Pyrethroid pesticide residues in the global environment: An overview

Synthesis of Au nanorod-embedded and graphene oxide-wrapped microporous ZIF-8 with high electrocatalytic activity for the sensing of pesticides

Multifunctional metal-organic framework-based composites display great potentials as electrode materials. Herein, highly dispersed Au nanorods were successfully encapsulated inside the zeolitic imidazolate framework ZIF-8 (AuNRs@ZIF-8) by epitaxial growth or nucleus coalescence. The microporous ZIF-8 shell functions as a protective coating to effectively prevent AuNRs from dissolution, aggregation, and migration during the electrochemical testing, while it provides numerous channels for the mass transfer of reactants to the AuNR surface. The as-synthesized AuNRs@ZIF-8 was then encapsulated in graphene oxide (GO) nanosheets to enhance the chemical resistance of the multicore-shell support, which possesses permanent porosity as well as high specific surface area and hydrophilicity. The excellent electrocatalytic performance of the resulting ternary AuNRs@ZIF-8@GO was demonstrated by the highly sensitive sensing of niclosamide, dichlorophen, carbendazim, and diuron, which outperformed the reported electrocatalysts for these four pesticides. This nanocomposite thus holds great promise as a catalyst for electrochemical sensor fabrication due to its abundant multiple active sites, enhanced catalytic activity, and remarkable stability.

Occurrence of Urban-Use Pesticides and Management with Enhanced Stormwater Control Measures at the Watershed Scale

Urban-use pesticides are of increasing concern as they are widely used and have been linked to toxicity of aquatic organisms. To assess the occurrence and treatment of these pesticides in stormwater runoff, an approach combining field sampling and watershed-scale modeling was employed. Stormwater samples were collected at four locations in the lower San Diego River watershed during a storm event and analyzed for fipronil, three of its degradation products, and eight pyrethroids. All 12 compounds were detected with frequency ranging from 50 to 100%. Field results indicate pesticide pollution is ubiquitous at levels above toxicity benchmarks and that runoff may be a major pollutant source to urban surface waters. A watershed-scale stormwater model was developed, calibrated using collected data, and evaluated for pesticide storm load and concentrations under several management scenarios. Modeling results show that enhanced stormwater control measures, such as biochar-amended biofilters, reduce both pesticide storm load and toxicity benchmark exceedances, while conventional biofilters reduce the storm load but provide minimal toxicity benchmark exceedance reduction. Consequently, biochar amendment has the potential to broadly improve water quality at the watershed scale, particularly when meeting concentration-based metrics such as toxicity benchmarks. This research motivates future work to demonstrate the reliability of full-scale enhanced stormwater control measures to treat pollutants of emerging concern.

Sublethal insecticide exposure of an herbivore alters the response of its predator

Sublethal insecticide exposure poses risks for many non-target organisms and is a challenge for successful implementation of integrated pest management (IPM) programs. Next to detrimental effects of short-term insecticide exposure on fitness-related traits of organisms, also properties such as chemical signaling traits can be altered, which mediate intra- and interspecific communication. We investigated the effects of different durations of larval sublethal exposure to the pyrethroid lambda-cyhalothrin on performance traits of larvae and adults of the herbivorous mustard leaf beetle, Phaedon cochleariae. Moreover, by applying a direct contact and olfactometer bioassays, we determined the reaction of a generalist predator, the ant Myrmica rubra, towards insecticide-exposed and unexposed herbivore larvae and their secretions. Already short-term sublethal insecticide exposure of a few days caused a prolonged larval development and a reduced adult body mass of males. These effects may result from an insecticide-induced reduction in energy reserves. Furthermore, ants responded more frequently to insecticide-exposed than to unexposed larvae of P. cochleariae and their secretions. This increased responsiveness of ants towards insecticide-exposed larvae may be due to an insecticide-induced change in synthesis of chrysomelidial and epichrysomelidial, the dominant compounds of the larval secretion, which act defensive against various generalist predators. In conclusion, the results highlight that short-term insecticide exposure can impair the fitness of an herbivorous species due to both direct toxic effects and an increased responsiveness of predators. Consequently, exposure of single non-target species can have consequences for ecological communities in both natural habitats and IPM programs.

