zhu Y, Pletikos M, Jankovic-Rapan L, Cramer NP, Galdzicki Z, Goodliffe J, Peters A, Sethares C, Delalle I, Golden JA, Haydar TF, Sestan N. Down Syndrome Developmental Brain Transcriptome Reveals Defective Oligodendrocyte Differentiation and Myelination. Neuron 2016; 89:1208-1222. [PMID: 26924435 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2016.01.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 155] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2015] [Revised: 11/24/2015] [Accepted: 01/21/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Trisomy 21, or Down syndrome (DS), is the most common genetic cause of developmental delay and intellectual disability. To gain insight into the underlying molecular and cellular pathogenesis, we conducted a multi-region transcriptome analysis of DS and euploid control brains spanning from mid-fetal development to adulthood. We found genome-wide alterations in the expression of a large number of genes, many of which exhibited temporal and spatial specificity and were associated with distinct biological processes. In particular, we uncovered co-dysregulation of genes associated with oligodendrocyte differentiation and myelination that were validated via cross-species comparison to Ts65Dn trisomy mice. Furthermore, we show that hypomyelination present in Ts65Dn mice is in part due to cell-autonomous effects of trisomy on oligodendrocyte differentiation and results in slower neocortical action potential transmission. Together, these results identify defects in white matter development and function in DS, and they provide a transcriptional framework for further investigating DS neuropathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jose Luis Olmos-Serrano
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Hyo Jung Kang
- Department of Neuroscience and Kavli Institute for Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
- Department of Life Science, Chung-Ang University, Seoul, Korea
| | - William A Tyler
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - John C Silbereis
- Department of Neuroscience and Kavli Institute for Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Feng Cheng
- Department of Neuroscience and Kavli Institute for Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
| | - Ying Zhu
- Department of Neuroscience and Kavli Institute for Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Mihovil Pletikos
- Department of Neuroscience and Kavli Institute for Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Lucija Jankovic-Rapan
- Department of Neuroscience and Kavli Institute for Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Nathan P Cramer
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology, and Genetics, F. Edward Hébert School of Medicine, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Zygmunt Galdzicki
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology, and Genetics, F. Edward Hébert School of Medicine, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Joseph Goodliffe
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Alan Peters
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Claire Sethares
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Ivana Delalle
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Jeffrey A Golden
- Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Tarik F Haydar
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Nenad Sestan
- Department of Neuroscience and Kavli Institute for Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
- Departments of Genetic and Psychiatry, Program in Cellular Neuroscience, Neurodegeneration and Repair, Section of Comparative Medicine and Child Study Center, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
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3392
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Trimming of sequence reads alters RNA-Seq gene expression estimates. BMC Bioinformatics 2016; 17:103. [PMID: 26911985 PMCID: PMC4766705 DOI: 10.1186/s12859-016-0956-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2015] [Accepted: 02/19/2016] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND High-throughput RNA-Sequencing (RNA-Seq) has become the preferred technique for studying gene expression differences between biological samples and for discovering novel isoforms, though the techniques to analyze the resulting data are still immature. One pre-processing step that is widely but heterogeneously applied is trimming, in which low quality bases, identified by the probability that they are called incorrectly, are removed. However, the impact of trimming on subsequent alignment to a genome could influence downstream analyses including gene expression estimation; we hypothesized that this might occur in an inconsistent manner across different genes, resulting in differential bias. RESULTS To assess the effects of trimming on gene expression, we generated RNA-Seq data sets from four samples of larval Drosophila melanogaster sensory neurons, and used three trimming algorithms--SolexaQA, Trimmomatic, and ConDeTri-to perform quality-based trimming across a wide range of stringencies. After aligning the reads to the D. melanogaster genome with TopHat2, we used Cuffdiff2 to compare the original, untrimmed gene expression estimates to those following trimming. With the most aggressive trimming parameters, over ten percent of genes had significant changes in their estimated expression levels. This trend was seen with two additional RNA-Seq data sets and with alternative differential expression analysis pipelines. We found that the majority of the expression changes could be mitigated by imposing a minimum length filter following trimming, suggesting that the differential gene expression was primarily being driven by spurious mapping of short reads. Slight differences with the untrimmed data set remained after length filtering, which were associated with genes with low exon numbers and high GC content. Finally, an analysis of paired RNA-seq/microarray data sets suggests that no or modest trimming results in the most biologically accurate gene expression estimates. CONCLUSIONS We find that aggressive quality-based trimming has a large impact on the apparent makeup of RNA-Seq-based gene expression estimates, and that short reads can have a particularly strong impact. We conclude that implementation of trimming in RNA-Seq analysis workflows warrants caution, and if used, should be used in conjunction with a minimum read length filter to minimize the introduction of unpredictable changes in expression estimates.
