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Abstract
Until relatively recently, the small number of identifiable inherited human diseases associated with marked obesity were complex, pleiotropic developmental disorders, the molecular basis for which were entirely obscure. The molecular basis for many of these complex syndromes, such as Bardet Beidl syndrome, has been revealed, providing novel insights into processes essential for human hypothalamic function and energy balance. In addition to these discoveries, which were the fruits of positional cloning, the molecular constituents of the signaling pathways responsible for the control of mammalian energy homeostasis have been identified, largely through the study of natural or artificial mutations in mice. We discuss the increasing number of human disorders that result from genetic disruption of the leptin-melanocortin pathways that have been identified. Practical implications of these findings for genetic counseling, prognostication, and even therapy have already emerged.
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Affiliation(s)
- I Sadaf Farooqi
- Departments of Medicine and Clinical Biochemistry, Cambridge University, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Cambridge CB2 2QQ, UK
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352
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Behera M, Couchman G, Walmer D, Price TM. Mullerian Agenesis and Thrombocytopenia Absent Radius Syndrome: A Case Report and Review of Syndromes Associated With Mullerian Agenesis. Obstet Gynecol Surv 2005; 60:453-61. [PMID: 15995562 DOI: 10.1097/01.ogx.0000165265.01778.55] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Mullerian agenesis, commonly referred to as Mayer-Rokitansky-Kuster-Hauser syndrome (MRKHS), is a congenital defect that is most commonly associated with renal and spinal malformations. It is very rare for Mullerian agenesis to be accompanied by malformations of the extremities. In this report, we describe a 22-year-old woman with Mullerian agenesis and thrombocytopenia absent radius syndrome (TARS). We also review rare syndromes associated with Mullerian anomalies, including Mullerian hypoplasia/aplasia-renal agenesis-cervicothoracic somite dysplasia (MURCS), Roberts syndrome, Bardet-Biedl syndrome (BBS), McKusick-Kaufman syndrome (MKS), Wolf-Hirschhorn syndrome, and others. The pathogenesis of these complex malformation syndromes is not well understood as a result of their sporadic occurrence. However, some of these syndromes do follow a pattern of inheritance, suggesting that they could provide insights into our understanding of their origins. TARGET AUDIENCE Obstetricians & Gynecologists, Family Physicians LEARNING OBJECTIVES After completion of this article, the reader should be able to review the rare congenital defects associated with Mullerian agenesis, to determine the genetic etiologies of the associated syndromes with Mullerian agenesis, and to discuss information for parental counseling related to inheritance patterns and growth and development of the affected child.
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Affiliation(s)
- Millie Behera
- Division of Reproductive Endocrinology, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA
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353
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Stein RA. BBS4 interacts with PCM1. Clin Genet 2005. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1399-0004.2005.0479a.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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354
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Beales PL. Lifting the lid on Pandora's box: the Bardet-Biedl syndrome. Curr Opin Genet Dev 2005; 15:315-23. [PMID: 15917208 DOI: 10.1016/j.gde.2005.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2004] [Accepted: 04/11/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Progress in understanding the cause of the once obscure condition Bardet-Biedl syndrome (BBS) has been rapid since 2003. That BBS is now known to be a disorder of cilia and basal body function has been facilitated by the recent discovery of the novel genes BBS3, 5, 7 and 8 (eight BBS genes in total) and confirmed by the generation of genetic model systems in mice, Chlamydomonas, Caenorhabditis elegans and Drosophila melanogaster. These discoveries have been aided significantly by several elegant comparative genomic exercises, highlighting the utility of such approaches. The high level of species conservation and genetic heterogeneity indicates the fundamental importance of this family of genes and the pathways in which they operate. In the next few years, these pathways will be revealed, and their impact on the development of systems as diverse as the cardiovascular, neurological, endocrinological and skeletal will be realized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip L Beales
- Molecular Medicine Unit, Institute of Child Health, University College London, 30 Guilford Street, London, WC1N 1EH, UK.
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355
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Bissler JJ, Dixon BP. A mechanistic approach to inherited polycystic kidney disease. Pediatr Nephrol 2005; 20:558-66. [PMID: 15719257 DOI: 10.1007/s00467-004-1665-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2004] [Revised: 08/05/2004] [Accepted: 08/17/2004] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
There are approximately six and a half million people, of the estimated world population of six billion, with inherited polycystic kidney disease. Polycystic kidney diseases have a broad spectrum of associated findings that distinguish and define them as specific disease states. The dysregulation of renal tubular epithelial cell biology, including cell polarity, cell signaling, proliferation and apoptosis, basement membrane and matrix abnormalities, and fluid transport, has been postulated to contribute to cystogenesis. Evidence is currently accumulating that supports an association of the primary cilium and basal body, as well as the focal adhesion assembly, with polycystic kidney diseases. Renal cystogenesis may be the result of a disruption of a critical feedback loop that regulates tissue morphology based on the epithelial cell environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- John J Bissler
- Division of Nephrology and Hypertension, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45229-3039, USA.
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356
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Wang DY, Chan WM, Tam POS, Baum L, Lam DSC, Chong KKL, Fan BJ, Pang CP. Gene mutations in retinitis pigmentosa and their clinical implications. Clin Chim Acta 2005; 351:5-16. [PMID: 15563868 DOI: 10.1016/j.cccn.2004.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2004] [Revised: 08/23/2004] [Accepted: 08/24/2004] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Retinitis pigmentosa (RP) is a group of inherited progressive retinal diseases affecting about 1 in 3500 people worldwide. So far, there is no prevention or cure, with permanent visual loss or even blindness the ultimate consequence usually after midlife. The genetics of RP are complex. It can be sporadic, autosomal dominant, autosomal recessive, or X-linked. Thirty-two genes are known to be associated with RP, sometimes the same gene gets involved in different inheritance traits. Some RP cases have a digenic cause. About 60% RP cases still have no known genetic cause. A large number of mutations cause RP, and they can be deletions, insertions, or substitutions that cause missense mutations or truncations. The RHO, RP1, and RPGR genes contribute the greatest number of known mutations causative of RP. But there is no single mutation that alone accounts for more than 10% of unrelated patients. Genetic testing for RP therefore requires screening for a group of genes. High-throughput and automated sequence detection technologies are essential. Due to the complexity in phenotype and genetics, and the fact that RP is untreatable, genetic testing for presymptomatic diagnosis of RP is controversial. Meanwhile, new genes are still to be identified, mostly by family linkage and sib-pair analysis. Research on gene therapy for RP requires information on gene mutations causative of RP.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Y Wang
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Hong Kong Eye Hospital, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, 147K Argyle Street, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China
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357
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Moore SJ, Green JS, Fan Y, Bhogal AK, Dicks E, Fernandez BA, Stefanelli M, Murphy C, Cramer BC, Dean JC, Beales PL, Katsanis N, Bassett AS, Davidson WS, Parfrey PS. Clinical and genetic epidemiology of Bardet-Biedl syndrome in Newfoundland: a 22-year prospective, population-based, cohort study. Am J Med Genet A 2005; 132A:352-60. [PMID: 15637713 PMCID: PMC3295827 DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.a.30406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 202] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Bardet-Biedl syndrome (BBS) and Laurence-Moon syndrome (LMS) have a similar phenotype, which includes retinal dystrophy, obesity, and hypogenitalism. They are differentiated by the presence of spasticity and the absence of polydactyly in LMS. The aims of this study were to describe the epidemiology of BBS and LMS, further define the phenotype, and examine genotype-phenotype correlation. The study involved 46 patients (26 males, 20 females) from 26 families, with a median age of 44 years (range 1-68 years). Assessments were performed in 1986, 1993, and 2001 and included neurological assessments, anthropometric measurements, and clinical photographs to assess dysmorphic features. The phenotype was highly variable within and between families. Impaired co-ordination and ataxia occurred in 86% (18/21). Thirty percent (14/46) met criteria for psychiatric illness; other medical problems included cholecystectomy in 37% (17/46) and asthma in 28% (13/46). Dysmorphic features included brachycephaly, large ears, and short, narrow palpebral fissures. There was no apparent correlation of clinical or dysmorphic features with genotype. Two patients were diagnosed clinically as LMS but both had mutations in a BBS gene. The features in this population do not support the notion that BBS and LMS are distinct. The lack of a genotype-phenotype correlation implies that BBS proteins interact and are necessary for the development of many organs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan J. Moore
- Clinical Epidemiology Unit, Memorial University, St John’s, Newfoundland, Canada
| | - Jane S. Green
- Department of Medical Genetics, Memorial University, St John’s, Newfoundland, Canada
| | - Yanli Fan
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Ashvinder K. Bhogal
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Elizabeth Dicks
- Clinical Epidemiology Unit, Memorial University, St John’s, Newfoundland, Canada
| | - Bridget A. Fernandez
- Department of Medical Genetics, Memorial University, St John’s, Newfoundland, Canada
| | - Mark Stefanelli
- Division of Neurology, Memorial University, St John’s, Newfoundland, Canada
| | - Christopher Murphy
- Department of Speech and Language Pathology, Memorial University, St John’s, Newfoundland, Canada
| | - Benvon C. Cramer
- Department of Radiology, Memorial University, St John’s, Newfoundland, Canada
| | - John C.S. Dean
- Department of Medical Genetics, Aberdeen University, Aberdeen, Scotland
| | - Philip L. Beales
- Molecular Medicine Unit, Institute of Child Health, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Nicholas Katsanis
- Institute of Genetic Medicine and Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Anne S. Bassett
- Department of Medical Genetics, Memorial University, St John’s, Newfoundland, Canada
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - William S. Davidson
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Patrick S. Parfrey
- Clinical Epidemiology Unit, Memorial University, St John’s, Newfoundland, Canada
- Correspondence to: Dr. Patrick S. Parfrey, University Research Professor, Clinical Epidemiology Unit, Health Sciences Centre, Memorial University, St John’s, Newfoundland, Canada A1B 3V6.
