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Sjöholm LK, Kovanen L, Saarikoski ST, Schalling M, Lavebratt C, Partonen T. CLOCK is suggested to associate with comorbid alcohol use and depressive disorders. J Circadian Rhythms 2010; 8:1. [PMID: 20180986 PMCID: PMC2854106 DOI: 10.1186/1740-3391-8-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2009] [Accepted: 01/21/2010] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Depression and alcohol abuse or dependence (AUD) co-occur in the general population more frequently than expected by chance. Alcohol use influences the circadian rhythms generated by the central pacemaker in the suprachiasmatic nucleus, and circadian rhythm alterations in turn are common in depressive disorders as well as among persons addicted to alcohol. Methods 32 SNPs in 19 circadian clockwork related genes were analyzed using DNA from 76 individuals with comorbid depression and AUD, 446 individuals with AUD and 517 healthy controls with no psychiatric diagnosis. The individuals participated in a nationwide health examination study, representative of the general population aged 30 and over in Finland. Results The CLOCK haplotype TTGC formed by SNPs rs3805151, rs2412648, rs11240 and rs2412646, was associated with increased risk for comorbidity (OR = 1.65, 95% CI = 1.14-2.28, P = 0.0077). The SNPs of importance for this suggestive association were rs2412646 and rs11240 indicating location of the functional variation in the block downstream rs2412648. There was no indication for association between CLOCK and AUD. Conclusion Our findings suggest an association between the CLOCK gene and the comorbid condition of alcohol use and depressive disorders. Together with previous reports it indicates that the CLOCK variations we found here may be a vulnerability factor to depression given the exposure to alcohol in individuals having AUD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Louise K Sjöholm
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Surgery, Karolinska Institutet, Neurogenetics Unit CMM L8:00 Karolinska University Hospital, 171 76 Stockholm, Sweden.
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302
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Abstract
Research on infectious agents as a possible cause of schizophrenia has become prominent in the past decade. Toxoplasma gondii has emerged as a prime candidate for a variety of reasons; (i) many studies have reported that individuals with schizophrenia, compared to controls, have a higher prevalence of antibodies to T. gondii, (ii) some individuals with adult toxoplasmosis develop psychotic symptoms similar to those of schizophrenia, (iii) epidemiologically, there are many similarities between toxoplasmosis and schizophrenia, (iv) antipsychotic drugs known to be effective in schizophrenia also inhibit some parasites, including T. gondii, (v) Toxoplasma has been shown to induce elevated levels of dopamine in experimentally infected animals (elevated dopamine is commonly seen in individuals with schizophrenia) and (vi) studies have shown that individuals with schizophrenia, compared to controls, have had greater exposure to cats in childhood. A number of questions remain concerning a role for Toxoplasma in the aetiology of schizophrenia, including the roles of strain variation, the timing and source of infection, and the role of host genes in determining disease susceptibility. The establishment of a firm association between Toxoplasma and the aetiology of schizophrenia and related disorders would represent a major breakthrough in the understanding of these disorders and would lead to novel methods for their treatment and prevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- R H Yolken
- Stanley Division of Developmental Neurovirology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21287-4933, USA.
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303
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Hall MH, Smoller JW. A new role for endophenotypes in the GWAS era: functional characterization of risk variants. Harv Rev Psychiatry 2010; 18:67-74. [PMID: 20047462 PMCID: PMC3586547 DOI: 10.3109/10673220903523532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Mei-Hua Hall
- Harvard Medical School, Psychology Research Laboratory, McLean Hospital, Belmont, MA, USA.
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304
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Abstract
Impaired cognitive functioning, including deficits in working memory, is considered to be a core and disabling feature of schizophrenia that is difficult to treat. Deficits in working memory in schizophrenia are attributable, at least in part, to specific pathological alterations in the neuronal circuitry of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex that involve, but are not restricted to, disturbances in glutamate, GABA, and dopamine neurotransmission. Cannabis use provides an example of an environmental exposure that may have a deleterious impact on these neurotransmitter systems and thereby contribute to worsening of cognitive functioning in schizophrenia. Increasing knowledge of the nature of the molecular alterations in these cortical circuits may lead to the development of new pathophysiologically informed treatment options for cognitive deficits in schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- David W Volk
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, 3811 O'Hara Street, BST W1653, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA.
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305
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The 2009 Nobel conference on the role of genetics in promoting suicide prevention and the mental health of the population. Mol Psychiatry 2010; 15:12-7. [PMID: 20029410 DOI: 10.1038/mp.2009.113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
A 3-day Nobel Conference entitled 'The role of genetics in promoting suicide prevention and the mental health of the population' was held at the Nobel Forum, Karolinska Institute (KI) in Stockholm, Sweden, during 8-10 June 2009. The conference was sponsored by the Nobel Assembly for Physiology or Medicine and organized by the National Prevention for Suicide and Mental Ill-Health and the Center for Molecular Medicine at KI. The program consisted of 19 invited presentations, covering the genetic basis of mood/psychotic disorders and substance abuse in relation to suicide, with topics ranging from cellular-molecular mechanisms to (endo)phenotypes of mental disorders at the level of the individual and populations. Here, we provide an overview based on the highlights of what was presented.