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3393
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Colonna M, Wang Y. TREM2 variants: new keys to decipher Alzheimer disease pathogenesis. Nat Rev Neurosci 2016; 17:201-7. [PMID: 26911435 DOI: 10.1038/nrn.2016.7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 278] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Genome-wide association studies have identified rare variants of the gene that encodes triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 2 (TREM2) - an immune receptor that is found in brain microglia - as risk factors for non-familial Alzheimer disease (AD). Furthermore, animal studies have indicated that microglia have an important role in the brain response to amyloid-β (Aβ) plaques and that TREM2 variants may have an impact on such a function. We discuss how TREM2 may control the microglial response to Aβ and its impact on microglial senescence, as well as the interaction of TREM2 with other molecules that are encoded by gene variants associated with AD and the hypothetical consequences of the cleavage of TREM2 from the cell surface.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Colonna
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, Missouri 63108, USA
| | - Yaming Wang
- Eli Lilly and Company, Lilly Corporate Center, Indianapolis, Indiana 46285, USA
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3394
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Reciprocal Regulation of Mitochondrial Dynamics and Calcium Signaling in Astrocyte Processes. J Neurosci 2016; 35:15199-213. [PMID: 26558789 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.2049-15.2015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED We recently showed that inhibition of neuronal activity, glutamate uptake, or reversed-Na(+)/Ca(2+)-exchange with TTX, TFB-TBOA, or YM-244769, respectively, increases mitochondrial mobility in astrocytic processes. In the present study, we examined the interrelationships between mitochondrial mobility and Ca(2+) signaling in astrocyte processes in organotypic cultures of rat hippocampus. All of the treatments that increase mitochondrial mobility decreased basal Ca(2+). As recently reported, we observed spontaneous Ca(2+) spikes with half-lives of ∼1 s that spread ∼6 μm and are almost abolished by a TRPA1 channel antagonist. Virtually all of these Ca(2+) spikes overlap mitochondria (98%), and 62% of mitochondria are overlapped by these spikes. Although tetrodotoxin, TFB-TBOA, or YM-244769 increased Ca(2+) signaling, the specific effects on peak, decay time, and/or frequency were different. To more specifically manipulate mitochondrial mobility, we explored the effects of Miro motor adaptor proteins. We show that Miro1 and Miro2 are both expressed in astrocytes and that exogenous expression of Ca(2+)-insensitive Miro mutants (KK) nearly doubles the percentage of mobile mitochondria. Expression of Miro1(KK) had a modest effect on the frequency of these Ca(2+) spikes but nearly doubled the decay half-life. The mitochondrial proton ionophore, FCCP, caused a large, prolonged increase in cytosolic Ca(2+) followed by an increase in the decay time and the spread of the spontaneous Ca(2+) spikes. Photo-ablation of mitochondria in individual astrocyte processes has similar effects on Ca(2+). Together, these studies show that Ca(2+) regulates mitochondrial mobility, and mitochondria in turn regulate Ca(2+) signals in astrocyte processes. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT In neurons, the movement and positioning of mitochondria at sites of elevated activity are important for matching local energy and Ca(2+) buffering capacity. Previously, we demonstrated that mitochondria are immobilized in astrocytes in response to neuronal activity and glutamate uptake. Here, we demonstrate a mechanism by which mitochondria are immobilized in astrocytes subsequent to increases in intracellular [Ca(2+)] and provide evidence that mitochondria contribute to the compartmentalization of spontaneous Ca(2+) signals in astrocyte processes. Immobilization of mitochondria at sites of glutamate uptake in astrocyte processes provides a mechanism to coordinate increases in activity with increases in mitochondrial metabolism.