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358
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Ye X, Dai J, Fang W, Jin W, Guo Y, Song J, Ji C, Gu S, Xie Y, Mao Y. Cloning and characterization of a splice variant of human Bardet-Biedl syndrome 4 gene (BBS4). ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005; 15:213-8. [PMID: 15497446 DOI: 10.1080/10425170410001679165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Bardet-Biedl syndrome (BBS) is a heterogeneous multisystemic disorder characterized primarily by five cardinal features of retinal degeneration, obesity, polydactyly, hypogenitalism and mental retardation. To date, six distinct BBS loci that have been identified on different chromosomes. BBS4 gene is mapped to 15q22.2-23, which when mutated can cause BBS4. Its protein shows strong homology to O-linked N-acetylglucosamine (O-GlcNAc) transferase. Here we report a splice variant of BBS4, which is 2556 bp in length and has an open reading frame coding a predicted 527 amino-acids protein. RT-PCR shows that the cDNA is widely expressed while it has higher expression levels in pancreas, liver and prostate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Ye
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, Institute of Genetics, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, People's Republic of China
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359
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Hichri H, Stoetzel C, Laurier V, Caron S, Sigaudy S, Sarda P, Hamel C, Martin-Coignard D, Gilles M, Leheup B, Holder M, Kaplan J, Bitoun P, Lacombe D, Verloes A, Bonneau D, Perrin-Schmitt F, Brandt C, Besancon AF, Mandel JL, Cossée M, Dollfus H. Testing for triallelism: analysis of six BBS genes in a Bardet–Biedl syndrome family cohort. Eur J Hum Genet 2005; 13:607-16. [PMID: 15770229 DOI: 10.1038/sj.ejhg.5201372] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
The phenotype of Bardet-Biedl syndrome (BBS) is defined by the association of retinitis pigmentosa, obesity, polydactyly, hypogenitalism, renal disease and cognitive impairement. The significant genetic heterogeneity of this condition is supported by the identification, to date, of eight genes (BBS1-8) implied with cilia assembly or function. Triallelic inheritance has recently been suggested on the basis of the identification of three mutated alleles in two different genes for the same patient. In a cohort of 27 families, six BBS genes (namely BBS1, BBS2, BBS4, BBS6, BBS7 and BBS8) have been studied. Mutations were identified in 14 families. Two mutations within the same gene have been identified in seven families. BBS1 is most frequently implied with the common M390R substitution at the homozygous state (n=2), or associated with another mutation at BBS1 (n=3). Compound heterozygous mutations have been found in BBS2 (one family) and BBS6 (one family). In seven other families, only one heterozygous mutation has been identified (once in BBS1, twice for BBS2 and three times in BBS6). Although our study did not reveal any families with bona fide mutations in two BBS genes, consistent with a triallelic hypothesis, we have found an excess of heterozygous single mutations. This study underlines the genetic heterogeneity of the BBS and the involvement of possibly unidentified genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haifa Hichri
- Laboratoire de diagnostic génétique, Hôpitaux Universitaires de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
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360
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Karmous-Benailly H, Martinovic J, Gubler MC, Sirot Y, Clech L, Ozilou C, Augé J, Brahimi N, Etchevers H, Detrait E, Esculpavit C, Audollent S, Goudefroye G, Gonzales M, Tantau J, Loget P, Joubert M, Gaillard D, Jeanne-Pasquier C, Delezoide AL, Peter MO, Plessis G, Simon-Bouy B, Dollfus H, Le Merrer M, Munnich A, Encha-Razavi F, Vekemans M, Attié-Bitach T. Antenatal presentation of Bardet-Biedl syndrome may mimic Meckel syndrome. Am J Hum Genet 2005; 76:493-504. [PMID: 15666242 PMCID: PMC1196400 DOI: 10.1086/428679] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2004] [Accepted: 01/07/2005] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Bardet-Biedl syndrome (BBS) is a multisystemic disorder characterized by postaxial polydactyly, progressive retinal dystrophy, obesity, hypogonadism, renal dysfunction, and learning difficulty. Other manifestations include diabetes mellitus, heart disease, hepatic fibrosis, and neurological features. The condition is genetically heterogeneous, and eight genes (BBS1-BBS8) have been identified to date. A mutation of the BBS1 gene on chromosome 11q13 is observed in 30%-40% of BBS cases. In addition, a complex triallelic inheritance has been established in this disorder--that is, in some families, three mutations at two BBS loci are necessary for the disease to be expressed. The clinical features of BBS that can be observed at birth are polydactyly, kidney anomaly, hepatic fibrosis, and genital and heart malformations. Interestingly, polydactyly, cystic kidneys, and liver anomalies (hepatic fibrosis with bile-duct proliferation) are also observed in Meckel syndrome, along with occipital encephalocele. Therefore, we decided to sequence the eight BBS genes in a series of 13 antenatal cases presenting with cystic kidneys and polydactyly and/or hepatic fibrosis but no encephalocele. These fetuses were mostly diagnosed as having Meckel or "Meckel-like" syndrome. In six cases, we identified a recessive mutation in a BBS gene (three in BBS2, two in BBS4, and one in BBS6). We found a heterozygous BBS6 mutation in three additional cases. No BBS1, BBS3, BBS5, BBS7, or BBS8 mutations were identified in our series. These results suggest that the antenatal presentation of BBS may mimic Meckel syndrome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Houda Karmous-Benailly
- Département de Génétique et Unité INSERM U-393 and Unité INSERM U-574, Hôpital Necker-Enfants Malades, Assistance Publique–Hôpitaux de Paris (AP-HP), Laboratoire d’Embryologie Pathologique, Hôpital Saint Antoine, AP-HP, and Service de Biologie du Développement, Hôpital Robert Debré, AP-HP, Paris; Cabinet d’Anatomie et Cytologie Pathologiques Richier, Rennes, France; Anatomie Pathologique, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire (CHU) de Nantes, Nantes, France; Laboratoire Pol Bouin, Hôpital de la Maison Blanche, Reims, France; Service d’Anatomie Pathologique, CHU Côte de Nacre, and Service de Génétique, CHU de Caen, Caen, France; Service de Pédiatrie, Centre Hospitalier de Mulhouse, Mulhouse, France; Centre d’Étude de Biologie Prénatale, Laboratoire de Cytogénétique, Université de Versailles, Versailles; and Fédération de Génétique Médicale, Hôpitaux Universitaires de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Jelena Martinovic
- Département de Génétique et Unité INSERM U-393 and Unité INSERM U-574, Hôpital Necker-Enfants Malades, Assistance Publique–Hôpitaux de Paris (AP-HP), Laboratoire d’Embryologie Pathologique, Hôpital Saint Antoine, AP-HP, and Service de Biologie du Développement, Hôpital Robert Debré, AP-HP, Paris; Cabinet d’Anatomie et Cytologie Pathologiques Richier, Rennes, France; Anatomie Pathologique, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire (CHU) de Nantes, Nantes, France; Laboratoire Pol Bouin, Hôpital de la Maison Blanche, Reims, France; Service d’Anatomie Pathologique, CHU Côte de Nacre, and Service de Génétique, CHU de Caen, Caen, France; Service de Pédiatrie, Centre Hospitalier de Mulhouse, Mulhouse, France; Centre d’Étude de Biologie Prénatale, Laboratoire de Cytogénétique, Université de Versailles, Versailles; and Fédération de Génétique Médicale, Hôpitaux Universitaires de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Marie-Claire Gubler
- Département de Génétique et Unité INSERM U-393 and Unité INSERM U-574, Hôpital Necker-Enfants Malades, Assistance Publique–Hôpitaux de Paris (AP-HP), Laboratoire d’Embryologie Pathologique, Hôpital Saint Antoine, AP-HP, and Service de Biologie du Développement, Hôpital Robert Debré, AP-HP, Paris; Cabinet d’Anatomie et Cytologie Pathologiques Richier, Rennes, France; Anatomie Pathologique, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire (CHU) de Nantes, Nantes, France; Laboratoire Pol Bouin, Hôpital de la Maison Blanche, Reims, France; Service d’Anatomie Pathologique, CHU Côte de Nacre, and Service de Génétique, CHU de Caen, Caen, France; Service de Pédiatrie, Centre Hospitalier de Mulhouse, Mulhouse, France; Centre d’Étude de Biologie Prénatale, Laboratoire de Cytogénétique, Université de Versailles, Versailles; and Fédération de Génétique Médicale, Hôpitaux Universitaires de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Yoann Sirot
- Département de Génétique et Unité INSERM U-393 and Unité INSERM U-574, Hôpital Necker-Enfants Malades, Assistance Publique–Hôpitaux de Paris (AP-HP), Laboratoire d’Embryologie Pathologique, Hôpital Saint Antoine, AP-HP, and Service de Biologie du Développement, Hôpital Robert Debré, AP-HP, Paris; Cabinet d’Anatomie et Cytologie Pathologiques Richier, Rennes, France; Anatomie Pathologique, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire (CHU) de Nantes, Nantes, France; Laboratoire Pol Bouin, Hôpital de la Maison Blanche, Reims, France; Service d’Anatomie Pathologique, CHU Côte de Nacre, and Service de Génétique, CHU de Caen, Caen, France; Service de Pédiatrie, Centre Hospitalier de Mulhouse, Mulhouse, France; Centre d’Étude de Biologie Prénatale, Laboratoire de Cytogénétique, Université de Versailles, Versailles; and Fédération de Génétique Médicale, Hôpitaux Universitaires de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Laure Clech
- Département de Génétique et Unité INSERM U-393 and Unité INSERM U-574, Hôpital Necker-Enfants Malades, Assistance Publique–Hôpitaux de Paris (AP-HP), Laboratoire d’Embryologie Pathologique, Hôpital Saint Antoine, AP-HP, and Service de Biologie du Développement, Hôpital Robert Debré, AP-HP, Paris; Cabinet d’Anatomie et Cytologie Pathologiques Richier, Rennes, France; Anatomie Pathologique, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire (CHU) de Nantes, Nantes, France; Laboratoire Pol Bouin, Hôpital de la Maison Blanche, Reims, France; Service d’Anatomie Pathologique, CHU Côte de Nacre, and Service de Génétique, CHU de Caen, Caen, France; Service de Pédiatrie, Centre Hospitalier de Mulhouse, Mulhouse, France; Centre d’Étude de Biologie Prénatale, Laboratoire de Cytogénétique, Université de Versailles, Versailles; and Fédération de Génétique Médicale, Hôpitaux Universitaires de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Catherine Ozilou
- Département de Génétique et Unité INSERM U-393 and Unité INSERM U-574, Hôpital Necker-Enfants Malades, Assistance Publique–Hôpitaux de Paris (AP-HP), Laboratoire d’Embryologie Pathologique, Hôpital Saint Antoine, AP-HP, and Service de Biologie du Développement, Hôpital Robert Debré, AP-HP, Paris; Cabinet d’Anatomie et Cytologie Pathologiques Richier, Rennes, France; Anatomie Pathologique, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire (CHU) de Nantes, Nantes, France; Laboratoire Pol Bouin, Hôpital de la Maison Blanche, Reims, France; Service d’Anatomie Pathologique, CHU Côte de Nacre, and Service de Génétique, CHU de Caen, Caen, France; Service de Pédiatrie, Centre Hospitalier de Mulhouse, Mulhouse, France; Centre d’Étude de Biologie Prénatale, Laboratoire de Cytogénétique, Université de Versailles, Versailles; and Fédération de Génétique Médicale, Hôpitaux Universitaires de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Joëlle Augé
- Département de Génétique et Unité INSERM U-393 and Unité INSERM U-574, Hôpital Necker-Enfants Malades, Assistance Publique–Hôpitaux de Paris (AP-HP), Laboratoire d’Embryologie Pathologique, Hôpital Saint Antoine, AP-HP, and Service de Biologie du Développement, Hôpital Robert Debré, AP-HP, Paris; Cabinet d’Anatomie et Cytologie Pathologiques Richier, Rennes, France; Anatomie Pathologique, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire (CHU) de Nantes, Nantes, France; Laboratoire Pol Bouin, Hôpital de la Maison Blanche, Reims, France; Service d’Anatomie Pathologique, CHU Côte de Nacre, and Service de Génétique, CHU de Caen, Caen, France; Service de Pédiatrie, Centre Hospitalier de Mulhouse, Mulhouse, France; Centre d’Étude de Biologie Prénatale, Laboratoire de Cytogénétique, Université de Versailles, Versailles; and Fédération de Génétique Médicale, Hôpitaux Universitaires de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Nora Brahimi
- Département de Génétique et Unité INSERM U-393 and Unité INSERM U-574, Hôpital Necker-Enfants Malades, Assistance Publique–Hôpitaux de Paris (AP-HP), Laboratoire d’Embryologie Pathologique, Hôpital Saint Antoine, AP-HP, and Service de Biologie du Développement, Hôpital Robert Debré, AP-HP, Paris; Cabinet d’Anatomie et Cytologie Pathologiques Richier, Rennes, France; Anatomie Pathologique, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire (CHU) de Nantes, Nantes, France; Laboratoire Pol Bouin, Hôpital de la Maison Blanche, Reims, France; Service d’Anatomie Pathologique, CHU Côte de Nacre, and Service de Génétique, CHU de Caen, Caen, France; Service de Pédiatrie, Centre Hospitalier de Mulhouse, Mulhouse, France; Centre d’Étude de Biologie Prénatale, Laboratoire de Cytogénétique, Université de Versailles, Versailles; and Fédération de Génétique Médicale, Hôpitaux Universitaires de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Heather Etchevers
- Département de Génétique et Unité INSERM U-393 and Unité INSERM U-574, Hôpital Necker-Enfants Malades, Assistance Publique–Hôpitaux de Paris (AP-HP), Laboratoire d’Embryologie Pathologique, Hôpital Saint Antoine, AP-HP, and Service de Biologie du Développement, Hôpital Robert Debré, AP-HP, Paris; Cabinet d’Anatomie et Cytologie Pathologiques Richier, Rennes, France; Anatomie Pathologique, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire (CHU) de Nantes, Nantes, France; Laboratoire Pol Bouin, Hôpital de la Maison Blanche, Reims, France; Service d’Anatomie Pathologique, CHU Côte de Nacre, and Service de Génétique, CHU de Caen, Caen, France; Service de Pédiatrie, Centre Hospitalier de Mulhouse, Mulhouse, France; Centre d’Étude de Biologie Prénatale, Laboratoire de Cytogénétique, Université de Versailles, Versailles; and Fédération de Génétique Médicale, Hôpitaux Universitaires de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Eric Detrait
- Département de Génétique et Unité INSERM U-393 and Unité INSERM U-574, Hôpital Necker-Enfants Malades, Assistance Publique–Hôpitaux de Paris (AP-HP), Laboratoire d’Embryologie Pathologique, Hôpital Saint Antoine, AP-HP, and Service de Biologie du Développement, Hôpital Robert Debré, AP-HP, Paris; Cabinet d’Anatomie et Cytologie Pathologiques Richier, Rennes, France; Anatomie Pathologique, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire (CHU) de Nantes, Nantes, France; Laboratoire Pol Bouin, Hôpital de la Maison Blanche, Reims, France; Service d’Anatomie Pathologique, CHU Côte de Nacre, and Service de Génétique, CHU de Caen, Caen, France; Service de Pédiatrie, Centre Hospitalier de Mulhouse, Mulhouse, France; Centre d’Étude de Biologie Prénatale, Laboratoire de Cytogénétique, Université de Versailles, Versailles; and Fédération de Génétique Médicale, Hôpitaux Universitaires de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Chantal Esculpavit
- Département de Génétique et Unité INSERM U-393 and Unité INSERM U-574, Hôpital Necker-Enfants Malades, Assistance Publique–Hôpitaux de Paris (AP-HP), Laboratoire d’Embryologie Pathologique, Hôpital Saint Antoine, AP-HP, and Service de Biologie du Développement, Hôpital Robert Debré, AP-HP, Paris; Cabinet d’Anatomie et Cytologie Pathologiques Richier, Rennes, France; Anatomie Pathologique, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire (CHU) de Nantes, Nantes, France; Laboratoire Pol Bouin, Hôpital de la Maison Blanche, Reims, France; Service d’Anatomie Pathologique, CHU Côte de Nacre, and Service de Génétique, CHU de Caen, Caen, France; Service de Pédiatrie, Centre Hospitalier de Mulhouse, Mulhouse, France; Centre d’Étude de Biologie Prénatale, Laboratoire de Cytogénétique, Université de Versailles, Versailles; and Fédération de Génétique Médicale, Hôpitaux Universitaires de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Sophie Audollent