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306
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Sebat J, Levy DL, McCarthy SE. Rare structural variants in schizophrenia: one disorder, multiple mutations; one mutation, multiple disorders. Trends Genet 2009; 25:528-35. [PMID: 19883952 PMCID: PMC3351381 DOI: 10.1016/j.tig.2009.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 181] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2009] [Revised: 09/30/2009] [Accepted: 10/08/2009] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Recent studies have established an important role for rare genomic deletions and duplications in the etiology of schizophrenia. This research suggests that the genetic architecture of neuropsychiatric disorders includes a constellation of rare mutations in many different genes. Mutations that confer substantial risk for schizophrenia have been identified at several loci, most of which have also been implicated in other neurodevelopmental disorders, including autism. Genetic heterogeneity is a characteristic of schizophrenia; conversely, phenotypic heterogeneity is a characteristic of all schizophrenia-associated mutations. Both kinds of heterogeneity probably reflect the complexity of neurodevelopment. Research strategies must account for both genetic and clinical heterogeneity to identify the genes and pathways crucial for the development of neuropsychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Sebat
- Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, NY 11724, USA.
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307
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Moreno JL, Sealfon SC, González-Maeso J. Group II metabotropic glutamate receptors and schizophrenia. Cell Mol Life Sci 2009; 66:3777-85. [PMID: 19707855 PMCID: PMC2792875 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-009-0130-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2009] [Revised: 07/10/2009] [Accepted: 08/11/2009] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Schizophrenia is one of the most common mental illnesses, with hereditary and environmental factors important for its etiology. All antipsychotics have in common a high affinity for monoaminergic receptors. Whereas hallucinations and delusions usually respond to typical (haloperidol-like) and atypical (clozapine-like) monoaminergic antipsychotics, their efficacy in improving negative symptoms and cognitive deficits remains inadequate. In addition, devastating side effects are a common characteristic of monoaminergic antipsychotics. Recent biochemical, preclinical and clinical findings support group II metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluR2 and mGluR3) as a new approach to treat schizophrenia. This paper reviews the status of general knowledge of mGluR2 and mGluR3 in the psychopharmacology, genetics and neuropathology of schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- José L. Moreno
- Department of Psychiatry, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY 10029 USA
- Division of Basic Neuroscience, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY 10029 USA
| | - Stuart C. Sealfon
- Department of Neurology, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY 10029 USA
- Center for Translational Systems Biology, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY 10029 USA
| | - Javier González-Maeso
- Department of Psychiatry, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY 10029 USA
- Department of Neurology, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY 10029 USA
- Division of Basic Neuroscience, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY 10029 USA
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308
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Abstract
OBJECTIVE Despite effective pharmacological treatments for bipolar disorder, we still lack a comprehensive pathophysiological model of the illness. Recent neurobiological research has implicated a number of key brain regions and neuronal components in the behavioural and cognitive manifestations of bipolar disorder. Dopamine has previously been investigated in some depth in bipolar disorder, but of late has not been a primary focus of attention. This article examines the role of dopamine in bipolar disorder, incorporating recent advances into established models where possible. METHODS A critical evaluation of the literature was undertaken, including a review of behavioural, neurochemical, receptor, and imaging studies, as well as genetic studies focusing on dopamine receptors and related metabolic pathways. In addition, pharmacologic manipulation of the central dopaminergic pathways and comparisons with other disease states such as schizophrenia were considered, principally as a means of exploring the hypothesised models. RESULTS Multiple lines of evidence, including data from pharmacological interventions and structural and functional magnetic resonance imaging studies, suggest that the dopaminergic system may play a central role in bipolar disorder. CONCLUSION Future research into the pathophysiological mechanisms of bipolar disorder and the development of new treatments for bipolar disorder should focus on the dopaminergic system.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A Cousins
- Newcastle Magnetic Resonance Centre, Campus for Ageing and Vitality, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK.
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309
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The role of DNA copy number variation in schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry 2009; 66:1005-12. [PMID: 19748074 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.07.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2009] [Revised: 07/21/2009] [Accepted: 07/21/2009] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Schizophrenia is a major psychiatric disease with strong evidence of genetic risk factors. Recent studies based on genome-wide study of copy number variations (CNVs) have detected novel recurrent submicroscopic copy number changes, including recurrent deletions at 1q21.11, 15q11.3, 15q13.3, and the recurrent CNV at the 2p16.3 neurexin 1 locus. These schizophrenia susceptibility CNV loci demonstrate that schizophrenia is, at least in part, genetic in origin and provide the basis for further investigation of mutations associated with the disease. The studies combined have also established the role of rare and-in sporadic cases-de novo variants in schizophrenia. Furthermore, neuronal-related genes and genetic pathways are starting to emerge from the CNV loci associated with schizophrenia. Here, we review the major findings in the recent literature, which begin to unravel the genetic and biological architecture of this complex human neuropsychiatric disorder.