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3395
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Eising E, Huisman SMH, Mahfouz A, Vijfhuizen LS, Anttila V, Winsvold BS, Kurth T, Ikram MA, Freilinger T, Kaprio J, Boomsma DI, van Duijn CM, Järvelin MRR, Zwart JA, Quaye L, Strachan DP, Kubisch C, Dichgans M, Davey Smith G, Stefansson K, Palotie A, Chasman DI, Ferrari MD, Terwindt GM, de Vries B, Nyholt DR, Lelieveldt BPF, van den Maagdenberg AMJM, Reinders MJT. Gene co-expression analysis identifies brain regions and cell types involved in migraine pathophysiology: a GWAS-based study using the Allen Human Brain Atlas. Hum Genet 2016; 135:425-439. [PMID: 26899160 PMCID: PMC4796339 DOI: 10.1007/s00439-016-1638-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2015] [Accepted: 01/16/2016] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Migraine is a common disabling neurovascular brain disorder typically characterised by attacks of severe headache and associated with autonomic and neurological symptoms. Migraine is caused by an interplay of genetic and environmental factors. Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have identified over a dozen genetic loci associated with migraine. Here, we integrated migraine GWAS data with high-resolution spatial gene expression data of normal adult brains from the Allen Human Brain Atlas to identify specific brain regions and molecular pathways that are possibly involved in migraine pathophysiology. To this end, we used two complementary methods. In GWAS data from 23,285 migraine cases and 95,425 controls, we first studied modules of co-expressed genes that were calculated based on human brain expression data for enrichment of genes that showed association with migraine. Enrichment of a migraine GWAS signal was found for five modules that suggest involvement in migraine pathophysiology of: (i) neurotransmission, protein catabolism and mitochondria in the cortex; (ii) transcription regulation in the cortex and cerebellum; and (iii) oligodendrocytes and mitochondria in subcortical areas. Second, we used the high-confidence genes from the migraine GWAS as a basis to construct local migraine-related co-expression gene networks. Signatures of all brain regions and pathways that were prominent in the first method also surfaced in the second method, thus providing support that these brain regions and pathways are indeed involved in migraine pathophysiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Else Eising
- Department of Human Genetics, Leiden University Medical Center, 2333 ZC, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Sjoerd M H Huisman
- Delft Bioinformatics Lab, Department of Intelligent Systems, Delft University of Technology, 2628 CD, Delft, The Netherlands.,Division of Image Processing, Department of Radiology, Leiden University Medical Center, 2333 ZA, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Ahmed Mahfouz
- Delft Bioinformatics Lab, Department of Intelligent Systems, Delft University of Technology, 2628 CD, Delft, The Netherlands.,Division of Image Processing, Department of Radiology, Leiden University Medical Center, 2333 ZA, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Lisanne S Vijfhuizen
- Department of Human Genetics, Leiden University Medical Center, 2333 ZC, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Verneri Anttila
- Analytical and Translational Genetics Unit, Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02114, USA.,Program in Medical and Population Genetics, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, 02142, USA.,Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, 02142, USA
| | - Bendik S Winsvold
- FORMI and Department of Neurology, Oslo University Hospital and University of Oslo, 0424, Oslo, Norway
| | - Tobias Kurth
- Institute of Public Health, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, 10117, Berlin, Germany.,Division of Preventive Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02215-1204, USA
| | - M Arfan Ikram
- Department of Epidemiology, Erasmus University Medical Centre, 3015 CE, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.,Department of Radiology, Erasmus University Medical Centre, 3015 CE, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.,Department of Neurology, Erasmus University Medical Centre, 3015 CE, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Tobias Freilinger
- Department of Neurology and Epileptology and Hertie-Institute for Clinical Brain Research, University of Tübingen, 72076, Tübingen, Germany.,Institute for Stroke and Dementia Research, Klinikum der Universität München, Ludwig-Maximillians-Universität, 81377, Munich, Germany
| | - Jaakko Kaprio
- Department of Public Health, University of Helsinki, 00014, Helsinki, Finland.,Institute for Molecular Medicine Finland (FIMM), University of Helsinki, 00290, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Dorret I Boomsma
- Department of Biological Psychology, VU University, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Cornelia M van Duijn
- Department of Epidemiology, Erasmus University Medical Centre, 3015 CE, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Marjo-Riitta R Järvelin
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, MRC-PHE Centre for Environment and Health, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London, W2 1PG, UK.,Center for Life-Course Health Research and Northern Finland Cohort Center, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oulu, P.O. Box 5000, 90014, Oulu, Finland.,Biocenter Oulu, University of Oulu, Aapistie 5A, P.O. Box 5000, 90014, Oulu, Finland.,Unit of Primary Care, Oulu University Hospital, Kajaanintie 50, 90029 OYS, P.O. Box 20, 90220, Oulu, Finland
| | - John-Anker Zwart