- Département de Génétique et Unité INSERM U-393 and Unité INSERM U-574, Hôpital Necker-Enfants Malades, Assistance Publique–Hôpitaux de Paris (AP-HP), Laboratoire d’Embryologie Pathologique, Hôpital Saint Antoine, AP-HP, and Service de Biologie du Développement, Hôpital Robert Debré, AP-HP, Paris; Cabinet d’Anatomie et Cytologie Pathologiques Richier, Rennes, France; Anatomie Pathologique, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire (CHU) de Nantes, Nantes, France; Laboratoire Pol Bouin, Hôpital de la Maison Blanche, Reims, France; Service d’Anatomie Pathologique, CHU Côte de Nacre, and Service de Génétique, CHU de Caen, Caen, France; Service de Pédiatrie, Centre Hospitalier de Mulhouse, Mulhouse, France; Centre d’Étude de Biologie Prénatale, Laboratoire de Cytogénétique, Université de Versailles, Versailles; and Fédération de Génétique Médicale, Hôpitaux Universitaires de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Géraldine Goudefroye
- Département de Génétique et Unité INSERM U-393 and Unité INSERM U-574, Hôpital Necker-Enfants Malades, Assistance Publique–Hôpitaux de Paris (AP-HP), Laboratoire d’Embryologie Pathologique, Hôpital Saint Antoine, AP-HP, and Service de Biologie du Développement, Hôpital Robert Debré, AP-HP, Paris; Cabinet d’Anatomie et Cytologie Pathologiques Richier, Rennes, France; Anatomie Pathologique, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire (CHU) de Nantes, Nantes, France; Laboratoire Pol Bouin, Hôpital de la Maison Blanche, Reims, France; Service d’Anatomie Pathologique, CHU Côte de Nacre, and Service de Génétique, CHU de Caen, Caen, France; Service de Pédiatrie, Centre Hospitalier de Mulhouse, Mulhouse, France; Centre d’Étude de Biologie Prénatale, Laboratoire de Cytogénétique, Université de Versailles, Versailles; and Fédération de Génétique Médicale, Hôpitaux Universitaires de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Marie Gonzales
- Département de Génétique et Unité INSERM U-393 and Unité INSERM U-574, Hôpital Necker-Enfants Malades, Assistance Publique–Hôpitaux de Paris (AP-HP), Laboratoire d’Embryologie Pathologique, Hôpital Saint Antoine, AP-HP, and Service de Biologie du Développement, Hôpital Robert Debré, AP-HP, Paris; Cabinet d’Anatomie et Cytologie Pathologiques Richier, Rennes, France; Anatomie Pathologique, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire (CHU) de Nantes, Nantes, France; Laboratoire Pol Bouin, Hôpital de la Maison Blanche, Reims, France; Service d’Anatomie Pathologique, CHU Côte de Nacre, and Service de Génétique, CHU de Caen, Caen, France; Service de Pédiatrie, Centre Hospitalier de Mulhouse, Mulhouse, France; Centre d’Étude de Biologie Prénatale, Laboratoire de Cytogénétique, Université de Versailles, Versailles; and Fédération de Génétique Médicale, Hôpitaux Universitaires de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Julia Tantau
- Département de Génétique et Unité INSERM U-393 and Unité INSERM U-574, Hôpital Necker-Enfants Malades, Assistance Publique–Hôpitaux de Paris (AP-HP), Laboratoire d’Embryologie Pathologique, Hôpital Saint Antoine, AP-HP, and Service de Biologie du Développement, Hôpital Robert Debré, AP-HP, Paris; Cabinet d’Anatomie et Cytologie Pathologiques Richier, Rennes, France; Anatomie Pathologique, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire (CHU) de Nantes, Nantes, France; Laboratoire Pol Bouin, Hôpital de la Maison Blanche, Reims, France; Service d’Anatomie Pathologique, CHU Côte de Nacre, and Service de Génétique, CHU de Caen, Caen, France; Service de Pédiatrie, Centre Hospitalier de Mulhouse, Mulhouse, France; Centre d’Étude de Biologie Prénatale, Laboratoire de Cytogénétique, Université de Versailles, Versailles; and Fédération de Génétique Médicale, Hôpitaux Universitaires de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Philippe Loget
- Département de Génétique et Unité INSERM U-393 and Unité INSERM U-574, Hôpital Necker-Enfants Malades, Assistance Publique–Hôpitaux de Paris (AP-HP), Laboratoire d’Embryologie Pathologique, Hôpital Saint Antoine, AP-HP, and Service de Biologie du Développement, Hôpital Robert Debré, AP-HP, Paris; Cabinet d’Anatomie et Cytologie Pathologiques Richier, Rennes, France; Anatomie Pathologique, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire (CHU) de Nantes, Nantes, France; Laboratoire Pol Bouin, Hôpital de la Maison Blanche, Reims, France; Service d’Anatomie Pathologique, CHU Côte de Nacre, and Service de Génétique, CHU de Caen, Caen, France; Service de Pédiatrie, Centre Hospitalier de Mulhouse, Mulhouse, France; Centre d’Étude de Biologie Prénatale, Laboratoire de Cytogénétique, Université de Versailles, Versailles; and Fédération de Génétique Médicale, Hôpitaux Universitaires de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Madeleine Joubert
- Département de Génétique et Unité INSERM U-393 and Unité INSERM U-574, Hôpital Necker-Enfants Malades, Assistance Publique–Hôpitaux de Paris (AP-HP), Laboratoire d’Embryologie Pathologique, Hôpital Saint Antoine, AP-HP, and Service de Biologie du Développement, Hôpital Robert Debré, AP-HP, Paris; Cabinet d’Anatomie et Cytologie Pathologiques Richier, Rennes, France; Anatomie Pathologique, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire (CHU) de Nantes, Nantes, France; Laboratoire Pol Bouin, Hôpital de la Maison Blanche, Reims, France; Service d’Anatomie Pathologique, CHU Côte de Nacre, and Service de Génétique, CHU de Caen, Caen, France; Service de Pédiatrie, Centre Hospitalier de Mulhouse, Mulhouse, France; Centre d’Étude de Biologie Prénatale, Laboratoire de Cytogénétique, Université de Versailles, Versailles; and Fédération de Génétique Médicale, Hôpitaux Universitaires de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Dominique Gaillard
- Département de Génétique et Unité INSERM U-393 and Unité INSERM U-574, Hôpital Necker-Enfants Malades, Assistance Publique–Hôpitaux de Paris (AP-HP), Laboratoire d’Embryologie Pathologique, Hôpital Saint Antoine, AP-HP, and Service de Biologie du Développement, Hôpital Robert Debré, AP-HP, Paris; Cabinet d’Anatomie et Cytologie Pathologiques Richier, Rennes, France; Anatomie Pathologique, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire (CHU) de Nantes, Nantes, France; Laboratoire Pol Bouin, Hôpital de la Maison Blanche, Reims, France; Service d’Anatomie Pathologique, CHU Côte de Nacre, and Service de Génétique, CHU de Caen, Caen, France; Service de Pédiatrie, Centre Hospitalier de Mulhouse, Mulhouse, France; Centre d’Étude de Biologie Prénatale, Laboratoire de Cytogénétique, Université de Versailles, Versailles; and Fédération de Génétique Médicale, Hôpitaux Universitaires de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Corinne Jeanne-Pasquier
- Département de Génétique et Unité INSERM U-393 and Unité INSERM U-574, Hôpital Necker-Enfants Malades, Assistance Publique–Hôpitaux de Paris (AP-HP), Laboratoire d’Embryologie Pathologique, Hôpital Saint Antoine, AP-HP, and Service de Biologie du Développement, Hôpital Robert Debré, AP-HP, Paris; Cabinet d’Anatomie et Cytologie Pathologiques Richier, Rennes, France; Anatomie Pathologique, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire (CHU) de Nantes, Nantes, France; Laboratoire Pol Bouin, Hôpital de la Maison Blanche, Reims, France; Service d’Anatomie Pathologique, CHU Côte de Nacre, and Service de Génétique, CHU de Caen, Caen, France; Service de Pédiatrie, Centre Hospitalier de Mulhouse, Mulhouse, France; Centre d’Étude de Biologie Prénatale, Laboratoire de Cytogénétique, Université de Versailles, Versailles; and Fédération de Génétique Médicale, Hôpitaux Universitaires de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Anne-Lise Delezoide
- Département de Génétique et Unité INSERM U-393 and Unité INSERM U-574, Hôpital Necker-Enfants Malades, Assistance Publique–Hôpitaux de Paris (AP-HP), Laboratoire d’Embryologie Pathologique, Hôpital Saint Antoine, AP-HP, and Service de Biologie du Développement, Hôpital Robert Debré, AP-HP, Paris; Cabinet d’Anatomie et Cytologie Pathologiques Richier, Rennes, France; Anatomie Pathologique, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire (CHU) de Nantes, Nantes, France; Laboratoire Pol Bouin, Hôpital de la Maison Blanche, Reims, France; Service d’Anatomie Pathologique, CHU Côte de Nacre, and Service de Génétique, CHU de Caen, Caen, France; Service de Pédiatrie, Centre Hospitalier de Mulhouse, Mulhouse, France; Centre d’Étude de Biologie Prénatale, Laboratoire de Cytogénétique, Université de Versailles, Versailles; and Fédération de Génétique Médicale, Hôpitaux Universitaires de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Marie-Odile Peter
- Département de Génétique et Unité INSERM U-393 and Unité INSERM U-574, Hôpital Necker-Enfants Malades, Assistance Publique–Hôpitaux de Paris (AP-HP), Laboratoire d’Embryologie Pathologique, Hôpital Saint Antoine, AP-HP, and Service de Biologie du Développement, Hôpital Robert Debré, AP-HP, Paris; Cabinet d’Anatomie et Cytologie Pathologiques Richier, Rennes, France; Anatomie Pathologique, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire (CHU) de Nantes, Nantes, France; Laboratoire Pol Bouin, Hôpital de la Maison Blanche, Reims, France; Service d’Anatomie Pathologique, CHU Côte de Nacre, and Service de Génétique, CHU de Caen, Caen, France; Service de Pédiatrie, Centre Hospitalier de Mulhouse, Mulhouse, France; Centre d’Étude de Biologie Prénatale, Laboratoire de Cytogénétique, Université de Versailles, Versailles; and Fédération de Génétique Médicale, Hôpitaux Universitaires de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Ghislaine Plessis
- Département de Génétique et Unité INSERM U-393 and Unité INSERM U-574, Hôpital Necker-Enfants Malades, Assistance Publique–Hôpitaux de Paris (AP-HP), Laboratoire d’Embryologie Pathologique, Hôpital Saint Antoine, AP-HP, and Service de Biologie du Développement, Hôpital Robert Debré, AP-HP, Paris; Cabinet d’Anatomie et Cytologie Pathologiques Richier, Rennes, France; Anatomie Pathologique, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire (CHU) de Nantes, Nantes, France; Laboratoire Pol Bouin, Hôpital de la Maison Blanche, Reims, France; Service d’Anatomie Pathologique, CHU Côte de Nacre, and Service de Génétique, CHU de Caen, Caen, France; Service de Pédiatrie, Centre Hospitalier de Mulhouse, Mulhouse, France; Centre d’Étude de Biologie Prénatale, Laboratoire de Cytogénétique, Université de Versailles, Versailles; and Fédération de Génétique Médicale, Hôpitaux Universitaires de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Brigitte Simon-Bouy
- Département de Génétique et Unité INSERM U-393 and Unité INSERM U-574, Hôpital Necker-Enfants Malades, Assistance Publique–Hôpitaux de Paris (AP-HP), Laboratoire d’Embryologie Pathologique, Hôpital Saint Antoine, AP-HP, and Service de Biologie du Développement, Hôpital Robert Debré, AP-HP, Paris; Cabinet d’Anatomie et Cytologie Pathologiques Richier, Rennes, France; Anatomie Pathologique, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire (CHU) de Nantes, Nantes, France; Laboratoire Pol Bouin, Hôpital de la Maison Blanche, Reims, France; Service d’Anatomie Pathologique, CHU Côte de Nacre, and Service de Génétique, CHU de Caen, Caen, France; Service de Pédiatrie, Centre Hospitalier de Mulhouse, Mulhouse, France; Centre d’Étude de Biologie Prénatale, Laboratoire de Cytogénétique, Université de Versailles, Versailles; and Fédération de Génétique Médicale, Hôpitaux Universitaires de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Hélène Dollfus
- Département de Génétique et Unité INSERM U-393 and Unité INSERM U-574, Hôpital Necker-Enfants Malades, Assistance Publique–Hôpitaux de Paris (AP-HP), Laboratoire d’Embryologie Pathologique, Hôpital Saint Antoine, AP-HP, and Service de Biologie du Développement, Hôpital Robert Debré, AP-HP, Paris; Cabinet d’Anatomie et Cytologie Pathologiques Richier, Rennes, France; Anatomie Pathologique, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire (CHU) de Nantes, Nantes, France; Laboratoire Pol Bouin, Hôpital de la Maison Blanche, Reims, France; Service d’Anatomie Pathologique, CHU Côte de Nacre, and Service de Génétique, CHU de Caen, Caen, France; Service de Pédiatrie, Centre Hospitalier de Mulhouse, Mulhouse, France; Centre d’Étude de Biologie Prénatale, Laboratoire de Cytogénétique, Université de Versailles, Versailles; and Fédération de Génétique Médicale, Hôpitaux Universitaires de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Martine Le Merrer
- Département de Génétique et Unité INSERM U-393 and Unité INSERM U-574, Hôpital Necker-Enfants Malades, Assistance Publique–Hôpitaux de Paris (AP-HP), Laboratoire d’Embryologie Pathologique, Hôpital Saint Antoine, AP-HP, and Service de Biologie du Développement, Hôpital Robert Debré, AP-HP, Paris; Cabinet d’Anatomie et Cytologie Pathologiques Richier, Rennes, France; Anatomie Pathologique, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire (CHU) de Nantes, Nantes, France; Laboratoire Pol Bouin, Hôpital de la Maison Blanche, Reims, France; Service d’Anatomie Pathologique, CHU Côte de Nacre, and Service de Génétique, CHU de Caen, Caen, France; Service de Pédiatrie, Centre Hospitalier de Mulhouse, Mulhouse, France; Centre d’Étude de Biologie Prénatale, Laboratoire de Cytogénétique, Université de Versailles, Versailles; and Fédération de Génétique Médicale, Hôpitaux Universitaires de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Arnold Munnich
- Département de Génétique et Unité INSERM U-393 and Unité INSERM U-574, Hôpital Necker-Enfants Malades, Assistance Publique–Hôpitaux de Paris (AP-HP), Laboratoire d’Embryologie Pathologique, Hôpital Saint Antoine, AP-HP, and Service de Biologie du Développement, Hôpital Robert Debré, AP-HP, Paris; Cabinet d’Anatomie et Cytologie Pathologiques Richier, Rennes, France; Anatomie Pathologique, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire (CHU) de Nantes, Nantes, France; Laboratoire Pol Bouin, Hôpital de la Maison Blanche, Reims, France; Service d’Anatomie Pathologique, CHU Côte de Nacre, and Service de Génétique, CHU de Caen, Caen, France; Service de Pédiatrie, Centre Hospitalier de Mulhouse, Mulhouse, France; Centre d’Étude de Biologie Prénatale, Laboratoire de Cytogénétique, Université de Versailles, Versailles; and Fédération de Génétique Médicale, Hôpitaux Universitaires de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Férechté Encha-Razavi
- Département de Génétique et Unité INSERM U-393 and Unité INSERM U-574, Hôpital Necker-Enfants Malades, Assistance Publique–Hôpitaux de Paris (AP-HP), Laboratoire d’Embryologie Pathologique, Hôpital Saint Antoine, AP-HP, and Service de Biologie du Développement, Hôpital Robert Debré, AP-HP, Paris; Cabinet d’Anatomie et Cytologie Pathologiques Richier, Rennes, France; Anatomie Pathologique, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire (CHU) de Nantes, Nantes, France; Laboratoire Pol Bouin, Hôpital de la Maison Blanche, Reims, France; Service d’Anatomie Pathologique, CHU Côte de Nacre, and Service de Génétique, CHU de Caen, Caen, France; Service de Pédiatrie, Centre Hospitalier de Mulhouse, Mulhouse, France; Centre d’Étude de Biologie Prénatale, Laboratoire de Cytogénétique, Université de Versailles, Versailles; and Fédération de Génétique Médicale, Hôpitaux Universitaires de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Michel Vekemans
- Département de Génétique et Unité INSERM U-393 and Unité INSERM U-574, Hôpital Necker-Enfants Malades, Assistance Publique–Hôpitaux de Paris (AP-HP), Laboratoire d’Embryologie Pathologique, Hôpital Saint Antoine, AP-HP, and Service de Biologie du Développement, Hôpital Robert Debré, AP-HP, Paris; Cabinet d’Anatomie et Cytologie Pathologiques Richier, Rennes, France; Anatomie Pathologique, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire (CHU) de Nantes, Nantes, France; Laboratoire Pol Bouin, Hôpital de la Maison Blanche, Reims, France; Service d’Anatomie Pathologique, CHU Côte de Nacre, and Service de Génétique, CHU de Caen, Caen, France; Service de Pédiatrie, Centre Hospitalier de Mulhouse, Mulhouse, France; Centre d’Étude de Biologie Prénatale, Laboratoire de Cytogénétique, Université de Versailles, Versailles; and Fédération de Génétique Médicale, Hôpitaux Universitaires de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Tania Attié-Bitach