Deltamethrin impact in a cabbage planted soil: Degradation and effect on microbial community structure

Synthetic pyrethroids (SPs) are one of the most common pesticides used worldwide. Their use has greatly increased in the last decades and its' continuous application lead to added pesticides concentration in soil. Consequently, SPs may enter the food chain, affecting the environment and human health. The degradation over time of the pyrethroid pesticide deltamethrin applied to cabbages was monitored. The evolution was followed both on cabbages and the surrounding soils, and the soil microbial community characterized by next-generation sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene. The main shift in the microbial community structure was observed during the first 30 days after pesticides' application. The modification in the microbial community composition, where an increased abundance of Nocardioides sp. and Sphingomonas sp. were observed, was correlated respectively with the conversions of deltamethrin and its metabolite, 3-phenoxybenzoic acid (3-PBA). Although deltamethrin was not found in any of the tested samples (soil and cabbage) after 180 days, it caused an environmental impact much further than the 7 days security interval. These findings suggest that deltamethrin application can disturb soil microbial community and that natural biodegradation can have an important part in pesticides soil decontamination.

Hazardous contaminants in the environment and their laccase-assisted degradation - A review

In recent years, owing to the serious ecological risks and human health-related adverse effects, the wide occurrence of hazardous contaminants along with their potential to enter the environment have gained great public concerns. In this context, significant actions are urgently required to tackle the ignorance and inefficient monitoring/removal of emerging/(re)-emerging contaminants (ECs) in the environment from different routes of concerns, i.e., industrial waste, pharmaceutical, personal care products (PCPs), toxic effluents, etc. Laccases are multinuclear copper-containing oxidoreductases and can carry out one electron oxidation of a broad spectrum of environmentally related contaminants. In biotechnology, this group of versatile enzymes is known as a green catalyst/green tool with enormous potentialities to tackle ECs of high concern. In this review, we endeavored to present up-to-date literature concerning the potential use of immobilized laccases for the degradation and remediation of various types of environmental pollutants present in the environment. Both, pristine and immobilized, laccases have shown great capacity to oxidative degradation and mineralization of endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDs) in batch treatment processes as well as in large-scale continuous reactors. These properties make laccase as particularly attractive biocatalysts in environmental remediation processes, and their use might be advantageous over the conventional treatments. This review summarizes the most significant recent advances in the use of laccases and their future perspectives in environmental biotechnology.

Effects of multiple environmental factors on elimination of fenvalerate and its cis-trans isomers in aquaculture water

Fenvalerate (FV) is widely used in aquaculture because of their broad spectrums and high efficiency. However, little is known regarding the elimination of FV influenced by environment factors in aquaculture water, especially its cis-trans isomers (cis-FV and trans-FV). In the present study, factors influencing the aquaculture environment (open type, temperature, pH and light) were selected, and the elimination dynamics of FV and its cis-trans isomers in aquaculture water using orthogonal experiments were investigated. The results showed that the half-life and elimination rate range of FV were 4.75-11.95 days and 65-93%, respectively, while those of trans-FV were 4.60-11.82 days and 67-93% and those of cis-FV were 4.94-12.04 days and 64-92%, respectively. The elimination rate of trans-FV was better than that of cis-FV. Additionally, analysis of variance (ANOVA) of the orthogonal experimental data indicated that the environmental factors of open type, temperature, and pH significantly influenced the elimination rate of cis- and trans-FV (P < 0.05), that is, in the aquaculture season, high temperature and pH facilitate to eliminate FV. This study would improve our understanding of natural degradation associated with FV and guide safe to use associated with pesticide in aquaculture.

Proteasome inhibition by MG-132 protects against deltamethrin-induced apoptosis in rat hippocampus

AIMS

Deltamethrin (DM), a type II synthetic pyrethroid insecticide, is widely used in agriculture and home pest control. The evaluation of their toxic effects is of major concern to public health. However, the molecular mechanism of DM-induced neurodegenerative disease is still far from clear. This study was designed to investigate the potential role of ubiquitin proteasome system (UPS) in DM-induced neurotoxicity where the proteasome inhibitor MG-132 could mitigate the neurotoxic effects.

MAIN METHODS

Male Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into two batches. The first batch of rats was administrated with a single dose of DM (12.5 mg/kg) by intraperitoneal injections (i.p.) and the animals were then euthanized at 5, 24, and 48 h post injection. The second batch was treated as follow: control group, DM (12.5 mg/kg) groups for 24 h, MG-132 (0.5 mg/kg, i.p.) 2 h plus DM 24 h group, and MG-132 alone group. Ubiqutinatied proteins, DNA damage and apoptosis were investigated.

KEY FINDINGS

DM treatment induced the ubiquitinated proteins expression with the peaks at 5 h. Moreover, DM increased DNA damage, early apoptotic rate, the expression level of Cleaved Caspase-3, caspase-3 activity and decreased the expression level of Bcl-2 at DM 24 h group. Compared to DM 24 h group, MG-132 pretreatment significantly down-regulated ubiquitinated proteins, lowered the DNA damage and apoptosis by decreasing Caspase-3 and increasing Bcl-2 expression.