- FORMI and Department of Neurology, Oslo University Hospital and University of Oslo, 0424, Oslo, Norway
| | - Lydia Quaye
- Department of Twin Research and Genetic Epidemiology, King's College London, London, SE1 7EH, UK
| | - David P Strachan
- Population Health Research Institute, St George's, University of London, London, SW17 0RE, UK
| | - Christian Kubisch
- Institute of Human Genetics, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, 20246, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Martin Dichgans
- Institute for Stroke and Dementia Research, Klinikum der Universität München, Ludwig-Maximillians-Universität, 81377, Munich, Germany.,Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology (SyNergy), 81377, Munich, Germany
| | - George Davey Smith
- Medical Research Council Integrative Epidemiology Unit (IEU), School of Social and Community Medicine, University of Bristol, Bristol, BS8 2PS, UK
| | - Kari Stefansson
- deCODE Genetics, 101, Reykjavik, Iceland.,School of Medicine, University of Iceland, 101, Reykjavik, Iceland
| | - Aarno Palotie
- Analytical and Translational Genetics Unit, Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02114, USA.,Program in Medical and Population Genetics, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, 02142, USA.,Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, 02142, USA.,Institute for Molecular Medicine Finland (FIMM), University of Helsinki, 00290, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Daniel I Chasman
- Division of Preventive Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02215-1204, USA
| | - Michel D Ferrari
- Department of Neurology, Leiden University Medical Center, 2333 ZA, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Gisela M Terwindt
- Department of Neurology, Leiden University Medical Center, 2333 ZA, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Boukje de Vries
- Department of Human Genetics, Leiden University Medical Center, 2333 ZC, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Dale R Nyholt
- Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation, Queensland University of Technology, Kelvin Grove, QLD, Brisbane, QLD, 4059, Australia.,Queensland Institute of Medical Research (QIMR) Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, QLD, 4006, Australia
| | - Boudewijn P F Lelieveldt
- Delft Bioinformatics Lab, Department of Intelligent Systems, Delft University of Technology, 2628 CD, Delft, The Netherlands.,Division of Image Processing, Department of Radiology, Leiden University Medical Center, 2333 ZA, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Arn M J M van den Maagdenberg
- Department of Human Genetics, Leiden University Medical Center, 2333 ZC, Leiden, The Netherlands. .,Department of Neurology, Leiden University Medical Center, 2333 ZA, Leiden, The Netherlands.
| | - Marcel J T Reinders
- Delft Bioinformatics Lab, Department of Intelligent Systems, Delft University of Technology, 2628 CD, Delft, The Netherlands.
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3396
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Jackson SA, Olufs ZPG, Tran KA, Zaidan NZ, Sridharan R. Alternative Routes to Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells Revealed by Reprogramming of the Neural Lineage. Stem Cell Reports 2016; 6:302-11. [PMID: 26905202 PMCID: PMC4788781 DOI: 10.1016/j.stemcr.2016.01.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2015] [Revised: 01/11/2016] [Accepted: 01/13/2016] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
During the reprogramming of mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) to induced pluripotent stem cells, the activation of pluripotency genes such as NANOG occurs after the mesenchymal to epithelial transition. Here we report that both adult stem cells (neural stem cells) and differentiated cells (astrocytes) of the neural lineage can activate NANOG in the absence of cadherin expression during reprogramming. Gene expression analysis revealed that only the NANOG+E-cadherin+ populations expressed stabilization markers, had upregulated several cell cycle genes; and were transgene independent. Inhibition of DOT1L activity enhanced both the numbers of NANOG+ and NANOG+E-cadherin+ colonies in neural stem cells. Expressing SOX2 in MEFs prior to reprogramming did not alter the ratio of NANOG colonies that express E-cadherin. Taken together these results provide a unique pathway for reprogramming taken by cells of the neural lineage. NANOG expression can be obtained without E-cadherin in cells of the neural lineage Transgene independence and late markers only occur when colonies are E-cadherin+ NANOG+E-cadherin+ colonies also upregulate cell cycle-related genes DOT1L inhibition increases NANOG+E-cadherin+ colony numbers
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven A Jackson
- Epigenetics Theme, Wisconsin Institute for Discovery, University of Wisconsin, 330 North Orchard Street, Room 2118, Madison, WI 53715, USA
| | - Zachariah P G Olufs
- Epigenetics Theme, Wisconsin Institute for Discovery, University of Wisconsin, 330 North Orchard Street, Room 2118, Madison, WI 53715, USA
| | - Khoa A Tran
- Epigenetics Theme, Wisconsin Institute for Discovery, University of Wisconsin, 330 North Orchard Street, Room 2118, Madison, WI 53715, USA
| | - Nur Zafirah Zaidan
- Epigenetics Theme, Wisconsin Institute for Discovery, University of Wisconsin, 330 North Orchard Street, Room 2118, Madison, WI 53715, USA
| | - Rupa Sridharan
- Epigenetics Theme, Wisconsin Institute for Discovery, University of Wisconsin, 330 North Orchard Street, Room 2118, Madison, WI 53715, USA; Department of Cell and Regenerative Biology, University of Wisconsin, 1111 Highland Avenue, Madison, WI 53715, USA.