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310
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Barnett JH, Smoller JW. The genetics of bipolar disorder. Neuroscience 2009; 164:331-43. [PMID: 19358880 PMCID: PMC3637882 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2009.03.080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 218] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2008] [Revised: 03/23/2009] [Accepted: 03/30/2008] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Bipolar disorder is a mood disorder characterized by impairing episodes of mania and depression. Twin studies have established that bipolar disorder is among the most heritable of medical disorders and efforts to identify specific susceptibility genes have intensified over the past two decades. The search for genes influencing bipolar disorder has been complicated by a paucity of animal models, limited understanding of pathogenesis, and the genetic and phenotypic complexity of the syndrome. Linkage studies have implicated several chromosomal regions as harboring relevant genes, but results have been inconsistent. It is now widely accepted that the genetic liability to bipolar disorder reflects the action of many genes of individually small effect, a scenario for which linkage studies are poorly suited. Thus, association studies, which are more powerful for the detection of modest effect loci, have become the focus of gene-finding research. A large number of candidate genes, including biological candidates derived from hypotheses about the pathogenesis of the disorder and positional candidates derived from linkage and cytogenetic studies, have been evaluated. Several of these genes have been associated with the disorder in independent studies (including BDNF, DAOA, DISC1, GRIK4, SLC6A4, and TPH2), but none has been established. The clinical heterogeneity of bipolar disorder and its phenotypic and genetic overlap with other disorders (especially schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder, and major depressive disorder) have raised questions about the optimal phenotype definition for genetic studies. Nevertheless, genomewide association analysis, which has successfully identified susceptibility genes for a variety of complex disorders, has begun to implicate specific genes for bipolar disorder (DGKH, CACNA1C, ANK3). The polygenicity of the disorder means that very large samples will be needed to detect the modest effect loci that likely contribute to bipolar disorder. Detailed genetic dissection of the disorder may provide novel targets (both pharmacologic and psychosocial) for intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer H Barnett
- Psychiatric and Neurodevelopmental Genetics Unit, Center for Human Genetic Research, and Psychiatric Genetics Program in Mood and Anxiety Disorders, Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge UK
| | - Jordan W Smoller
- Psychiatric and Neurodevelopmental Genetics Unit, Center for Human Genetic Research, and Psychiatric Genetics Program in Mood and Anxiety Disorders, Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA
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311
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Hope S, Melle I, Aukrust P, Steen NE, Birkenaes AB, Lorentzen S, Agartz I, Ueland T, Andreassen OA. Similar immune profile in bipolar disorder and schizophrenia: selective increase in soluble tumor necrosis factor receptor I and von Willebrand factor. Bipolar Disord 2009; 11:726-34. [PMID: 19839997 DOI: 10.1111/j.1399-5618.2009.00757.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Alterations in the inflammatory system have been associated with schizophrenia and major depression, while bipolar disorder has been less studied. Most previous studies examined small samples, and the literature is inconsistent with regard to specific underlying immune mechanisms. In the present study, we examined markers representing different inflammatory pathways, and the aim was to investigate whether the levels of inflammatory parameters in a representative sample of bipolar disorder and schizophrenia are elevated compared to healthy controls, and to investigate whether the inflammatory profile is different between the groups. METHODS Plasma levels of soluble tumor necrosis factor receptor 1 (sTNF-R1), interleukin-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1Ra), interleukin-6 (IL-6), high-sensitivity CRP (hs-CRP), soluble CD40L ligand (sCD40L), and von Willebrand factor (vWf) were measured with ELISA techniques in a catchment area based sample of consecutively referred patients with severe mental disorders [N = 311, comprising bipolar disorder (n = 125) and schizophrenia (n = 186)] and in healthy volunteers (n = 244). RESULTS Plasma levels of sTNF-R1 and vWf were statistically significantly increased in both bipolar disorder and schizophrenia compared to controls (p < 0.00001), and were also increased in unmedicated patients, but there were no major differences between the two diagnostic groups. Controlling for age, gender, ethnicity, cardiovascular disorders, kidney and liver function, and other confounders did not affect the results. There were no differences in other inflammation factors between the groups. CONCLUSION The present results indicate specific alterations of endothelium-related inflammation processes in both bipolar disorder and schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sigrun Hope
- Department of Psychiatry, Østfold Hospital, Eidsberg, Norway.
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312
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Chamberlain SR, Menzies L. Endophenotypes of obsessive-compulsive disorder: rationale, evidence and future potential. Expert Rev Neurother 2009; 9:1133-46. [PMID: 19673603 DOI: 10.1586/ern.09.36] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is a heritable and debilitating neuropsychiatric condition. Attempts to delineate genetic contributions have met with limited success, and there is an ongoing search for intermediate trait or vulnerability markers rooted in the neurosciences. Such markers would be valuable for detecting people at risk of developing the condition, clarifying etiological factors and targeting novel treatments. This review begins with brief coverage of the epidemiology of OCD, and presents a hierarchical model of the condition. The advantages of neuropsychological assessment and neuroimaging as objective measures of brain integrity and function are discussed. We describe the concept of endophenotypes and examples of their successful use in medicine and psychiatry. Key areas of focus in the search for OCD endophenotypes are identified, such as measures of inhibitory control and probes of the integrity of orbitofrontal and posterior parietal cortices. Finally, we discuss exciting findings in unaffected first-degree relatives of patients with OCD that have led to the identification of several candidate endophenotypes of the disorder, with important implications for neurobiological understanding and treatment of this and related conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel R Chamberlain
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Cambridge, CB2 2QQ, UK.