SIGNIFICANCE

These results indicate that MG-132 effectively alleviates DM-induced DNA damage and apoptosis by inhibiting ubiquitinated proteins. UPS may play a role in DM-induced neurodegenerative disorders.

A preliminary investigation of 942 organic micro-pollutants in the atmosphere in waste processing and urban areas, northern Vietnam: Levels, potential sources, and risk assessment

Of 942 organic micro-pollutants screened, 167 compounds were detected at least once in the atmosphere in some primitive waste processing sites and an urban area in northern Vietnam by using a polyurethane foam-based passive air sampling (PUF-PAS) method and an Automated Identification and Quantification System with a Database (AIQS-DB) for GC-MS. Total concentrations of organic pollutants were higher in samples collected from an urban area of Hanoi city (2300-2600 ng m^-3) as compared with those from an end-of-life vehicle (ELV) dismantling area in Bac Giang (900-1700 ng m^-3) and a waste recycling cooperative in Thai Nguyen (870-1300 ng m^-3). Domestic chemicals (e.g., n-alkanes, phthalate ester plasticizers, and synthetic phenolic antioxidants) dominated the organic pollutant patterns in all the samples, especially in the urban area. Pesticides (e.g., permethrins, chlorpyrifos, and propiconazole) were found in the atmosphere around the ELV sites at more elevated concentrations than the other areas. Levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and their derivatives in the Bac Giang and Thai Nguyen facilities were significantly higher than those measured in Hanoi urban houses, probably due to the waste processing activities. Daily intake doses of organic pollutants via inhalation were estimated for waste processing workers and urban residents. This study shall provide preliminary data on the environmental occurrence, potential emission sources, and effects of multiple classes of organic pollutants in urban and waste processing areas in northern Vietnam.

Evaluation of efficacy of the essential oil from Ostericum viridiflorum (Turcz.) Kitagawa in control of stored product insects

The natural and ecologically safe control of stored product insects has gained considerable attention in modern society. In this study of further searching for botanical pesticides from wild-growing plant, the contact toxicity and repellency towards Tribolium castaneum and Liposcelis bostrychophila were assessed for the essential oil (EO) from Ostericum viridiflorum. The EO was distilled from aboveground parts of O. viridiflorum and checked by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Twenty-two compounds were identified and the main components were β-caryophyllene (24.3%), α-humulene (21.0%), apiol (10.2%), and carotol (2.5%). For bioactivity tests, results indicated that the EO and its two main compounds (β-caryophyllene and α-humulene) all showed potent contact toxicity towards L. bostrychophila with LD₅₀ values of 44.52 μg/cm², 74.11 μg/cm², and 118.56 μg/cm², respectively. The EO and the two main compounds also exhibited comparable repellency towards T. castaneum and L. bostrychophila. The results evidenced the EO of O. viridiflorum aboveground parts and its major compounds could be considered for the development of eco-friendly botanical insecticides and repellents in controlling stored product insects.

Validating an ion mobility spectrometry-quadrupole time of flight mass spectrometry method for high-throughput pesticide screening

The utility of adding ion mobility (IM) to quadrupole time of flight mass spectrometry (IM-QTOF MS) for highly effective analysis of multiple pesticides in complex matrices was evaluated. Based on an in-house IM-MS database, the identification was performed through the match of the protonated ion ([M + H]+) and the CCS value. Moreover, the structural confirmation was achieved by using the accurate masses of [M + H]+ with its fragment ions, and the reference CCS value. The method did not require chromatographic separation and the analysis time of each measurement cycle is 1.6 min. The "cleaned" IM-MS spectra afforded by the drift time filtration improved the reliability of structural confirmation. As a result, the limit of detection (LOD) of 92% of test pesticides under the APCI mode and 58% of test pesticides under the ESI mode spiked in scallion was not more than 20 ng mL-1. In the analysis of practical samples, the identification of pyrimethanil was confirmed in celery, and benalaxyl and tebuconazole were identified as false positives in scallion. The time-saving, extended-scope and high-throughput method described in this work is capable of determining multiple pesticide residues in complex matrices with high sensitivity for monitoring applications.