- Département de Génétique et Unité INSERM U-393 and Unité INSERM U-574, Hôpital Necker-Enfants Malades, Assistance Publique–Hôpitaux de Paris (AP-HP), Laboratoire d’Embryologie Pathologique, Hôpital Saint Antoine, AP-HP, and Service de Biologie du Développement, Hôpital Robert Debré, AP-HP, Paris; Cabinet d’Anatomie et Cytologie Pathologiques Richier, Rennes, France; Anatomie Pathologique, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire (CHU) de Nantes, Nantes, France; Laboratoire Pol Bouin, Hôpital de la Maison Blanche, Reims, France; Service d’Anatomie Pathologique, CHU Côte de Nacre, and Service de Génétique, CHU de Caen, Caen, France; Service de Pédiatrie, Centre Hospitalier de Mulhouse, Mulhouse, France; Centre d’Étude de Biologie Prénatale, Laboratoire de Cytogénétique, Université de Versailles, Versailles; and Fédération de Génétique Médicale, Hôpitaux Universitaires de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
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Chapter 11 Assessment of vision in infants and young children. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005. [DOI: 10.1016/s1567-4231(09)70208-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
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Andersen KL, Echwald SM, Larsen LH, Hamid YH, Glümer C, Jørgensen T, Borch-Johnsen K, Andersen T, Sørensen TIA, Hansen T, Pedersen O. Variation of the McKusick-Kaufman gene and studies of relationships with common forms of obesity. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2005; 90:225-30. [PMID: 15483080 DOI: 10.1210/jc.2004-0465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/12/2023]
Abstract
Obesity is a prominent feature of the Bardet-Biedl syndrome (BBS), one subset of which, BBS6, is due to mutations in the chaperonin-like gene termed the McKusick-Kaufman syndrome (MKKS) gene. We tested whether variation in MKKS contributes to common and probably polygenic forms of obesity by performing mutation analysis of the coding region in 60 Danish white men with juvenile-onset obesity. Five variants were identified, including two synonymous mutations (Pro(39)Pro and Ile(178)Ile) and three nonsynonymous variants (Ala(242)Ser, Arg(517)Cys, and Gly(532)Val). Furthermore, the rare Ala(242)Ser was identified in two families and showed partial cosegregation with obesity. The Pro(39)Pro, Ile(178)Ile, and Arg(517)Cys variants are in complete linkage disequilibrium and defined a prevalent haplotype. In a case-control study, the Arg(517)Cys polymorphism allele prevalence was 11.4% [95% confidence interval (CI), 9.7-13.0] among 744 men with juvenile-onset obesity and 9.3% (CI, 7.9-10.7) among 867 control subjects (P = 0.048). However, among middle-aged men the allelic prevalence was 9.7% (CI, 7.9-11.4) among 523 obese men and 12.2% (CI, 10.8-13.6) among 1051 lean men (P = 0.037). In conclusion, it is unlikely that MKKS variants play a major role in the pathogenesis of nonsyndromic obesity, although in rare cases the A242S allele may contribute to obesity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirstine L Andersen
- Steno Diabetes Center and Hagedorn Research Institute, DK-2820 Gentofte, Denmark
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Bailey SJ, Toth M. Variability in the benzodiazepine response of serotonin 5-HT1A receptor null mice displaying anxiety-like phenotype: evidence for genetic modifiers in the 5-HT-mediated regulation of GABA(A) receptors. J Neurosci 2004; 24:6343-51. [PMID: 15254090 PMCID: PMC6729545 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.0563-04.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Benzodiazepines (BZs) acting as modulators of GABA(A) receptors (GABA(A)Rs) are an important group of drugs for the treatment of anxiety disorders. However, a large inter-individual variation in BZ sensitivity occurs in the human population with some anxiety disorder patients exhibiting diminished sensitivity to BZ and reduced density of GABA(A)Rs. The mechanism underlying BZ treatment resistance is not known, and it is not possible to predict whether an anxiety patient will respond to BZ. 5-hydroxytryptamine1A receptor (5-HT1AR) null mice (R-/-) on the Swiss-Webster (SW) background reproduce several features of BZ-resistant anxiety; they exhibit anxiety-related behaviors, do not respond to BZ, have reduced BZ binding, and have decreased expression of the major GABA(A)R subunits alpha1 and alpha2. Here, we show that R-/- mice on the C57Bl6 (B6) background also have anxiety phenotype, but they respond to BZ and have normal GABA(A)R subunit expression. This indicates that the 5-HT1AR-mediated regulation of GABA(A)R alpha subunit expression is subject to genetic modification. Hybrid SW/B6-R-/- mice also exhibit BZ-resistant anxiety, suggesting that SW mice carry a genetic modifier, which mediates the effect of the 5-HT1AR on the expression of GABA(A)Ralpha subunits. In addition, we show that this genetic interaction in SW mice operates early in postnatal life to influence the expression of GABA(A)R alpha subunits at the transcriptional level. These data indicate that BZ-resistant anxiety results from a developmental arrest of GABA(A)R expression in SW-R-/- mice, and a similar mechanism may be responsible for the BZ insensitivity of some anxiety patients.
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MESH Headings
- Amygdala/growth & development
- Amygdala/metabolism
- Animals
- Anti-Anxiety Agents/pharmacology
- Anti-Anxiety Agents/therapeutic use
- Anxiety Disorders/drug therapy
- Anxiety Disorders/genetics
- Crosses, Genetic
- Diazepam/pharmacology
- Drug Resistance/genetics
- Epistasis, Genetic
- Frontal Lobe/growth & development
- Frontal Lobe/metabolism
- Gene Expression Regulation
- Gene Expression Regulation, Developmental
- Maze Learning
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Protein Interaction Mapping
- Protein Subunits/biosynthesis
- Protein Subunits/chemistry
- Protein Subunits/deficiency
- Protein Subunits/genetics
- RNA, Messenger/biosynthesis
- Receptor, Serotonin, 5-HT1A/deficiency
- Receptor, Serotonin, 5-HT1A/genetics
- Receptor, Serotonin, 5-HT1A/physiology
- Receptors, GABA-A/biosynthesis
- Receptors, GABA-A/chemistry
- Receptors, GABA-A/deficiency
- Receptors, GABA-A/genetics
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah J Bailey
- Department of Pharmacology, Weill Medical College of Cornell University, New York, New York 10021, USA.
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364
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Pasch A, Hoefele J, Grimminger H, Hacker HW, Hildebrandt F. Multiple urinary tract malformations with likely recessive inheritance in a large Somalian kindred. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2004; 19:3172-5. [PMID: 15575007 DOI: 10.1093/ndt/gfh514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Pasch
- University of Michigan, Department of Pediatrics, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-0640, USA
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365
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Nishimura DY, Fath M, Mullins RF, Searby C, Andrews M, Davis R, Andorf JL, Mykytyn K, Swiderski RE, Yang B, Carmi R, Stone EM, Sheffield VC. Bbs2-null mice have neurosensory deficits, a defect in social dominance, and retinopathy associated with mislocalization of rhodopsin. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2004; 101:16588-93. [PMID: 15539463 PMCID: PMC534519 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0405496101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 299] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Bardet-Biedl syndrome (BBS) is a heterogeneous, pleiotropic human disorder characterized by obesity, retinopathy, polydactyly, renal and cardiac malformations, learning disabilities, hypogenitalism, and an increased incidence of diabetes and hypertension. No information is available regarding the specific function of BBS2. We show that mice lacking Bbs2 gene expression have major components of the human phenotype, including obesity and retinopathy. In addition, these mice have phenotypes associated with cilia dysfunction, including retinopathy, renal cysts, male infertility, and a deficit in olfaction. With the exception of male infertility, these phenotypes are not caused by a complete absence of cilia. We demonstrate that BBS2 retinopathy involves normal retina development followed by apoptotic death of photoreceptors, the primary ciliated cells of the retina. Photoreceptor cell death is preceded by mislocalization of rhodopsin, indicating a defect in transport. We also demonstrate that Bbs2(-/-) mice and a second BBS mouse model, Bbs4(-/-), have a defect in social function. The evaluation of Bbs2(-/-) mice indicates additional phenotypes that should be evaluated in human patients, including deficits in social interaction and infertility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Darryl Y Nishimura
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Medical Genetics, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA
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366
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Abstract
Bardet-Biedl Syndrome (BBS) is a gentic disorder with primary features of retinal dystrophy, obesity, polydactyly, structural and functional renal abnormalities, and learning disabilities. In addition to displaying remarkable pleiotropy, BBS is a heterogeneous disorder with linkage to at least eight loci. The identification of the first five BBS genes provided little insight into BBS protein function. Ansley at al. have now identified a sixth BBS gene (BBS8) and provide evidence that the BBS8 protein and other BBS proteins localize to the basal body of ciliated cells, suggesting that BBS is a ciliary dysfunction disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirk Mykytyn
- Department of Pharmacology and Division of Human Genetics, Ohio State University, Columbus, 43210, USA
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367
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Abstract
Affecting 1-3% of the population, mental retardation (MR) poses significant challenges for clinicians and scientists. Understanding the biology of MR is complicated by the extraordinary heterogeneity of genetic MR disorders. Detailed analyses of >1000 Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man (OMIM) database entries and literature searches through September 2003 revealed 282 molecularly identified MR genes. We estimate that hundreds more MR genes remain to be identified. A novel test, in which we distributed unmapped MR disorders proportionately across the autosomes, failed to eliminate the well-known X-chromosome overrepresentation of MR genes and candidate genes. This evidence argues against ascertainment bias as the main cause of the skewed distribution. On the basis of a synthesis of clinical and laboratory data, we developed a biological functions classification scheme for MR genes. Metabolic pathways, signaling pathways, and transcription are the most common functions, but numerous other aspects of neuronal and glial biology are controlled by MR genes as well. Using protein sequence and domain-organization comparisons, we found a striking conservation of MR genes and genetic pathways across the approximately 700 million years that separate Homo sapiens and Drosophila melanogaster. Eighty-seven percent have one or more fruit fly homologs and 76% have at least one candidate functional ortholog. We propose that D. melanogaster can be used in a systematic manner to study MR and possibly to develop bioassays for therapeutic drug discovery. We selected 42 Drosophila orthologs as most likely to reveal molecular and cellular mechanisms of nervous system development or plasticity relevant to MR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer K Inlow
- Arizona Research Laboratories Division of Neurobiology, University of Arizona, Tucson 85721-0077, USA
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368
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Genetic analysis of cardiac-specific transcription factors reveals insights into congenital heart disease. Monatsschr Kinderheilkd 2004. [DOI: 10.1007/s00112-004-1044-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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369
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Fan Y, Green JS, Ross AJ, Beales PL, Parfrey PS, Davidson WS. Linkage disequilibrium mapping in the Newfoundland population: a re-evaluation of the refinement of the Bardet?Biedl syndrome 1 critical interval. Hum Genet 2004; 116:62-71. [PMID: 15517396 DOI: 10.1007/s00439-004-1184-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2004] [Accepted: 08/04/2004] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Genetically isolated populations, such as Newfoundland, have contributed greatly to the identification of disease-causing genes. A linkage disequilibrium (LD) study involving six Newfoundland families predicted a critical interval for Bardet-Biedl syndrome 1 (BBS1) (Young et al. in Am J Hum Genet 65:1680-1687, 1999), but the subsequent identification of BBS1 revealed that it lies outside this region. This suggested that either there is another gene responsible for BBS in these families or the Newfoundland population may not be ideal for LD studies. We screened these six Newfoundland families for mutations in BBS1 and found that affected individuals in five of them were homozygous for the same M390R mutation. There was no evidence for any BBS1 mutation in the affected individual in the sixth family. Therefore, one of the criteria for LD mapping was not met; namely, there should be a single disease-causing allele in the population. Haplotype analysis of unaffected individuals from south-west Newfoundland and English BBS1 patients homozygous for M390R, revealed that a second criterion for LD mapping was violated. The M390R mutation occurred in a common haplotype and both of these chromosomes, the ancestral wild-type and disease-causing haplotypes, were introduced to Newfoundland and spread by a founder effect. Moreover, it was found that disease-associated alleles occurred at relatively high frequencies in normal haplotypes and this probably accounted for the incorrect prediction in the previous LD study. Knowing the amount of genetic variation and its distribution in the Newfoundland population would be useful to maximize its potential for mapping hereditary disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanli Fan
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Simon Fraser University, 8888 University Drive, Burnaby, BC, Canada V5A 1S6
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370
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Abstract
Glaucoma represents a heterogeneous group of optic neuropathies, with different genetic bases. It can affect all ages generally with a rise in intra-ocular pressure. Three major types of glaucoma have been reported: primary open angle glaucoma (POAG), primary acute closed angle glaucoma (PACG) and primary congenital glaucoma (PCG), as well as a few others associated with developmental abnormalities. In recent years impressive progress has been made in the molecular genetic studies of POAG and PCG. These include the discovery of three genes--Myocilin, Optineurin and CYP1B1--defects in which results in Mendelian transmission of glaucoma. Identification of single nucleotide polymorphisms in multiple other genes that are associated with glaucoma and alteration of drug sensitivity are enriching our knowledge regarding the complex nature of the disease. This review attempts to present the recent progress made in the molecular genetics of glaucoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kunal Ray
- Human Genetics and Genomics Division, Indian Institute of Chemical Biology, Jadavpur, Kolkata, India.