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313
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Muiños-Gimeno M, Montfort M, Bayés M, Estivill X, Espinosa-Parrilla Y. Design and evaluation of a panel of single-nucleotide polymorphisms in microRNA genomic regions for association studies in human disease. Eur J Hum Genet 2009; 18:218-26. [PMID: 19809479 DOI: 10.1038/ejhg.2009.165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
MicroRNAs (miRNA) are recognized posttranscriptional gene repressors involved in the control of almost every biological process. Allelic variants in these regions may be an important source of phenotypic diversity and contribute to disease susceptibility. We analyzed the genomic organization of 325 human miRNAs (release 7.1, miRBase) to construct a panel of 768 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) covering approximately 1 Mb of genomic DNA, including 131 isolated miRNAs (40%) and 194 miRNAs arranged in 48 miRNA clusters, as well as their 5-kb flanking regions. Of these miRNAs, 37% were inside known protein-coding genes, which were significantly associated with biological functions regarding neurological, psychological or nutritional disorders. SNP coverage analysis revealed a lower SNP density in miRNAs compared with the average of the genome, with only 24 SNPs located in the 325 miRNAs studied. Further genotyping of 340 unrelated Spanish individuals showed that more than half of the SNPs in miRNAs were either rare or monomorphic, in agreement with the reported selective constraint on human miRNAs. A comparison of the minor allele frequencies between Spanish and HapMap population samples confirmed the applicability of this SNP panel to the study of complex disorders among the Spanish population, and revealed two miRNA regions, hsa-mir-26a-2 in the CTDSP2 gene and hsa-mir-128-1 in the R3HDM1 gene, showing geographical allelic frequency variation among the four HapMap populations, probably because of differences in natural selection. The designed miRNA SNP panel could help to identify still hidden links between miRNAs and human disease.
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314
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Bergen S, Chen J, Dagdan E, Foon TS, Goes FS, Houlihan LM, Kloiber S, Kumar RA, Kuzman MR, Menke A, Pedroso I, Videtic A, Villafuerte S, DeLisi LE. Selected summaries from the XVI World Congress of Psychiatric Genetics, Osaka, Japan, 11-15 October 2008. Psychiatr Genet 2009; 19:219-36. [PMID: 19661838 PMCID: PMC7996065 DOI: 10.1097/ypg.0b013e32832cec32] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
The XVI World Congress of Psychiatric Genetics, sponsored by the International Society of Psychiatric Genetics took place in Osaka, Japan, October 2008. Approximately 600 participants gathered to discuss the latest molecular genetic findings relevant to serious mental illnesses, including schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, major depression, alcohol and drug abuse, autism, and attention-deficit disorder. Recently, the field has advanced considerably and includes new genome-wide association studies with the largest numbers of individuals screened and density of markers to date, as well as newly uncovered genetic phenomena, such as copy number variation that may prove to be relevant for specific brain disorders. The following report represents some of the areas covered during this conference and some of the major new findings presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Bergen
- Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Virginia Commonwealth University
- Virginia Institute for Psychiatric and Behavioral Genetics, Richmond, Virginia
| | - Jingchun Chen
- Virginia Institute for Psychiatric and Behavioral Genetics, Richmond, Virginia
| | - Elif Dagdan
- Smurfit Institute of Genetics, Trinity College, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Tee Shiau Foon
- University Tunku Abdul Rahman, and Faculty of Science and Engineering, Jalan Genting Kelang, Setapak, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Fernando S. Goes
- Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Lorna M. Houlihan
- Centre for Cognitive Ageing and Cognitive Epidemiology, Department of Psychology, The University of Edinburgh 7 George Square, Edinburgh, Scotland
| | - Stefan Kloiber
- Max-Planck-Institute of Psychiatry, Kraepelinstr., Munich, Germany
| | - Ravinesh A. Kumar
- Department of Human Genetics, The University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Martina Rojnic Kuzman
- Department of Psychiatry, Zagreb University, Hospital Centre, Kispaticeva, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Andreas Menke
- Max-Planck-Institute of Psychiatry, Kraepelinstr., Munich, Germany
| | - Inti Pedroso
- MRC SGDP Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, King’s College, De Crespigny Park and NIHR Biomedical Research Centre for Mental Health, South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust and Institute of Psychiatry, King’s College, London, UK
| | - Alja Videtic
- Faculty of Medicine University of Ljubljana, Institute of Biochemistry, Medical Center for Molecular Genetics, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Sandra Villafuerte
- Molecular and Behavioral Neuroscience Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
| | - Lynn E. DeLisi
- Department of Psychiatry, New York University Langone School of Medicine, New York, USA
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315
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Polanczyk G, Caspi A, Williams B, Price TS, Danese A, Sugden K, Uher R, Poulton R, Moffitt TE. Protective effect of CRHR1 gene variants on the development of adult depression following childhood maltreatment: replication and extension. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009; 66:978-85. [PMID: 19736354 DOI: 10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2009.114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 210] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
CONTEXT A previous study reported a gene x environment interaction in which a haplotype in the corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor 1 gene (CRHR1) was associated with protection against adult depressive symptoms in individuals who were maltreated as children (as assessed by the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire [CTQ]). OBJECTIVE To replicate the interaction between childhood maltreatment and a TAT haplotype formed by rs7209436, rs110402, and rs242924 in CRHR1, predicting adult depression. DESIGN Two prospective longitudinal cohort studies. SETTING England and New Zealand. PARTICIPANTS Participants in the first sample were women in the E-Risk Study (N = 1116), followed up to age 40 years with 96% retention. Participants in the second sample were men and women in the Dunedin Study (N = 1037), followed up to age 32 years with 96% retention. Main Outcome Measure Research diagnoses of past-year and recurrent major depressive disorder. RESULTS In the E-Risk Study, the TAT haplotype was associated with a significant protective effect. In this effect, women who reported childhood maltreatment on the CTQ were protected against depression. In the Dunedin Study, which used a different type of measure of maltreatment, this finding was not replicated. CONCLUSIONS A haplotype in CRHR1 has been suggested to exert a protective effect against adult depression among research participants who reported maltreatment on the CTQ, a measure that elicits emotional memories. This suggests the hypothesis that CRHR1's protective effect may relate to its function in the consolidation of memories of emotionally arousing experiences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guilherme Polanczyk
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Institute for Genome Sciences and Policy, Duke University, 2020 W Main St, Ste 201, Durham, NC 27708, USA.