Pyrethroid pesticide metabolite, 3-PBA, in soils: method development and application to real agricultural soils

3-Phenoxybenzoic acid (3-PBA) is a shared metabolite of several synthetic pyrethroid pesticides (SPs) resulting from environmental degradation of parent compounds and thus occurs frequently as a residue in samples. Hence, the importance of 3-PBA evaluation after pyrethroid application. There is a gap of analytical methods to determine 3-PBA in soil samples. Therefore, an analytical method that combines the solid-phase extraction (SPE) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC/MS) detection has been developed for the determination of 3-PBA in soil samples. The analytical method was validated in terms of linearity, sensitivity, intra- and inter-day batch precisions, recoveries, and quantification limits. An SPE method using a Strata X cartridge allows obtaining limits of detection and quantification equal to 4.0 and 13.3 ng g^-1, respectively. Under optimized conditions, the method average recovery levels ranged from 70.3 to 93.5% with a relative standard deviation below 3.4%. Method intra- and inter-day precision was under 5.0 and 4.8%, respectively. The developed method was applied to 11 agricultural soil samples in the north of Portugal. The developed methodology allowed for the determination of the pyrethroid metabolite, 3-PBA, in agricultural soil samples at levels of few ng g^-1. Graphical abstract ᅟ.

Discovery and development of pyrethroid insecticides

Pyrethroid insecticides contain natural pyrethrins extracted from pyrethrum flowers, and their synthetic derivatives, pyrethroids. The present article provides an overview of the structure of natural pyrethrins, and the discovery and development of pyrethroids with an emphasis on the background of selected compounds. The stereochemical relationships among pyrethroid secondary alcohols, and toxicologic and environmental effects of pyrethroids are also discussed. Finally, the pyrethroid resistance of mosquitoes and future aspects of pyrethroids are addressed.

Magnetic solid-phase extraction of pyrethroid insecticides from tea infusions using ionic liquid-modified magnetic zeolitic imidazolate framework-8 as an adsorbent

A MSPE-GC-MS/MS method was developed for the analysis of pyrethroids from tea infusions using Fe₃O₄/ZIF-8/IL as an adsorbent.

Persistence of malathion used in dengue control on household surfaces

ABSTRACT: Dengue is a viral infection transmitted by the mosquito Aedes aegypti. In Brazil, one of the insecticides used to control the mosquito is malathion, which can be diluted in vegetable oil (1:2 v/v). The purpose of this study was to understand the persistence of malathion on different surfaces and soil. Surfaces were contaminated by malathion and then washed with water and soap. The water used to clean the surfaces was extracted and analyzed by gas chromatography with an FID detector. Soil samples received malathion 14C-TG diluted in vegetable oil (1:2 v/v) and were analyzed zero, 3, 7, 18, 32, 60, 120, 240, and 360 days after the application in a liquid scintillation analyzer. Results showed a high persistence of malathion on porous surfaces. Moreover, it did not degrade in the soil for the first 120 days.

Occurrence, distribution and risk assessment of pesticides in a river-reservoir system

The water environment from river to reservoir has been considered as a hybrid river-reservoir system due to pronounced environmental properties. This study investigated the distribution and potential environmental behavior of pesticides in river-reservoir system, examining 31 target pesticides in water phase from a key drinking water source (Dongjiang River). The concentrations of ∑₈OCPs, ∑₁₆OPPs and ∑₇SPs with the corresponding occurrence were in the range of 107.57-340.35 ng/L (moderate level), 232.65-1197.95 ng/L (moderate level) and 125.23-245.09 ng/L (low level), respectively. Ecological risk assessments indicated that most of the pesticides posed a high level of risk to the aquatic organisms. Moreover, seasonal agricultural application, rainfall and temperature could influence the levels and compositions of ∑₈OCPs, ∑₁₆OPPs and ∑₇SPs in the river system, while seasonal hydrological processes could only influence their compositions in the reservoir system. In the wet season, the levels of ∑₈OCPs and ∑₇SPs decreased from the river system to reservoir system probably via biogeochemical processes, while the level of ∑₁₆OPPs decreased along the environmental gradient probably via dilution process. Additionally, longer hydraulic retention time of the reservoir system could contribute to the biogeochemical processes for OPPs and SPs exported from the river system, but it might fail to facilitate this process for OCPs. Taken together, this study highlighted that the distributions and environmental behavior of pesticides in river-reservoir system varied seasonally from river system to reservoir system.