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3397
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Davalieva K, Maleva Kostovska I, Dwork AJ. Proteomics Research in Schizophrenia. Front Cell Neurosci 2016; 10:18. [PMID: 26909022 PMCID: PMC4754401 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2016.00018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2015] [Accepted: 01/18/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite intense scientific efforts, the neuropathology and pathophysiology of schizophrenia are poorly understood. Proteomic studies, by testing large numbers of proteins for associations with disease, may contribute to the understanding of the molecular mechanisms of schizophrenia. They may also indicate the types and locations of cells most likely to harbor pathological alterations. Investigations using proteomic approaches have already provided much information on quantitative and qualitative protein patterns in postmortem brain tissue, peripheral tissues and body fluids. Different proteomic technologies such as 2-D PAGE, 2-D DIGE, SELDI-TOF, shotgun proteomics with label-based (ICAT), and label-free (MSE) quantification have been applied to the study of schizophrenia for the past 15 years. This review summarizes the results, mostly from brain but also from other tissues and bodily fluids, of proteomics studies in schizophrenia. Emphasis is given to proteomics platforms, varying sources of material, proposed candidate biomarkers emerging from comparative proteomics studies, and the specificity of the putative markers in terms of other mental illnesses. We also compare proteins altered in schizophrenia with reports of protein or mRNA sequences that are relatively enriched in specific cell types. While proteomic studies of schizophrenia find abnormalities in the expression of many proteins that are not cell type-specific, there appears to be a disproportionate representation of proteins whose synthesis and localization are highly enriched in one or more brain cell type compared with other types of brain cells. Two of the three proteins most commonly altered in schizophrenia are aldolase C and glial fibrillary acidic protein, astrocytic proteins with entirely different functions, but the studies are approximately evenly divided with regard to the direction of the differences and the concordance or discordance between the two proteins. Alterations of common myelin-associated proteins were also frequently observed, and in four studies that identified alterations in at least two, all differences were downwards in schizophrenia, consistent with earlier studies examining RNA or targeting myelin-associated proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katarina Davalieva
- Research Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology "Georgi D Efremov," Macedonian Academy of Sciences and Arts Skopje, Republic of Macedonia
| | - Ivana Maleva Kostovska
- Research Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology "Georgi D Efremov," Macedonian Academy of Sciences and Arts Skopje, Republic of Macedonia
| | - Andrew J Dwork
- Department of Molecular Imaging and Neuropathology, New York State Psychiatric InstituteNew York, NY, USA; Departments of Psychiatry and Pathology and Cell Biology, College of Physicians and Surgeons of Columbia UniversityNew York, NY, USA; Macedonian Academy of Sciences and ArtsSkopje, Republic of Macedonia
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3398
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The adaptive immune system restrains Alzheimer's disease pathogenesis by modulating microglial function. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2016; 113:E1316-25. [PMID: 26884167 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1525466113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 284] [Impact Index Per Article: 35.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
The innate immune system is strongly implicated in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD). In contrast, the role of adaptive immunity in AD remains largely unknown. However, numerous clinical trials are testing vaccination strategies for AD, suggesting that T and B cells play a pivotal role in this disease. To test the hypothesis that adaptive immunity influences AD pathogenesis, we generated an immune-deficient AD mouse model that lacks T, B, and natural killer (NK) cells. The resulting "Rag-5xfAD" mice exhibit a greater than twofold increase in β-amyloid (Aβ) pathology. Gene expression analysis of the brain implicates altered innate and adaptive immune pathways, including changes in cytokine/chemokine signaling and decreased Ig-mediated processes. Neuroinflammation is also greatly exacerbated in Rag-5xfAD mice as indicated by a shift in microglial phenotype, increased cytokine production, and reduced phagocytic capacity. In contrast, immune-intact 5xfAD mice exhibit elevated levels of nonamyloid reactive IgGs in association with microglia, and treatment of Rag-5xfAD mice or microglial cells with preimmune IgG enhances Aβ clearance. Last, we performed bone marrow transplantation studies in Rag-5xfAD mice, revealing that replacement of these missing adaptive immune populations can dramatically reduce AD pathology. Taken together, these data strongly suggest that adaptive immune cell populations play an important role in restraining AD pathology. In contrast, depletion of B cells and their appropriate activation by T cells leads to a loss of adaptive-innate immunity cross talk and accelerated disease progression.