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316
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Need AC, Attix DK, McEvoy JM, Cirulli ET, Linney KL, Hunt P, Ge D, Heinzen EL, Maia JM, Shianna KV, Weale ME, Cherkas LF, Clement G, Spector TD, Gibson G, Goldstein DB. A genome-wide study of common SNPs and CNVs in cognitive performance in the CANTAB. Hum Mol Genet 2009; 18:4650-61. [PMID: 19734545 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddp413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Psychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia are commonly accompanied by cognitive impairments that are treatment resistant and crucial to functional outcome. There has been great interest in studying cognitive measures as endophenotypes for psychiatric disorders, with the hope that their genetic basis will be clearer. To investigate this, we performed a genome-wide association study involving 11 cognitive phenotypes from the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery. We showed these measures to be heritable by comparing the correlation in 100 monozygotic and 100 dizygotic twin pairs. The full battery was tested in approximately 750 subjects, and for spatial and verbal recognition memory, we investigated a further 500 individuals to search for smaller genetic effects. We were unable to find any genome-wide significant associations with either SNPs or common copy number variants. Nor could we formally replicate any polymorphism that has been previously associated with cognition, although we found a weak signal of lower than expected P-values for variants in a set of 10 candidate genes. We additionally investigated SNPs in genomic loci that have been shown to harbor rare variants that associate with neuropsychiatric disorders, to see if they showed any suggestion of association when considered as a separate set. Only NRXN1 showed evidence of significant association with cognition. These results suggest that common genetic variation does not strongly influence cognition in healthy subjects and that cognitive measures do not represent a more tractable genetic trait than clinical endpoints such as schizophrenia. We discuss a possible role for rare variation in cognitive genomics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna C Need
- Center for Human Genome Variation, Institute for Genome Sciences and Policy, Duke University, 450 Research Drive, Box 91009, Durham, NC 27708, USA
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317
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McInnis MG. Paradigms lost: rethinking psychiatry in the postgenome era. Depress Anxiety 2009; 26:303-6. [PMID: 19338023 DOI: 10.1002/da.20562] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Melvin G McInnis
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2700, USA.
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318
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Belsky J, Jonassaint C, Pluess M, Stanton M, Brummett B, Williams R. Vulnerability genes or plasticity genes? Mol Psychiatry 2009; 14:746-54. [PMID: 19455150 PMCID: PMC2834322 DOI: 10.1038/mp.2009.44] [Citation(s) in RCA: 660] [Impact Index Per Article: 44.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2009] [Revised: 03/10/2009] [Accepted: 04/13/2009] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
The classic diathesis-stress framework, which views some individuals as particularly vulnerable to adversity, informs virtually all psychiatric research on behavior-gene-environment (G x E) interaction. An alternative framework of 'differential susceptibility' is proposed, one which regards those most susceptible to adversity because of their genetic make up as simultaneously most likely to benefit from supportive or enriching experiences-or even just the absence of adversity. Recent G x E findings consistent with this perspective and involving monoamine oxidase-A, 5-HTTLPR (5-hydroxytryptamine-linked polymorphic region polymorphism) and dopamine receptor D4 (DRD4) are reviewed for illustrative purposes. Results considered suggest that putative 'vulnerability genes' or 'risk alleles' might, at times, be more appropriately conceptualized as 'plasticity genes', because they seem to make individuals more susceptible to environmental influences-for better and for worse.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Belsky
- Institute for the Study of Children, Families and Social Issues, Birkbeck University of London, London, UK.
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319
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320
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Abstract
Simple binding interactions lie at the heart of disparate biological functions. Multiple negative and positive 'add-ons', often with small individual effects, make elementary systems that work, work better. Cancer illustrates various of these fundamental processes gone awry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark Ptashne
- Sloan Kettering Institute, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, 1275 York Avenue, Box 595, New York, NY 10021, USA.
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321
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Allele variants in functional MicroRNA target sites of the neurotrophin-3 receptor gene (NTRK3) as susceptibility factors for anxiety disorders. Hum Mutat 2009; 30:1062-71. [DOI: 10.1002/humu.21005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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322
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Evidence of epistasis between the catechol-O-methyltransferase and aldehyde dehydrogenase 3B1 genes in paranoid schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry 2009; 65:1048-54. [PMID: 19159868 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.11.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2008] [Revised: 10/30/2008] [Accepted: 11/25/2008] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Schizophrenia is a common yet severe psychiatric condition characterized by complex genetic mechanism and diverse clinical presentations. Our previous study indicated that the combined effect of two intronic single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), which are located in the catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) and aldehyde dehydrogenase 3B1 (ALDH3B1) genes, respectively, conferred genetic risk to paranoid schizophrenia. METHODS To further explore the precise mechanism of the COMT and ALDH3B1 interaction involved in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia, we scanned all possible functional SNPs within these two genes by polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based genotyping analysis in 540 paranoid schizophrenic patients and 660 control subjects from a Han Chinese population. We also determined the effects of schizophrenia-associated SNPs on the development of psychotic symptoms, P300 event-related potential components induced by an auditory odd-ball task, and gene expression examined by quantitative real-time PCR analysis. RESULTS The major findings of this study were that, among the individuals carrying the rs3751082 A allele in the ALDH3B1 gene, the rs4633 T allele in the COMT gene was associated with susceptibility to paranoid schizophrenia (p = .004), development of hallucination (p = 5.141 E-5), delay of P300 latency in both patients (p = .006) and control subjects (p = .02), and increased expression of the COMT gene in control subjects (p = .002). However, the rs4633 T allele did not show any association in the rs3751082 G/G genotype carriers. CONCLUSIONS These findings provided convincing evidence that epistasis between the COMT and ALDH3B1 genes plays an important role in the pathogenesis of schizophrenia.