Urinary concentrations and profiles of organophosphate and pyrethroid pesticide metabolites and phenoxyacid herbicides in populations in eight countries

Concentrations of nine metabolites of organophosphate and pyrethroid insecticides, as well as two phenoxy herbicides, were determined in 322 urine samples collected from eight countries during 2006-2014 by high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS). The target pesticides were found ubiquitously, indicating widespread exposure of humans to pesticides in these countries. The highest sum concentrations of 11 pesticides were found in urine collected from Vietnam (median, 28.9 ng/mL), followed in decreasing order by samples from India (14.2 ng/mL), China (13.6 ng/mL), Korea (12.5 ng/mL), Greece (12.3 ng/mL), Saudi Arabia (11.3 ng/mL), the USA (7.9 ng/mL), and Japan (7.1 ng/mL). Organophosphorus compounds accounted for 62-77% of the total urinary pesticide concentrations. Para-nitrophenol (metabolite of parathion and methyl parathion) and 3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinol (metabolite of chlorpyrifos and chlorpyrifos-methyl) were the major metabolites, especially in India (72%), China (69%), and Greece (66%). Differences in urinary pesticide concentrations between genders (male vs. female), age groups (categorized as ≤20, 21-49, and ≥50 years), and cities (Guangzhou, Shanghai, and Qiqihar) were examined. On the basis of the concentrations measured in urine, total daily intakes (DIs) of pesticides were estimated. The DIs of chlorpyrifos were found to be higher for populations in Vietnam, Greece, India, China, and Korea (≥9.6 μg/day) than those estimated for the other countries (<5 μg/day). The DIs of parathion (≥9.6 μg/day) in populations of China, India, and Korea were higher than those estimated for the other countries (5.7-9.3 μg/day). This is the first study to establish baseline levels of exposure of a variety of pesticides in several Asian countries.

Brominated Flame Retardants, Microplastics, and Biocides in the Marine Environment: Recent Updates of Occurrence, Analysis, and Impacts

Emerging contaminants (ECs) may pose adverse effects on the marine ecosystem and human health. Based on the analysis of publications filed in recent years, this paper provides a comprehensive overview on three prominent groups of ECs, i.e., brominated flame retardants, microplastics, and biocides. It includes detailed discussions on: (1) the occurrence of ECs in seawater, sediment, and biota; (2) analytical detection and monitoring approaches for these target ECs; and (3) the biological impacts of the ECs on humans and other trophic levels. This review provides a summary of recent advances in the field and remaining knowledge gaps to address, to enable the assessment of risk and support the development of regulations and mitigation technologies for the control of ECs in the marine environment.

[Human Biomonitoring as a Useful Approach to Health Risk Assessment Compared with Occupational Exposure Assessment of Insecticide Intake: Fundamental Study Focused on Local Populations and Occupational Fields]

Human biomonitoring (HBM) is a technique to evaluate chemical exposure level by measuring the levels of chemicals or related substances such as their metabolites or adducts in biological samples (e.g., urine or blood). Compared with exposure assessment by an approach to estimate insecticide intake from diet or the environment, HBM can provide information more specific to an individual exposure dose and can reflect the exact body burden condition at the time of measurement. If the analytical sensitivities, completeness and cost-effectiveness of the method are improved further, HBM might be widely applicable to not only research fields such as epidemiological and occupational study but also routine analysis for effective prevention of the exposure of the human body to chemical substances. In this article, we provide an overview of HBM as a determination method for insecticide exposure markers in urine and its applications, and discuss future research perspectives in the field of environmental and occupational health.

The pyrethroid insecticides permethrin and esfenvalerate do not disrupt testicular steroidogenesis in the rat fetus

The present study investigated the effects of maternal exposure to the widely used pyrethroid insecticides, permethrin and esfenvalerate, on fetal testicular steroidogenesis. Pregnant Sprague-Dawley rats were administered permethrin at doses of 1, 10, 50, or 100 mg/kg/day, or esfenvalerate at 0.1, 1, 7.5 or 15 mg/kg/day, by gavage, from gestation day (GD) 13 to 19. Testicular testosterone production and the expression of several key genes necessary for cholesterol and androgen synthesis and transport were assessed in GD 19 male fetuses. Dams treated with 100 mg/kg/day of permethrin or 15 mg/kg/day of esfenvalerate showed clinical signs of neurotoxicity. The highest dose of esfenvalerate also resulted in reduced maternal body weight gain throughout the treatment period. In the fetal testes, mRNA expressions of HMG-CoA synthase and reductase, SR-B1, StAR, P450scc, 3βHSD, P450 17A1, and 17βHSD were not affected by exposure to either pyrethroid. No significant change was observed in ex vivo testosterone production. In conclusion, in utero exposure to permethrin or esfenvalerate has no effect on the testosterone biosynthesis pathway in the fetal rat testis up to maternal toxic doses.