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371
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Bhogal AK, Leavitt BR. Computational biology to the rescue: the ongoing quest to understand Bardet-Biedl syndrome. Clin Genet 2004. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1399-0004.2004.00347c.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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372
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Chiang AP, Nishimura D, Searby C, Elbedour K, Carmi R, Ferguson AL, Secrist J, Braun T, Casavant T, Stone EM, Sheffield VC. Comparative genomic analysis identifies an ADP-ribosylation factor-like gene as the cause of Bardet-Biedl syndrome (BBS3). Am J Hum Genet 2004; 75:475-84. [PMID: 15258860 PMCID: PMC1182025 DOI: 10.1086/423903] [Citation(s) in RCA: 170] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2004] [Accepted: 07/01/2004] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Bardet-Biedl syndrome (BBS) is a genetically heterogeneous, pleiotropic human disorder characterized by obesity, retinopathy, polydactyly, renal and cardiac malformations, learning disabilities, and hypogenitalism. Eight BBS loci have been mapped, and seven genes have been identified. BBS3 was previously mapped to chromosome 3 by linkage analysis in a large Israeli Bedouin kindred. The rarity of other families mapping to the BBS3 locus has made it difficult to narrow the disease interval sufficiently to identify the gene by positional cloning. We hypothesized that the genomes of model organisms that contained the orthologues to known BBS genes would also likely contain a BBS3 orthologue. Therefore, comparative genomic analysis was performed to prioritize BBS candidate genes for mutation screening. Known BBS proteins were compared with the translated genomes of model organisms to identify a subset of organisms in which these proteins were conserved. By including multiple organisms that have relatively small genome sizes in the analysis, the number of candidate genes was reduced, and a few genes mapping to the BBS3 interval emerged as the best candidates for this disorder. One of these genes, ADP-ribosylation factor-like 6 (ARL6), contains a homozygous stop mutation that segregates completely with the disease in the Bedouin kindred originally used to map the BBS3 locus, identifying this gene as the BBS3 gene. These data illustrate the power of comparative genomic analysis for the study of human disease and identifies a novel BBS gene.
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MESH Headings
- ADP-Ribosylation Factors/genetics
- Alleles
- Amino Acid Sequence
- Animals
- Bardet-Biedl Syndrome/genetics
- Chromosome Mapping
- Chromosomes, Human, Pair 3/ultrastructure
- Cloning, Molecular
- Codon
- Codon, Terminator
- Computational Biology
- DNA Mutational Analysis
- Databases as Topic
- Genes, Fungal
- Genes, Plant
- Genome
- Genome, Human
- Genotype
- Homozygote
- Humans
- Israel
- Models, Genetic
- Molecular Sequence Data
- Mutation
- Sequence Analysis, DNA
- Sequence Homology, Amino Acid
- Syndrome
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Affiliation(s)
- Annie P. Chiang
- Department of Computer and Electrical Engineering, Department of Pediatrics, Division of Medical Genetics, Department of Ophthalmology, and the Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of Iowa, Iowa City; and Genetic Institute, Soroka Medical Center, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel
| | - Darryl Nishimura
- Department of Computer and Electrical Engineering, Department of Pediatrics, Division of Medical Genetics, Department of Ophthalmology, and the Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of Iowa, Iowa City; and Genetic Institute, Soroka Medical Center, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel
| | - Charles Searby
- Department of Computer and Electrical Engineering, Department of Pediatrics, Division of Medical Genetics, Department of Ophthalmology, and the Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of Iowa, Iowa City; and Genetic Institute, Soroka Medical Center, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel
| | - Khalil Elbedour
- Department of Computer and Electrical Engineering, Department of Pediatrics, Division of Medical Genetics, Department of Ophthalmology, and the Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of Iowa, Iowa City; and Genetic Institute, Soroka Medical Center, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel
| | - Rivka Carmi
- Department of Computer and Electrical Engineering, Department of Pediatrics, Division of Medical Genetics, Department of Ophthalmology, and the Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of Iowa, Iowa City; and Genetic Institute, Soroka Medical Center, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel
| | - Amanda L. Ferguson
- Department of Computer and Electrical Engineering, Department of Pediatrics, Division of Medical Genetics, Department of Ophthalmology, and the Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of Iowa, Iowa City; and Genetic Institute, Soroka Medical Center, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel
| | - Jenifer Secrist
- Department of Computer and Electrical Engineering, Department of Pediatrics, Division of Medical Genetics, Department of Ophthalmology, and the Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of Iowa, Iowa City; and Genetic Institute, Soroka Medical Center, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel
| | - Terry Braun
- Department of Computer and Electrical Engineering, Department of Pediatrics, Division of Medical Genetics, Department of Ophthalmology, and the Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of Iowa, Iowa City; and Genetic Institute, Soroka Medical Center, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel
| | - Thomas Casavant
- Department of Computer and Electrical Engineering, Department of Pediatrics, Division of Medical Genetics, Department of Ophthalmology, and the Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of Iowa, Iowa City; and Genetic Institute, Soroka Medical Center, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel
| | - Edwin M. Stone
- Department of Computer and Electrical Engineering, Department of Pediatrics, Division of Medical Genetics, Department of Ophthalmology, and the Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of Iowa, Iowa City; and Genetic Institute, Soroka Medical Center, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel
| | - Val C. Sheffield
- Department of Computer and Electrical Engineering, Department of Pediatrics, Division of Medical Genetics, Department of Ophthalmology, and the Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of Iowa, Iowa City; and Genetic Institute, Soroka Medical Center, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel
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373
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Kulaga HM, Leitch CC, Eichers ER, Badano JL, Lesemann A, Hoskins BE, Lupski JR, Beales PL, Reed RR, Katsanis N. Loss of BBS proteins causes anosmia in humans and defects in olfactory cilia structure and function in the mouse. Nat Genet 2004; 36:994-8. [PMID: 15322545 DOI: 10.1038/ng1418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 256] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2004] [Accepted: 08/02/2004] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Defects in cilia are associated with several human disorders, including Kartagener syndrome, polycystic kidney disease, nephronophthisis and hydrocephalus. We proposed that the pleiotropic phenotype of Bardet-Biedl syndrome (BBS), which encompasses retinal degeneration, truncal obesity, renal and limb malformations and developmental delay, is due to dysfunction of basal bodies and cilia. Here we show that individuals with BBS have partial or complete anosmia. To test whether this phenotype is caused by ciliary defects of olfactory sensory neurons, we examined mice with deletions of Bbs1 or Bbs4. Loss of function of either BBS protein affected the olfactory, but not the respiratory, epithelium, causing severe reduction of the ciliated border, disorganization of the dendritic microtubule network and trapping of olfactory ciliary proteins in dendrites and cell bodies. Our data indicate that BBS proteins have a role in the microtubule organization of mammalian ciliated cells and that anosmia might be a useful determinant of other pleiotropic disorders with a suspected ciliary involvement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heather M Kulaga
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute and Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, 533 Broadway Street Building, Johns Hopkins University, 733 N. Broadway, Baltimore, Maryland 21205, USA
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374
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Fan Y, Esmail MA, Ansley SJ, Blacque OE, Boroevich K, Ross AJ, Moore SJ, Badano JL, May-Simera H, Compton DS, Green JS, Lewis RA, van Haelst MM, Parfrey PS, Baillie DL, Beales PL, Katsanis N, Davidson WS, Leroux MR. Mutations in a member of the Ras superfamily of small GTP-binding proteins causes Bardet-Biedl syndrome. Nat Genet 2004; 36:989-93. [PMID: 15314642 DOI: 10.1038/ng1414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 240] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2004] [Accepted: 07/19/2004] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
RAB, ADP-ribosylation factors (ARFs) and ARF-like (ARL) proteins belong to the Ras superfamily of small GTP-binding proteins and are essential for various membrane-associated intracellular trafficking processes. None of the approximately 50 known members of this family are linked to human disease. Using a bioinformatic screen for ciliary genes in combination with mutational analyses, we identified ARL6 as the gene underlying Bardet-Biedl syndrome type 3, a multisystemic disorder characterized by obesity, blindness, polydactyly, renal abnormalities and cognitive impairment. We uncovered four different homozygous substitutions in ARL6 in four unrelated families affected with Bardet-Biedl syndrome, two of which disrupt a threonine residue important for GTP binding and function of several related small GTP-binding proteins. Analysis of the Caenorhabditis elegans ARL6 homolog indicates that it is specifically expressed in ciliated cells, and that, in addition to the postulated cytoplasmic functions of ARL proteins, it undergoes intraflagellar transport. These findings implicate a small GTP-binding protein in ciliary transport and the pathogenesis of a pleiotropic disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanli Fan
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Simon Fraser University, 8888 University Drive, Burnaby, B.C. V5A 1S6, Canada
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375
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Weber S, Gribouval O, Esquivel EL, Morinière V, Tête MJ, Legendre C, Niaudet P, Antignac C. NPHS2 mutation analysis shows genetic heterogeneityof steroid-resistant nephrotic syndrome and lowpost-transplant recurrence. Kidney Int 2004; 66:571-9. [PMID: 15253708 DOI: 10.1111/j.1523-1755.2004.00776.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 237] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Mutations of NPHS2 are causative in familial autosomal-recessive (AR) and sporadic steroid-resistant nephrotic syndrome (SRNS). This study aimed to determine the spectrum of NPHS2 mutations and to establish genotype-phenotype correlations. METHODS NPHS2 mutation analysis was performed in 338 patients from 272 families with SRNS: 81 families with AR SRNS, 172 patients with sporadic SRNS, and 19 patients with diffuse mesangial sclerosis (DMS). RESULTS Twenty-six different pathogenic NPHS2 mutations were detected, including 13 novel mutations. The mutation detection rate was 43% for familial AR and 10.5% for sporadic SRNS, confirming genetic heterogeneity. No pathogenic NPHS2 mutations were found in DMS patients. Age at onset in patients with two pathogenic mutations was earlier, especially in cases with frameshift, truncating, and the R138Q missense mutations. Patients with only one NPHS2 mutation or variant had late-onset NS. Triallelic inheritance was observed in one patient with a homozygous R138Q mutation and a de novo NPHS1 mutation. Among 32 patients with two NPHS2 mutations who underwent kidney transplantation, only one developed late recurrence of focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (FSGS). Among 25 patients with sporadic SRNS and post-transplantation recurrence, we detected a heterozygous NPHS2 mutation in one case, and heterozygous variants/polymorphisms in 3 cases. CONCLUSION Patients with two pathogenic NPHS2 mutations present with early-onset SRNS and very low incidence of post-transplantation recurrence. Heterozygous NPHS2 variants may play a role in atypical cases with mild, late-onset course, and recurrence after transplantation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefanie Weber
- Inserm U574, Necker-Enfants Malades Hospital, Paris 5 University, Paris, France
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376
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Li JB, Gerdes JM, Haycraft CJ, Fan Y, Teslovich TM, May-Simera H, Li H, Blacque OE, Li L, Leitch CC, Lewis RA, Green JS, Parfrey PS, Leroux MR, Davidson WS, Beales PL, Guay-Woodford LM, Yoder BK, Stormo GD, Katsanis N, Dutcher SK. Comparative genomics identifies a flagellar and basal body proteome that includes the BBS5 human disease gene. Cell 2004; 117:541-52. [PMID: 15137946 DOI: 10.1016/s0092-8674(04)00450-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 569] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2004] [Revised: 04/22/2004] [Accepted: 04/23/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Cilia and flagella are microtubule-based structures nucleated by modified centrioles termed basal bodies. These biochemically complex organelles have more than 250 and 150 polypeptides, respectively. To identify the proteins involved in ciliary and basal body biogenesis and function, we undertook a comparative genomics approach that subtracted the nonflagellated proteome of Arabidopsis from the shared proteome of the ciliated/flagellated organisms Chlamydomonas and human. We identified 688 genes that are present exclusively in organisms with flagella and basal bodies and validated these data through a series of in silico, in vitro, and in vivo studies. We then applied this resource to the study of human ciliation disorders and have identified BBS5, a novel gene for Bardet-Biedl syndrome. We show that this novel protein localizes to basal bodies in mouse and C. elegans, is under the regulatory control of daf-19, and is necessary for the generation of both cilia and flagella.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin Billy Li
- Department of Genetics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
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377
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Cassart M, Eurin D, Didier F, Guibaud L, Avni EF. Antenatal renal sonographic anomalies and postnatal follow-up of renal involvement in Bardet-Biedl syndrome. ULTRASOUND IN OBSTETRICS & GYNECOLOGY : THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY OF ULTRASOUND IN OBSTETRICS AND GYNECOLOGY 2004; 24:51-54. [PMID: 15229916 DOI: 10.1002/uog.1086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To describe an antenatal sonographic renal pattern encountered in Bardet-Biedl syndrome, a rare autosomal recessive disorder whose definitive diagnosis is often delayed, and to describe the evolution of the sonographic appearance of the kidneys after birth. METHODS Among a large group of fetuses with hyperechoic kidneys, we retrospectively analyzed the prenatal sonographic findings and clinical and postnatal renal sonographic evolution of 11 patients who were found to be affected by Bardet-Biedl syndrome. RESULTS All 11 fetuses presented enlarged homogeneously hyperechoic kidneys without corticomedullary differentiation. The diagnosis was established before birth in three fetuses thanks to their familial history. It was confirmed during childhood in the remaining eight based on the development of the classic features of the syndrome. In the postnatal period, the prenatal pattern persisted for a few months in all 11 cases. The sonographic aspects of the kidneys normalized in most cases between 1 and 2 years after birth. CONCLUSIONS In affected families, the prenatal appearance of enlarged hyperechoic kidneys without corticomedullary differentiation should prompt a diagnosis of recurrence in the family of Bardet-Biedl syndrome, especially when polydactyly is present. In non-affected families, Bardet-Biedl syndrome should be included in the differential diagnosis whenever such an appearance is discovered in utero. The postnatal evolution of the renal sonographic findings is variable and normalization generally occurs by the age of 2 years.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Cassart
- Department of Medical Imaging, Erasme University Hospital, Brussels, Belgium.