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Sim K, Ng BY. Con Brioso E Rigore! – Understanding the Neurobiology of Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorders. ANNALS OF THE ACADEMY OF MEDICINE, SINGAPORE 2009. [DOI: 10.47102/annals-acadmedsg.v38n5p381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kang Sim
- Woodbridge Hospital/ Institute of Mental Health, Singapore
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324
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Modeling cognitive endophenotypes of schizophrenia in mice. Trends Neurosci 2009; 32:347-58. [PMID: 19409625 DOI: 10.1016/j.tins.2009.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2008] [Revised: 02/04/2009] [Accepted: 02/10/2009] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Schizophrenia is a complex mental disorder that is still characterized by its symptoms rather than by biological markers because we have only a limited knowledge of its underlying molecular basis. In the past two decades, however, technical advances in genetics and brain imaging have provided new insights into the biology of the disease. Based on these advances we are now in a position to develop animal models that can be used to test specific hypotheses of the disease and explore mechanisms of pathogenesis. Here, we consider some of the insights that have emerged from studying in mice the relationship between defined genetic and molecular alterations and the cognitive endophenotypes of schizophrenia.
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325
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326
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Francks C. Understanding the genetics of behavioural and psychiatric traits will only be achieved through a realistic assessment of their complexity. Laterality 2009; 14:11-6. [PMID: 19125367 DOI: 10.1080/13576500802536439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Francks et al. (2007) performed a recent study in which the first putative genetic effect on human handedness was identified (the imprinted locus LRRTM1 on human chromosome 2). In this issue of Laterality, Tim Crow and colleagues present a critique of that study. The present paper presents a personal response to that critique which argues that Francks et al. (2007) published a substantial body of evidence implicating LRRTM1 in handedness and schizophrenia. Progress will now be achieved by others trying to validate, refute, or extend those findings, rather than by further armchair discussion.
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327
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Neonatal polyI:C treatment in mice results in schizophrenia-like behavioral and neurochemical abnormalities in adulthood. Neurosci Res 2009; 64:297-305. [PMID: 19447299 DOI: 10.1016/j.neures.2009.03.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2009] [Revised: 03/30/2009] [Accepted: 03/31/2009] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
It has been reported that viral infection in the first and second trimesters of pregnancy in humans increases the risk of subsequently developing schizophrenia. To develop a mouse model of immune activation during the early postnatal period, neonatal ICR mice were repeatedly injected with polyriboinosinic-polyribocytidilic acid (polyI:C; an inducer of strong innate immune responses) for 5 days (postnatal day 2-6) which may correspond, in terms of brain development, to the early second trimester in human. Cognitive and emotional behavior as well as the extracellular level of glutamate in the hippocampus were analyzed at the age of 10-12 weeks old. PolyI:C-treated mice showed anxiety-like behavior, impairment of object recognition memory and social behavior, and sensorimotor gating deficits, as compared to the saline-treated control group. Depolarization-evoked glutamate release in the hippocampus was impaired in polyI:C-treated mice compared to saline-treated control mice. Furthermore, to investigate the effect of neonatal immune activation on the expression levels of schizophrenia-related genes, we analyzed mRNA levels in the hippocampus 2 and 24h after polyI:C treatment. No significant differences or only transient and marginal changes were observed between polyI:C-treated and saline-treated control mice in the expression levels of schizophrenia-related genes in the hippocampus.
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328
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Abstract
Drug addiction is a common brain disorder that is extremely costly to the individual and to society. Genetics contributes significantly to vulnerability to this disorder, but identification of susceptibility genes has been slow. Recent genome-wide linkage and association studies have implicated several regions and genes in addiction to various substances, including alcohol and, more recently, tobacco. Current efforts aim not only to replicate these findings in independent samples but also to determine the functional mechanisms of these genes and variants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ming D Li
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurobehavioural Sciences, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22911, USA.
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329
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Lewis DA, Sweet RA. Schizophrenia from a neural circuitry perspective: advancing toward rational pharmacological therapies. J Clin Invest 2009; 119:706-16. [PMID: 19339762 DOI: 10.1172/jci37335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 174] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Schizophrenia is a severe disorder that disrupts the function of multiple brain systems, resulting in impaired social and occupational functioning. The etiology and pathogenesis of schizophrenia appear to involve the interplay of a potentially large number of genetic liabilities and adverse environmental events that disrupt brain developmental pathways. In this Review, we discuss a strategy for determining how particular common and core clinical features of the illness are associated with pathophysiology in certain circuits of the cerebral cortex. The identification of molecular alterations in these circuits is providing critical insights for the rational development of new therapeutic interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A Lewis
- University of Pittsburgh,Department of Psychiatry, W1651 Biomedical Science Tower, 3811 O'Hara Street, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, USA.