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3399
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Abstract
The specific function of microglia, the tissue resident macrophages of the brain and spinal cord, has been difficult to ascertain because of a lack of tools to distinguish microglia from other immune cells, thereby limiting specific immunostaining, purification, and manipulation. Because of their unique developmental origins and predicted functions, the distinction of microglia from other myeloid cells is critically important for understanding brain development and disease; better tools would greatly facilitate studies of microglia function in the developing, adult, and injured CNS. Here, we identify transmembrane protein 119 (Tmem119), a cell-surface protein of unknown function, as a highly expressed microglia-specific marker in both mouse and human. We developed monoclonal antibodies to its intracellular and extracellular domains that enable the immunostaining of microglia in histological sections in healthy and diseased brains, as well as isolation of pure nonactivated microglia by FACS. Using our antibodies, we provide, to our knowledge, the first RNAseq profiles of highly pure mouse microglia during development and after an immune challenge. We used these to demonstrate that mouse microglia mature by the second postnatal week and to predict novel microglial functions. Together, we anticipate these resources will be valuable for the future study and understanding of microglia in health and disease.
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3400
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Piechota M, Korostynski M, Ficek J, Tomski A, Przewlocki R. Seqinspector: position-based navigation through the ChIP-seq data landscape to identify gene expression regulators. BMC Bioinformatics 2016; 17:85. [PMID: 26868127 PMCID: PMC4751710 DOI: 10.1186/s12859-016-0938-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2015] [Accepted: 02/05/2016] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The regulation of gene expression in eukaryotic cells is a complex process that involves epigenetic modifications and the interaction of DNA with multiple transcription factors. This process can be studied with unprecedented sensitivity using a combination of chromatin immunoprecipitation and next-generation DNA sequencing (ChIP-seq). Available ChIP-seq data can be further utilized to interpret new gene expression profiling experiments. Results Here, we describe seqinspector, a tool that accepts any set of genomic coordinates from ChIP-seq or RNA-seq studies to identify shared transcriptional regulators. The presented web resource includes a large collection of publicly available ChIP-seq and RNA-seq experiments (>1300 tracks) performed on transcription factors, histone modifications, RNA polymerases, enhancers and insulators in humans and mice. Over-representation is calculated based on the coverage computed directly from indexed files storing ChIP-seq data (bigwig). Therefore, seqinspector is not limited to pre-computed sets of gene promoters. Conclusion The tool can be used to identify common gene expression regulators for sets of co-expressed transcripts (including miRNAs, lncRNAs or any novel unannotated RNAs) or for sets of ChIP-seq peaks to identify putative protein-protein interactions or transcriptional co-factors. The tool is available at http://seqinspector.cremag.org. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12859-016-0938-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcin Piechota
- Department of Molecular Neuropharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology Polish Academy of Sciences, Krakow, 31-344, Poland.
| | - Michal Korostynski
- Department of Molecular Neuropharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology Polish Academy of Sciences, Krakow, 31-344, Poland
| | - Joanna Ficek
- Department of Molecular Neuropharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology Polish Academy of Sciences, Krakow, 31-344, Poland
| | - Andrzej Tomski
- Department of Molecular Neuropharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology Polish Academy of Sciences, Krakow, 31-344, Poland
| | - Ryszard Przewlocki
- Department of Molecular Neuropharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology Polish Academy of Sciences, Krakow, 31-344, Poland
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