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378
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Parisi MA, Bennett CL, Eckert ML, Dobyns WB, Gleeson JG, Shaw DWW, McDonald R, Eddy A, Chance PF, Glass IA. The NPHP1 gene deletion associated with juvenile nephronophthisis is present in a subset of individuals with Joubert syndrome. Am J Hum Genet 2004; 75:82-91. [PMID: 15138899 PMCID: PMC1182011 DOI: 10.1086/421846] [Citation(s) in RCA: 195] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2004] [Accepted: 04/09/2004] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Joubert syndrome (JS) is an autosomal recessive multisystem disease characterized by cerebellar vermis hypoplasia with prominent superior cerebellar peduncles (the "molar tooth sign" [MTS] on axial magnetic resonance imaging), mental retardation, hypotonia, irregular breathing pattern, and eye-movement abnormalities. Some individuals with JS have retinal dystrophy and/or progressive renal failure characterized by nephronophthisis (NPHP). Thus far, no mutations in the known NPHP genes, particularly the homozygous deletion of NPHP1 at 2q13, have been identified in subjects with JS. A cohort of 25 subjects with JS and either renal and/or retinal complications and 2 subjects with only juvenile NPHP were screened for mutations in the NPHP1 gene by standard methods. Two siblings affected with a mild form of JS were found to have a homozygous deletion of the NPHP1 gene identical, by mapping, to that in subjects with NPHP alone. A control subject with NPHP and with a homozygous NPHP1 deletion was also identified, retrospectively, as having a mild MTS and borderline intelligence. The NPHP1 deletion represents the first molecular defect associated with JS in a subset of mildly affected subjects. Cerebellar malformations consistent with the MTS may be relatively common in patients with juvenile NPHP without classic symptoms of JS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa A Parisi
- Division of Genetics and Developmental Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, University of Washington, Seattle, 98195, USA.
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379
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Roume J, Ville Y. Prenatal diagnosis of genetic renal diseases: breaking the code. ULTRASOUND IN OBSTETRICS & GYNECOLOGY : THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY OF ULTRASOUND IN OBSTETRICS AND GYNECOLOGY 2004; 24:10-18. [PMID: 15229910 DOI: 10.1002/uog.1109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- J Roume
- Department of Medical Genetics, Université UVSQ-Paris Ouest, CHI Poissy, France
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380
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Abstract
Bardet-Biedl syndrome (BBS) is a pleiotropic genetic disorder with the cardinal features of obesity, photoreceptor degeneration, polydactyly, hypogenitalism, renal abnormalities, and developmental delay. Other associated clinical findings in BBS patients include diabetes, hypertension, and congenital heart defects. The clinical diagnosis is based on the presence of at least four of the cardinal symptoms. BBS is recognized to be a genetically heterogeneous autosomal recessive disorder mapping to eight known loci. Positional cloning and candidate gene evaluation have resulted in the identification of six BBS genes. Mutation of one of these genes, BBS6, also causes McKusick-Kaufman syndrome. The BBS6 gene is predicted to code for a protein with sequence similarity to the chaperonin family of proteins. The predicted BBS1, BBS2, BBS4, BBS7, and BBS8 gene products do not seem to be molecular chaperones, on the basis of a lack of sequence similarity to the chaperonin family of proteins. The identification of BBS8 suggests a possible role in cilia function for BBS gene products. It remains to be determined whether the multiple BBS proteins are part of a multisubunit complex or do not directly interact with each other but are part of a common pathway. The study of BBS illustrates the value of using isolated inbred populations for the study of human genetic diseases and suggests strategies for facilitating the study of complex diseases and traits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Val C Sheffield
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Medical Genetics, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of Iowa, 4181 MERF, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA.
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381
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Boulenger-Vazel A, Leroy JP, Sassolas B, Kupfer I, Jacobzone C, Paule AM, Misery L. [Lymphangioma with epithelial hyperplasia included in a Bardet-Biedl syndrome]. Ann Dermatol Venereol 2004; 131:267-70. [PMID: 15107745 DOI: 10.1016/s0151-9638(04)93590-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The Bardet-Biedl syndrome is a rare autosomal recessive disorder, which associates obesity, pigmentary retinopathy, hexadactyly, hypogenitalism, renal dysfunction and mental retardation. Other abnormalities can be observed in the Bardet-Biedl syndrome, but few cutaneous abnormalities have been described. CASE REPORT A 41 year-old woman, suffering from a Bardet-Biedl syndrome diagnosed when she was 7 Years old, presented with an atypical pseudo verruca-like, dark red lesion of the interbuttock area that had developed over fifteen Years and had become a handicap. The histological examination revealed a double component: epithelial, papillomatous and acanthosic on the one hand and vascular and lymphatic on the other, suggesting a lymphangioma with epidermal hyperplasia. Magnetic resonance imaging of the sacral area revealed a median subcutaneous lesion, extending deeply to the third coccygial vertebra. DISCUSSION Such a lymphangioma is unusual. Because it occurred during a rare polymalformative syndrome, we suggest that it may represent a new clinical sign that can be observed during the Bardet-Biedl syndrome.
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382
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Kim JC, Badano JL, Sibold S, Esmail MA, Hill J, Hoskins BE, Leitch CC, Venner K, Ansley SJ, Ross AJ, Leroux MR, Katsanis N, Beales PL. The Bardet-Biedl protein BBS4 targets cargo to the pericentriolar region and is required for microtubule anchoring and cell cycle progression. Nat Genet 2004; 36:462-70. [PMID: 15107855 DOI: 10.1038/ng1352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 311] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2004] [Accepted: 03/24/2004] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
BBS4 is one of several proteins that cause Bardet-Biedl syndrome (BBS), a multisystemic disorder of genetic and clinical complexity. Here we show that BBS4 localizes to the centriolar satellites of centrosomes and basal bodies of primary cilia, where it functions as an adaptor of the p150(glued) subunit of the dynein transport machinery to recruit PCM1 (pericentriolar material 1 protein) and its associated cargo to the satellites. Silencing of BBS4 induces PCM1 mislocalization and concomitant deanchoring of centrosomal microtubules, arrest in cell division and apoptotic cell death. Expression of two truncated forms of BBS4 that are similar to those found in some individuals with BBS had a similar effect on PCM1 and microtubules. Our findings indicate that defective targeting or anchoring of pericentriolar proteins and microtubule disorganization contribute to the BBS phenotype and provide new insights into possible causes of familial obesity, diabetes and retinal degeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Chul Kim
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Simon Fraser University, 8888 University Dr., Burnaby BC, V5A 1S6, Canada
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383
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Stefan M, Nicholls RD. What have rare genetic syndromes taught us about the pathophysiology of the common forms of obesity? Curr Diab Rep 2004; 4:143-50. [PMID: 15035975 DOI: 10.1007/s11892-004-0070-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Obesity is a central feature for several congenital syndromes, including Prader-Willi, Angelman, Bardet-Biedl, Cohen, Alström, and Börjeson-Forssman-Lehmann syndromes, and Albright's hereditary osteodystrophy. Although a role for the central nervous system, including the hypothalamus-pituitary axis, has been suggested for the etiology of obesity in these syndromes, the pathophysiologic pathways are as yet not well defined, and in many cases may identify currently unknown mechanisms. Nevertheless, many of the causative genes and unusual mechanisms, including parental imprinting of genes and complex patterns of inheritance, have been identified. We review the latest advances in understanding congenital syndromes in which obesity is purely genetic, drawing on comparisons to genetic studies of obesity in the human population as well as to those in experimental and agricultural animal models. An understanding of the genetic basis for these syndromes will provide a more comprehensive picture of the mechanisms that control food intake and energy balance in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mihaela Stefan
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pennsylvania, Clinical Research Building, Room 528, 415 Curie Boulevard, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6140, USA
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384
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW This review provides a concise update of the most recent literature related to the diagnosis and care of patients with congenital nephrotic syndrome. This topic is of particular interest in light of the rapidly growing body of literature regarding mutations of proteins such as nephrin and podocin that are expressed at or near the podocyte slit diaphragm. RECENT FINDINGS The phenotypic variance of patients with congenital nephrotic syndrome with nephrin and podocin mutations resulting from triallelic mutations represents an important advance in our understanding of the effect of multiple genetic mutations on clinical disease expression. Clinically, the management of patients with unilateral nephrectomy, rather than the classic bilateral nephrectomy, represents an efficacious alternative management strategy and may impart better chances of graft survival by allowing later transplantation. Identification of a subset of patients with congenital nephrotic syndrome at increased risk of recurrence who also have antinephrin antibodies may enhance our understanding of recurrent disease in congenital nephrotic syndrome after transplantation. SUMMARY Exciting recent findings in the genotypic/phenotypic correlations of patients with congenital nephrotic syndrome may not only modify our understanding of this disease but may also help to revolutionize our understanding of human genetics. Promising outcomes with unilateral nephrectomy in patients with congenital nephrotic syndrome have permitted transplantation to be delayed and may potentially decrease the risk of complications. New findings regarding recurrence of nephrotic syndrome in patients with congenital nephrotic syndrome after transplantation may lead to improved survival in future renal transplantations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen E Papez
- Pediatric Nephrology Division, University of Michigan Health System, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109-064622, USA
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385
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Slavotinek AM, Dutra A, Kpodzo D, Pak E, Nakane T, Turner J, Whiteford M, Biesecker LG, Stratton P. A female with complete lack of Müllerian fusion, postaxial polydactyly, and tetralogy of fallot: Genetic heterogeneity of McKusick-Kaufman syndrome or a unique syndrome? Am J Med Genet A 2004; 129A:69-72. [PMID: 15266619 DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.a.30071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
We report a 19-year-old, non-Amish Caucasian female patient with primary amenorrhea caused by complete lack of Müllerian fusion with vaginal agenesis or Müllerian aplasia (MA), postaxial polydactyly (PAP), and tetralogy of Fallot. The genital tract anomaly of MA with and without renal or skeletal anomalies comprises Mayer-Rokitansky-Kuster-Hauser syndrome, which has not been reported with tetralogy of Fallot. The phenotypic triad of anomalies most closely resembled McKusick-Kaufman syndrome (MKS; OMIM 236700), a rare multiple congenital anomaly syndrome comprised of hydrometrocolpos (HMC), PAP, and congenital heart malformation that is inherited in an autosomal recessive pattern. While upper reproductive tract anomalies have not been reported with MKS, they have been reported with Bardet-Biedl syndrome (BBS), a syndrome that significantly overlaps with MKS. Both MKS and BBS can be caused by mutations in the MKKS or BBS6 gene on chromosome 20p12 and BBS is also associated with mutations in other genes (BBS1, BBS2, BBS4, and BBS7). To address this heterogenity, we sequenced the causative genes in MKS and BBS but no mutations in these five genes were identified. Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) excluded large deletions of chromosome 20p12 and microsatellite marker studies confirmed biparental inheritance for all of the known BBS loci. The dual midline fusion defects of tetralogy of Fallot and MA suggests that either this patient has a unique syndrome with a distinct genetic etiology or that she has a genetically heterogeneous or variant form of MKS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne M Slavotinek
- Genetic Diseases Research Branch, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA
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386