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330
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Singh SM, Castellani CA, O'Reilly RL. Copy number variation showers in schizophrenia: an emerging hypothesis. Mol Psychiatry 2009; 14:356-8. [PMID: 19139749 DOI: 10.1038/mp.2008.149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Genetic discoveries on Schizophrenia remain challenging. Traditional approaches have provided clues, but no genes. Novel theories that must account for extensive heterogeneity, including high discordance of monozygotic (MZD) twins, are needed. To this end, the extensive repeats of the human genome may provide the predisposition for DNA replication errors operational at every cell cycle during meiosis and mitosis. These errors will shower the genome with replication errors including copy number variations. Depending on the timing and the genes involved, this will contribute to the mutational load and disease. The evidence for such a mechanism in schizophrenia is emerging.
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Affiliation(s)
- S M Singh
- University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada.
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331
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Krishnan RR, Keefe R, Kraus M. Schizophrenia is a disorder of higher order hierarchical processing. Med Hypotheses 2009; 72:740-4. [PMID: 19231093 DOI: 10.1016/j.mehy.2008.12.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2008] [Revised: 12/18/2008] [Accepted: 12/20/2008] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Schizophrenia is a mental disorder in which the patient manifests with auditory hallucinations, paranoid or bizarre delusions, and disorganized speech and thinking. It is associated with significant social dysfunction. There are many hypotheses regarding schizophrenia. Most of these focus on schizophrenia as a manifestation of abnormalities from genetic [Mulle JG. Genomic structural variation and schizophrenia. Curr Psychiatry Rep 2008;10(2):171-7], viral [Fruntes V, Limosin F. Schizophrenia and viral infection during neurodevelopment: a pathogenesis model? Med Sci Monit 2008;14(6):RA71-7], neurochemical [e.g. dopamine (Lewis DA, Akil M. Cortical dopamine in schizophrenia: strategies for postmortem studies. J Psychiatr Res 1997;31(2):175-95) or interactions between neurotransmitters (Duncan GE, Sheitman BB, Lieberman JA. An integrated view of pathophysiological models of schizophrenia. Brain Res Brain Res Rev 1999;29(2):250-64)] or brain structural [Kotrla KJ, Weinberger DR. Brain imaging in schizophrenia. Annu Rev Med 1995;46:113-22] origins. Most of these hypotheses do not account for how or why these presumed causes lead to the manifestations of schizophrenia. We argue that brain structure and function is compatible with a hierarchical processing structure that forms the basis for perception and thought in healthy humans. We propose that perturbations of the types listed above lead to disruption of higher levels of perception and hierarchical temporal processing by the brain and that this constitutes the core deficit in schizophrenia. We present evidence that this model explains many of the features of schizophrenia and we make a series of predictions about schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ranga R Krishnan
- Department of Psychiatry & Behavioural Sciences, Duke University Medical Center, Box 3950, 4584 South Hospital, White Zone #45, Durham, NC 27710, USA.
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332
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Need AC, Ge D, Weale ME, Maia J, Feng S, Heinzen EL, Shianna KV, Yoon W, Kasperavičiūtė D, Gennarelli M, Strittmatter WJ, Bonvicini C, Rossi G, Jayathilake K, Cola PA, McEvoy JP, Keefe RSE, Fisher EMC, St. Jean PL, Giegling I, Hartmann AM, Möller HJ, Ruppert A, Fraser G, Crombie C, Middleton LT, St. Clair D, Roses AD, Muglia P, Francks C, Rujescu D, Meltzer HY, Goldstein DB. A genome-wide investigation of SNPs and CNVs in schizophrenia. PLoS Genet 2009; 5:e1000373. [PMID: 19197363 PMCID: PMC2631150 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1000373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 361] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2008] [Accepted: 01/07/2009] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
We report a genome-wide assessment of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and copy number variants (CNVs) in schizophrenia. We investigated SNPs using 871 patients and 863 controls, following up the top hits in four independent cohorts comprising 1,460 patients and 12,995 controls, all of European origin. We found no genome-wide significant associations, nor could we provide support for any previously reported candidate gene or genome-wide associations. We went on to examine CNVs using a subset of 1,013 cases and 1,084 controls of European ancestry, and a further set of 60 cases and 64 controls of African ancestry. We found that eight cases and zero controls carried deletions greater than 2 Mb, of which two, at 8p22 and 16p13.11-p12.4, are newly reported here. A further evaluation of 1,378 controls identified no deletions greater than 2 Mb, suggesting a high prior probability of disease involvement when such deletions are observed in cases. We also provide further evidence for some smaller, previously reported, schizophrenia-associated CNVs, such as those in NRXN1 and APBA2. We could not provide strong support for the hypothesis that schizophrenia patients have a significantly greater "load" of large (>100 kb), rare CNVs, nor could we find common CNVs that associate with schizophrenia. Finally, we did not provide support for the suggestion that schizophrenia-associated CNVs may preferentially disrupt genes in neurodevelopmental pathways. Collectively, these analyses provide the first integrated study of SNPs and CNVs in schizophrenia and support the emerging view that rare deleterious variants may be more important in schizophrenia predisposition than common polymorphisms. While our analyses do not suggest that implicated CNVs impinge on particular key pathways, we do support the contribution of specific genomic regions in schizophrenia, presumably due to recurrent mutation. On balance, these data suggest that very few schizophrenia patients share identical genomic causation, potentially complicating efforts to personalize treatment regimens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna C. Need
- Institute for Genome Sciences and Policy, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Dongliang Ge
- Institute for Genome Sciences and Policy, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Michael E. Weale
- Department of Medical and Molecular Genetics, King's College London, Guy's Hospital, London, United Kingdom
| | - Jessica Maia
- Institute for Genome Sciences and Policy, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Sheng Feng
- Department of Biostatistics and Bioinformatics, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Erin L. Heinzen
- Institute for Genome Sciences and Policy, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Kevin V. Shianna
- Institute for Genome Sciences and Policy, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Woohyun Yoon
- Institute for Genome Sciences and Policy, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America
| | | | - Massimo Gennarelli
- Genetic Unit, IRCCS San Giovanni di Dio Fatebenefratelli, Brescia, Italy
- Department of Biomedical Science and Biotech, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy
| | - Warren J. Strittmatter
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Cristian Bonvicini
- Genetic Unit, IRCCS San Giovanni di Dio Fatebenefratelli, Brescia, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Rossi
- Psychiatric Unit, IRCCS San Giovanni di Dio Fatebenefratelli, Brescia, Italy
| | - Karu Jayathilake
- Department of Psychiatry, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee, United States of America
| | - Philip A. Cola
- University Hospitals Case Medical Center, Cleveland, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Joseph P. McEvoy
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Richard S. E. Keefe
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America
| | | | - Pamela L. St. Jean
- Genetics Division, GlaxoSmithKline, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Ina Giegling
- Division of Molecular and Clinical Neurobiology, Department of Psychiatry, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany
| | - Annette M. Hartmann
- Division of Molecular and Clinical Neurobiology, Department of Psychiatry, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany
| | - Hans-Jürgen Möller
- Department of Psychiatry, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany
| | | | - Gillian Fraser
- Department of Mental Health, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, United Kingdom
| | - Caroline Crombie
- Department of Mental Health, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, United Kingdom
| | - Lefkos T. Middleton
- Division of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Neuroscience Laboratories, Burlington Danes, Hammersmith Hospital, London, United Kingdom
| | - David St. Clair
- Department of Mental Health, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, United Kingdom
| | - Allen D. Roses
- Deane Drug Discovery Institute, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America
| | | | - Clyde Francks
- Medical Genetics, GlaxoSmithKline R&D, Verona, Italy
| | - Dan Rujescu
- Division of Molecular and Clinical Neurobiology, Department of Psychiatry, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany
| | - Herbert Y. Meltzer
- Department of Psychiatry, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee, United States of America
| | - David B. Goldstein
- Institute for Genome Sciences and Policy, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America
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333
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334
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Fletcher PC, Frith CD. Perceiving is believing: a Bayesian approach to explaining the positive symptoms of schizophrenia. Nat Rev Neurosci 2008; 10:48-58. [PMID: 19050712 DOI: 10.1038/nrn2536] [Citation(s) in RCA: 824] [Impact Index Per Article: 51.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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335
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Docherty S, Mill J. Epigenetic mechanisms as mediators of environmental risks for psychiatric disorders. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mppsy.2008.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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336
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Cook EH, Scherer SW. Copy-number variations associated with neuropsychiatric conditions. Nature 2008; 455:919-23. [PMID: 18923514 DOI: 10.1038/nature07458] [Citation(s) in RCA: 503] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Neuropsychiatric conditions such as autism and schizophrenia have long been attributed to genetic alterations, but identifying the genes responsible has proved challenging. Microarray experiments have now revealed abundant copy-number variation--a type of variation in which stretches of DNA are duplicated, deleted and sometimes rearranged--in the human population. Genes affected by copy-number variation are good candidates for research into disease susceptibility. The complexity of neuropsychiatric genetics, however, dictates that assessment of the biomedical relevance of copy-number variants and the genes that they affect needs to be considered in an integrated context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edwin H Cook
- Institute for Juvenile Research, Department of Psychiatry, University of Illinois, 1747 West Roosevelt Road, Chicago, Illinois 60608, USA
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337
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338
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Gondo Y. Trends in large-scale mouse mutagenesis: from genetics to functional genomics. Nat Rev Genet 2008; 9:803-10. [DOI: 10.1038/nrg2431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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339
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340
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Abstract
Recent years have seen great advances in generating and analyzing data to identify the genetic architecture of biological traits. Human disease has understandably received intense research focus, and the genes responsible for most Mendelian diseases have successfully been identified. However, the same advances have shown a consistent if less satisfying pattern, in which complex traits are affected by variation in large numbers of genes, most of which have individually minor or statistically elusive effects, leaving the bulk of genetic etiology unaccounted for. This pattern applies to diverse and unrelated traits, not just disease, in basically all species, and is consistent with evolutionary expectations, raising challenging questions about the best way to approach and understand biological complexity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth M Weiss
- Department of Anthropology and Integrated Biosciences Genetics Program, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA.
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341
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Abstract
Although genetic models were in the ascendance within psychology during the early 20(th) century, the association of early behavioral genetic research with the eugenics movement served to discredit the field in the eyes of many. Twin and adoption studies throughout the latter half of the 20(th) century helped to reestablish the importance of behavioral genetic models and set the stage for the current focus of the field on developing and testing models of gene-environment interplay. Research findings on developmental behavioral genetic research, gene-environment interaction, and the use of behavioral genetic models to test causal hypotheses are used to highlight the contributions of contemporary behavioral genetic research to psychological research. It is argued that future efforts to investigate models of gene-environment interplay will depend heavily of the field's ability to identify the specific genetic variants that contribute to individual differences in behavior. The anticipated yield from genome-wide association studies gives much reason to be optimistic about the future vitality of behavior genetics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matt McGue
- Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota
- Institute of Public Health, University of Southern Denmark
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