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Fan Y, Rahman P, Peddle L, Hefferton D, Gladney N, Moore SJ, Green JS, Parfrey PS, Davidson WS. Bardet–Biedl syndrome 1 genotype and obesity in the Newfoundland population. Int J Obes (Lond) 2004; 28:680-4. [PMID: 14993910 DOI: 10.1038/sj.ijo.0802601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES Obesity is one of the primary clinical features of Bardet-Biedl Syndrome (BBS), a genetically heterogeneous disorder that is usually inherited as an autosomal recessive trait. It has been suggested that heterozygous carriers of BBS are predisposed to obesity. We set out to identify the common mutation in BBS1 families from southwest Newfoundland and to examine the relationship between this mutation and obesity in the general population. METHODS AND SUBJECTS We genotyped BBS1 families from Newfoundland to determine the nature of the mutation causing BBS in this population. We then screened 200 obese individuals (average body mass index (BMI)=37.9 kg/m2; average waist to hip ratio=0.935; average waist=113.8 cm) and 200 ethnically matched, unrelated, controls (average BMI=25.0 kg/m2; average waist to hip ratio=0.896; average waist=86.9 cm) from the same geographic region for the presence of this mutation. RESULTS All affected members of the six Newfoundland BBS1 families were homozygous for the most common BBS1 mutation (M390R). This mutation was found in the heterozygous state in three of the 200 obese individuals and also in three of the 200 matched controls. CONCLUSIONS The high frequency of BBS1 in Newfoundland appears to be the result of a founder event. Our data do not support the hypothesis that the M390R BBS1 mutation plays a significant role in the frequency of obesity in the general public in Newfoundland.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Fan
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada
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387
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Abstract
Abstract
Affecting 1-3% of the population, mental retardation (MR) poses significant challenges for clinicians and scientists. Understanding the biology of MR is complicated by the extraordinary heterogeneity of genetic MR disorders. Detailed analyses of >1000 Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man (OMIM) database entries and literature searches through September 2003 revealed 282 molecularly identified MR genes. We estimate that hundreds more MR genes remain to be identified. A novel test, in which we distributed unmapped MR disorders proportionately across the autosomes, failed to eliminate the well-known X-chromosome overrepresentation of MR genes and candidate genes. This evidence argues against ascertainment bias as the main cause of the skewed distribution. On the basis of a synthesis of clinical and laboratory data, we developed a biological functions classification scheme for MR genes. Metabolic pathways, signaling pathways, and transcription are the most common functions, but numerous other aspects of neuronal and glial biology are controlled by MR genes as well. Using protein sequence and domain-organization comparisons, we found a striking conservation of MR genes and genetic pathways across the ∼700 million years that separate Homo sapiens and Drosophila melanogaster. Eighty-seven percent have one or more fruit fly homologs and 76% have at least one candidate functional ortholog. We propose that D. melanogaster can be used in a systematic manner to study MR and possibly to develop bioassays for therapeutic drug discovery. We selected 42 Drosophila orthologs as most likely to reveal molecular and cellular mechanisms of nervous system development or plasticity relevant to MR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer K Inlow
- Arizona Research Laboratories Division of Neurobiology, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721-0077
| | - Linda L Restifo
- Arizona Research Laboratories Division of Neurobiology, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721-0077
- Department of Neurology, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721-0077
- Genetics Graduate Interdisciplinary Program, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721-0077
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388
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Eichers ER, Lewis RA, Katsanis N, Lupski JR. Triallelic inheritance: a bridge between Mendelian and multifactorial traits. Ann Med 2004; 36:262-72. [PMID: 15224652 DOI: 10.1080/07853890410026214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The increasing identification of disease genes is revealing a growing number of traits that fail to conform to traditional Mendelian paradigms, thereby creating new challenges to both genetic investigators and clinicians. Bardet-Biedl syndrome (BBS) is one such disorder that has helped to define 'oligogenic' inheritance, a term that implies that some diseases are not inherited as simple single-gene Mendelian disorders and yet are not classic complex traits, but rather fit a model in which mutations in a small number of genes may interact genetically to manifest the phenotype. BBS is a pleiotropic disorder characterized by postnatal obesity, post-axial polydactyly, and progressive retinal dystrophy. Eight BBS loci have been identified to date and six of these genes have been cloned. Mutation analysis of these BBS genes in a cohort of patients has led to the description of the novel phenomenon of 'triallelic inheritance', wherein families were identified in which three mutations from genes at two different BBS loci segregate with expression of the disease. Modeling the cooperative ability of alleles of different genes at distinct loci to give rise to a particular phenotype will facilitate the understanding of complex multifactorial and polygenic traits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erica R Eichers
- Departments of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, One Baylor Plaza, Room 604B, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
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389
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Abstract
Obesity is one of the most pressing problems in the industrialized world. Twin, adoption and family studies have shown that genetic factors play a significant role in the pathogenesis of obesity. Rare mutations in humans and model organisms have provided insights into the pathways involved in body weight regulation. Studies of candidate genes indicate that some of the genes involved in pathways regulating energy expenditure and food intake may play a role in the predisposition to obesity. Amongst these genes, sequence variations in the adrenergic receptors, uncoupling proteins, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor, and the leptin receptor genes are of particular relevance. Results that have been replicated in at least three genome-wide scans suggest that key genes are located on chromosomes 2p, 3q, 5p, 6p, 7q, 10p, 11q, 17p and 20q. We conclude that the currently available evidence suggests four levels of genetic determination of obesity: genetic obesity, strong genetic predisposition, slight genetic predisposition, and genetically resistant. This growing body of research may help in the development of anti-obesity agents and perhaps genetic tests to predict the risk for obesity.
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Affiliation(s)
- R J F Loos
- Human Genomics Laboratory, Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Baton Rouge, LA 70808, USA
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390
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Dean M. Approaches to identify genes for complex human diseases: lessons from Mendelian disorders. Hum Mutat 2003; 22:261-74. [PMID: 12955713 DOI: 10.1002/humu.10259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
The focus of most molecular genetics research is the identification of genes involved in human disease. In the 20th century, genetics progressed from the rediscovery of Mendel's Laws to the identification of nearly every Mendelian genetic disease. At this pace, the genetic component of all complex human diseases could be identified by the end of the 21st century, and rational therapies could be developed. However, it is clear that no one approach will identify the genes for all diseases with a genetic component, because multiple mechanisms are involved in altering human phenotypes, including common alleles with small to moderate effects, rare alleles with moderate to large effects, complex gene-gene and gene-environment interactions, genomic alterations, and noninherited genetic effects. The knowledge gained from the study of Mendelian diseases may be applied to future research that combines linkage-based, association-based, and sequence-based approaches to detect most disease alleles. The technology to complete these studies is at hand and requires that modest improvements be applied on a wide scale. Improved analytical tools, phenotypic characterizations, and functional analyses will enable complete understanding of the genetic basis of complex diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Dean
- Laboratory of Genomic Diversity, National Cancer Institute-Frederick, Frederick, Maryland 21702, USA.
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391
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Ansley SJ, Badano JL, Blacque OE, Hill J, Hoskins BE, Leitch CC, Kim JC, Ross AJ, Eichers ER, Teslovich TM, Mah AK, Johnsen RC, Cavender JC, Lewis RA, Leroux MR, Beales PL, Katsanis N. Basal body dysfunction is a likely cause of pleiotropic Bardet-Biedl syndrome. Nature 2003; 425:628-33. [PMID: 14520415 DOI: 10.1038/nature02030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 464] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2003] [Accepted: 09/08/2003] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Bardet-Biedl syndrome (BBS) is a genetically heterogeneous disorder characterized primarily by retinal dystrophy, obesity, polydactyly, renal malformations and learning disabilities. Although five BBS genes have been cloned, the molecular basis of this syndrome remains elusive. Here we show that BBS is probably caused by a defect at the basal body of ciliated cells. We have cloned a new BBS gene, BBS8, which encodes a protein with a prokaryotic domain, pilF, involved in pilus formation and twitching mobility. In one family, a homozygous null BBS8 mutation leads to BBS with randomization of left-right body axis symmetry, a known defect of the nodal cilium. We have also found that BBS8 localizes specifically to ciliated structures, such as the connecting cilium of the retina and columnar epithelial cells in the lung. In cells, BBS8 localizes to centrosomes and basal bodies and interacts with PCM1, a protein probably involved in ciliogenesis. Finally, we demonstrate that all available Caenorhabditis elegans BBS homologues are expressed exclusively in ciliated neurons, and contain regulatory elements for RFX, a transcription factor that modulates the expression of genes associated with ciliogenesis and intraflagellar transport.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen J Ansley
- Institute of Genetic Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland 21287, USA
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392
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Gill HK, Splitt M, Sharland GK, Simpson JM. Patterns of recurrence of congenital heart disease: an analysis of 6,640 consecutive pregnancies evaluated by detailed fetal echocardiography. J Am Coll Cardiol 2003; 42:923-9. [PMID: 12957444 DOI: 10.1016/s0735-1097(03)00853-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES We sought to investigate the pattern of recurrence of congenital heart disease (CHD) where there is one or more affected first-degree relative. BACKGROUND There are little data on patterns of recurrence of different types of CHD. Analysis of a fetal series allows a high ascertainment of affected cases. METHODS We performed an analysis of referrals for detailed fetal echocardiography to a tertiary fetal cardiology unit, where there was a first-degree family history of CHD from 1990 to the end of 1999. Data were entered prospectively on a computerized database. Recurrences were exactly concordant if CHD was identical to the index case, and concordant for the group if belonging to a similar group of CHD. RESULTS A recurrence of CHD was seen in 178 (2.7%) of 6,640 pregnancies. The referral numbers for sibling, maternal, or paternal CHD cases were 5,151, 1,119, and 370, respectively. Exact concordance was seen in 37% of cases (range 0% to 80%), and group concordance was seen in 44%. In families where there were two or more recurrences, the exact concordance rate was 55%. Exact concordance rates were particularly high for isolated atrioventricular septal defects (4 of 5 [80%]) and laterality defects (7 of 11 [64%]). CONCLUSIONS The concordance rates of different types of CHD vary widely. Accurate diagnosis of the index case is essential for reliable counseling on patterns of recurrence. Minor CHD in the index case does not exclude more severe disease in recurrences. There appears to be significant under-referral for fetal echocardiography in paternal CHD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harinder K Gill
- Department of Clinical Genetics, Guys and St. Thomas Hospitals, London, UK SE1 9RT
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393
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Abstract
Genetic influences on the determination of human fat mass are profound and powerful, a statement that does not conflict with the obvious influence of environmental factors that drive recent changes in the prevalence of obesity. The assertion of the importance of genetic factors has, until recently, largely been based on twin and adoption studies. However, in the last 6 yr, a number of human genes have been identified in which major missense or nonsense mutations are sufficient in themselves to result in severe early-onset obesity, usually associated with disruption of normal appetite control mechanisms. Progress in the identification of more common, subtler genetic variants that influence fat mass in larger numbers of people has been slower, but discernible. Human genetics will continue to make an invaluable contribution to the study of human obesity by identifying critical molecular components of the human energy balance regulatory systems, pointing the way toward more targeted and effective therapies and assisting the prediction of individual responses to environmental manipulations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen O'Rahilly
- University Department of Medicine, Cambridge Institute of Medical Research, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Cambridge CB2 2QQ, United Kingdom.
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394
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Abstract
Penetrance and expressivity have been defined through clinical experience. Although penetrance is often seen as the end of the spectrum of expressivity, penetrance and expressivity are considered as distinct phenomena. A review of the known mechanisms underlying either penetrance or expressivity reveals that in most of the cases the same explanation is true for both phenomena. Some of the known mechanisms include modifier genes, the influence of the allele in trans, sex, and environmental factors. Although rapid progress has been made in understanding of the basis of incomplete penetrance and the differences of expressivity, they still remain unknown for most of the genetic disorders. In recent years, it has become evident that there is much in common between the classical Mendelian traits in which the inheritance has been seen as "simple" and most of the common diseases in which the inheritance is "complex." In both cases genetic and/or environmental factors are acting in a complex way.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joël Zlotogora
- Department of Community Genetics, Public Health Services, Ministry of Health, Israel
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395
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Draper N, Walker EA, Bujalska IJ, Tomlinson JW, Chalder SM, Arlt W, Lavery GG, Bedendo O, Ray DW, Laing I, Malunowicz E, White PC, Hewison M, Mason PJ, Connell JM, Shackleton CHL, Stewart PM. Mutations in the genes encoding 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 and hexose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase interact to cause cortisone reductase deficiency. Nat Genet 2003; 34:434-9. [PMID: 12858176 DOI: 10.1038/ng1214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 226] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2003] [Accepted: 06/12/2003] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
In cortisone reductase deficiency (CRD), activation of cortisone to cortisol does not occur, resulting in adrenocorticotropin-mediated androgen excess and a phenotype resembling polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS; refs. 1,2). This suggests a defect in the gene HSD11B1 encoding 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 (11beta-HSD1), a primary regulator of tissue-specific glucocorticoid bioavailability. We identified intronic mutations in HSD11B1 that resulted in reduced gene transcription in three individuals with CRD. In vivo, 11beta-HSD1 catalyzes the reduction of cortisone to cortisol whereas purified enzyme acts as a dehydrogenase converting cortisol to cortisone. Oxo-reductase activity can be regained using a NADPH-regeneration system and the cytosolic enzyme glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase. But the catalytic domain of 11beta-HSD1 faces into the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER; ref. 6). We hypothesized that endolumenal hexose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (H6PDH) regenerates NADPH in the ER, thereby influencing directionality of 11beta-HSD1 activity. Mutations in exon 5 of H6PD in individuals with CRD attenuated or abolished H6PDH activity. These individuals have mutations in both HSD11B1 and H6PD in a triallelic digenic model of inheritance, resulting in low 11beta-HSD1 expression and ER NADPH generation with loss of 11beta-HSD1 oxo-reductase activity. CRD defines a new ER-specific redox potential and establishes H6PDH as a potential factor in the pathogenesis of PCOS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole Draper
- Division of Medical Sciences, University of Birmingham, Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TH, UK
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396
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Hoskins BE, Thorn A, Scambler PJ, Beales PL. Evaluation of multiplex capillary heteroduplex analysis: a rapid and sensitive mutation screening technique. Hum Mutat 2003; 22:151-7. [PMID: 12872256 DOI: 10.1002/humu.10241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Bardet-Biedl syndrome (BBS) is a heterogeneous disease; to date seven loci have been mapped and five identified (BBS1, BBS2, BBS4, BBS6, and BBS7). Inheritance in some families is complex with multiallelic participation making linkage analysis difficult. Previous mutation screens have been carried out by direct sequencing but with an increasing number of patients to be screened for five relatively large genes, a more rapid and cost-effective mutation assay for BBS was required. We have adapted the technique of heteroduplex analysis for use on the MegaBACE 1000, a capillary-based DNA fragment analyser, to improve the resolution and sensitivity of the system. Twelve known alterations (insertions, deletions, missenses, and SNPs) in BBS1, BBS2, BBS4, and BBS6 were used to test the sensitivity of the assay and subsequently used to screen new patients for mutations. We achieved a 100% detection rate while dramatically increasing the sample throughput by virtue of multiplexing up to six PCR products in each capillary. In addition, four novel variants were identified: two in BBS2 [c.522T>A (p.D174E) and c.805-20A>G] and two in BBS4 [c.332+27_28insA and c.1414A>G (p.M472V)]. Compared with sequencing and alternative screening methods, multiplex capillary heteroduplex analysis (MCHA) is extremely cost effective. Hum Mutat 22:151-157, 2003.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bethan E Hoskins
- Molecular Medicine Unit, Institute of Child Health UCL, London, UK
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397
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Jezewski PA, Vieira AR, Nishimura C, Ludwig B, Johnson M, O'Brien SE, Daack-Hirsch S, Schultz RE, Weber A, Nepomucena B, Romitti PA, Christensen K, Orioli IM, Castilla EE, Machida J, Natsume N, Murray JC. Complete sequencing shows a role for MSX1 in non-syndromic cleft lip and palate. J Med Genet 2003; 40:399-407. [PMID: 12807959 PMCID: PMC1735501 DOI: 10.1136/jmg.40.6.399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 218] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
MSX1 has been proposed as a gene in which mutations may contribute to non-syndromic forms of cleft lip and/or cleft palate. Support for this comes from human linkage and linkage disequilibrium studies, chromosomal deletions resulting in haploinsufficiency, a large family with a stop codon mutation that includes clefting as a phenotype, and the Msx1 phenotype in a knockout mouse. This report describes a population based scan for mutations encompassing the sense and antisense transcribed sequence of MSX1 (two exons, one intron). We compare the completed genomic sequence of MSX1 to the mouse Msx1 sequence to identify non-coding homology regions, and sequence highly conserved elements. The samples studied were drawn from a panethnic collection including people of European, Asian, and native South American ancestry. The gene was sequenced in 917 people and potentially aetiological mutations were identified in 16. These included missense mutations in conserved amino acids and point mutations in conserved regions not identified in any of 500 controls sequenced. Five different missense mutations in seven unrelated subjects with clefting are described. Evolutionary sequence comparisons of all known Msx1 orthologues placed the amino acid substitutions in context. Four rare mutations were found in non-coding regions that are highly conserved and disrupt probable regulatory regions. In addition, a panel of 18 population specific polymorphic variants were identified that will be useful in future haplotype analyses of MSX1. MSX1 mutations are found in 2% of cases of clefting and should be considered for genetic counselling implications, particularly in those families in which autosomal dominant inheritance patterns or dental anomalies appear to be cosegregating with the clefting phenotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- P A Jezewski
- Department of Periodontics, College of Dentistry, University of Iowa, Iowa City 52242, USA
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398
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Beales PL, Badano JL, Ross AJ, Ansley SJ, Hoskins BE, Kirsten B, Mein CA, Froguel P, Scambler PJ, Lewis RA, Lupski JR, Katsanis N. Genetic interaction of BBS1 mutations with alleles at other BBS loci can result in non-Mendelian Bardet-Biedl syndrome. Am J Hum Genet 2003; 72:1187-99. [PMID: 12677556 PMCID: PMC1180271 DOI: 10.1086/375178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 174] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2003] [Accepted: 02/25/2003] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Bardet-Biedl syndrome is a genetically and clinically heterogeneous disorder caused by mutations in at least seven loci (BBS1-7), five of which are cloned (BBS1, BBS2, BBS4, BBS6, and BBS7). Genetic and mutational analyses have indicated that, in some families, a combination of three mutant alleles at two loci (triallelic inheritance) is necessary for pathogenesis. To date, four of the five known BBS loci have been implicated in this mode of oligogenic disease transmission. We present a comprehensive analysis of the spectrum, distribution, and involvement in non-Mendelian trait transmission of mutant alleles in BBS1, the most common BBS locus. Analyses of 259 independent families segregating a BBS phenotype indicate that BBS1 participates in complex inheritance and that, in different families, mutations in BBS1 can interact genetically with mutations at each of the other known BBS genes, as well as at unknown loci, to cause the phenotype. Consistent with this model, we identified homozygous M390R alleles, the most frequent BBS1 mutation, in asymptomatic individuals in two families. Moreover, our statistical analyses indicate that the prevalence of the M390R allele in the general population is consistent with an oligogenic rather than a recessive model of disease transmission. The distribution of BBS oligogenic alleles also indicates that all BBS loci might interact genetically with each other, but some genes, especially BBS2 and BBS6, are more likely to participate in triallelic inheritance, suggesting a variable ability of the BBS proteins to interact genetically with each other.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip L. Beales
- Molecular Medicine Unit, Institute of Child Health, University College London, Genome Centre, Barts and the London, Queen Mary’s School of Medicine and Dentistry, London; Institute of Genetic Medicine and Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore; CNR-Institute of Biology, Pasteur Institute, Lille, France; and Departments of Molecular and Human Genetics, Ophthalmology, Pediatrics, and Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston
| | - Jose L. Badano
- Molecular Medicine Unit, Institute of Child Health, University College London, Genome Centre, Barts and the London, Queen Mary’s School of Medicine and Dentistry, London; Institute of Genetic Medicine and Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore; CNR-Institute of Biology, Pasteur Institute, Lille, France; and Departments of Molecular and Human Genetics, Ophthalmology, Pediatrics, and Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston
| | - Alison J. Ross
- Molecular Medicine Unit, Institute of Child Health, University College London, Genome Centre, Barts and the London, Queen Mary’s School of Medicine and Dentistry, London; Institute of Genetic Medicine and Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore; CNR-Institute of Biology, Pasteur Institute, Lille, France; and Departments of Molecular and Human Genetics, Ophthalmology, Pediatrics, and Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston
| | - Stephen J. Ansley
- Molecular Medicine Unit, Institute of Child Health, University College London, Genome Centre, Barts and the London, Queen Mary’s School of Medicine and Dentistry, London; Institute of Genetic Medicine and Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore; CNR-Institute of Biology, Pasteur Institute, Lille, France; and Departments of Molecular and Human Genetics, Ophthalmology, Pediatrics, and Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston
| | - Bethan E. Hoskins
- Molecular Medicine Unit, Institute of Child Health, University College London, Genome Centre, Barts and the London, Queen Mary’s School of Medicine and Dentistry, London; Institute of Genetic Medicine and Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore; CNR-Institute of Biology, Pasteur Institute, Lille, France; and Departments of Molecular and Human Genetics, Ophthalmology, Pediatrics, and Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston
| | - Brigitta Kirsten
- Molecular Medicine Unit, Institute of Child Health, University College London, Genome Centre, Barts and the London, Queen Mary’s School of Medicine and Dentistry, London; Institute of Genetic Medicine and Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore; CNR-Institute of Biology, Pasteur Institute, Lille, France; and Departments of Molecular and Human Genetics, Ophthalmology, Pediatrics, and Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston
| | - Charles A. Mein
- Molecular Medicine Unit, Institute of Child Health, University College London, Genome Centre, Barts and the London, Queen Mary’s School of Medicine and Dentistry, London; Institute of Genetic Medicine and Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore; CNR-Institute of Biology, Pasteur Institute, Lille, France; and Departments of Molecular and Human Genetics, Ophthalmology, Pediatrics, and Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston
| | - Philippe Froguel
- Molecular Medicine Unit, Institute of Child Health, University College London, Genome Centre, Barts and the London, Queen Mary’s School of Medicine and Dentistry, London; Institute of Genetic Medicine and Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore; CNR-Institute of Biology, Pasteur Institute, Lille, France; and Departments of Molecular and Human Genetics, Ophthalmology, Pediatrics, and Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston
| | - Peter J. Scambler
- Molecular Medicine Unit, Institute of Child Health, University College London, Genome Centre, Barts and the London, Queen Mary’s School of Medicine and Dentistry, London; Institute of Genetic Medicine and Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore; CNR-Institute of Biology, Pasteur Institute, Lille, France; and Departments of Molecular and Human Genetics, Ophthalmology, Pediatrics, and Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston
| | - Richard Alan Lewis
- Molecular Medicine Unit, Institute of Child Health, University College London, Genome Centre, Barts and the London, Queen Mary’s School of Medicine and Dentistry, London; Institute of Genetic Medicine and Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore; CNR-Institute of Biology, Pasteur Institute, Lille, France; and Departments of Molecular and Human Genetics, Ophthalmology, Pediatrics, and Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston
| | - James R. Lupski
- Molecular Medicine Unit, Institute of Child Health, University College London, Genome Centre, Barts and the London, Queen Mary’s School of Medicine and Dentistry, London; Institute of Genetic Medicine and Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore; CNR-Institute of Biology, Pasteur Institute, Lille, France; and Departments of Molecular and Human Genetics, Ophthalmology, Pediatrics, and Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston
| | - Nicholas Katsanis
- Molecular Medicine Unit, Institute of Child Health, University College London, Genome Centre, Barts and the London, Queen Mary’s School of Medicine and Dentistry, London; Institute of Genetic Medicine and Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore; CNR-Institute of Biology, Pasteur Institute, Lille, France; and Departments of Molecular and Human Genetics, Ophthalmology, Pediatrics, and Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston
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399
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Badano JL, Ansley SJ, Leitch CC, Lewis RA, Lupski JR, Katsanis N. Identification of a novel Bardet-Biedl syndrome protein, BBS7, that shares structural features with BBS1 and BBS2. Am J Hum Genet 2003; 72:650-8. [PMID: 12567324 PMCID: PMC1180240 DOI: 10.1086/368204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 160] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2002] [Accepted: 12/09/2002] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Bardet-Biedl syndrome (BBS) is a genetically heterogeneous disorder, the primary features of which include obesity, retinal dystrophy, polydactyly, hypogenitalism, learning difficulties, and renal malformations. Conventional linkage and positional cloning have led to the mapping of six BBS loci in the human genome, four of which (BBS1, BBS2, BBS4, and BBS6) have been cloned. Despite these advances, the protein sequences of the known BBS genes have provided little or no insight into their function. To delineate functionally important regions in BBS2, we performed phylogenetic and genomic studies in which we used the human and zebrafish BBS2 peptide sequences to search dbEST and the translation of the draft human genome. We identified two novel genes that we initially named "BBS2L1" and "BBS2L2" and that exhibit modest similarity with two discrete, overlapping regions of BBS2. In the present study, we demonstrate that BBS2L1 mutations cause BBS, thereby defining a novel locus for this syndrome, BBS7, whereas BBS2L2 has been shown independently to be BBS1. The motif-based identification of a novel BBS locus has enabled us to define a potential functional domain that is present in three of the five known BBS proteins and, therefore, is likely to be important in the pathogenesis of this complex syndrome.
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Affiliation(s)
- José L. Badano
- Institute of Genetic Medicine and Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore; and Departments of Molecular and Human Genetics, Ophthalmology, Pediatrics, and Medicine and The Texas Children’s Hospital, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston
| | - Stephen J. Ansley
- Institute of Genetic Medicine and Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore; and Departments of Molecular and Human Genetics, Ophthalmology, Pediatrics, and Medicine and The Texas Children’s Hospital, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston
| | - Carmen C. Leitch
- Institute of Genetic Medicine and Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore; and Departments of Molecular and Human Genetics, Ophthalmology, Pediatrics, and Medicine and The Texas Children’s Hospital, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston
| | - Richard Alan Lewis
- Institute of Genetic Medicine and Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore; and Departments of Molecular and Human Genetics, Ophthalmology, Pediatrics, and Medicine and The Texas Children’s Hospital, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston
| | - James R. Lupski
- Institute of Genetic Medicine and Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore; and Departments of Molecular and Human Genetics, Ophthalmology, Pediatrics, and Medicine and The Texas Children’s Hospital, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston
| | - Nicholas Katsanis
- Institute of Genetic Medicine and Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore; and Departments of Molecular and Human Genetics, Ophthalmology, Pediatrics, and Medicine and The Texas Children’s Hospital, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston
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400
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Mykytyn K, Nishimura DY, Searby CC, Beck G, Bugge K, Haines HL, Cornier AS, Cox GF, Fulton AB, Carmi R, Iannaccone A, Jacobson SG, Weleber RG, Wright AF, Riise R, Hennekam RCM, Lüleci G, Berker-Karauzum S, Biesecker LG, Stone EM, Sheffield VC. Evaluation of complex inheritance involving the most common Bardet-Biedl syndrome locus (BBS1). Am J Hum Genet 2003; 72:429-37. [PMID: 12524598 PMCID: PMC379234 DOI: 10.1086/346172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2002] [Accepted: 11/13/2002] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Bardet-Biedl syndrome (BBS) is a genetic disorder with the primary features of obesity, pigmentary retinopathy, polydactyly, renal malformations, mental retardation, and hypogenitalism. Patients with BBS are also at increased risk for diabetes mellitus, hypertension, and congenital heart disease. BBS is known to map to at least six loci: 11q13 (BBS1), 16q21 (BBS2), 3p13-p12 (BBS3), 15q22.3-q23 (BBS4), 2q31 (BBS5), and 20p12 (BBS6). Although these loci were all mapped on the basis of an autosomal recessive mode of inheritance, it has recently been suggested-on the basis of mutation analysis of the identified BBS2, BBS4, and BBS6 genes-that BBS displays a complex mode of inheritance in which, in some families, three mutations at two loci are necessary to manifest the disease phenotype. We recently identified BBS1, the gene most commonly involved in Bardet-Biedl syndrome. The identification of this gene allows for further evaluation of complex inheritance. In the present study we evaluate the involvement of the BBS1 gene in a cohort of 129 probands with BBS and report 10 novel BBS1 mutations. We demonstrate that a common BBS1 missense mutation accounts for approximately 80% of all BBS1 mutations and is found on a similar genetic background across populations. We show that the BBS1 gene is highly conserved between mice and humans. Finally, we demonstrate that BBS1 is inherited in an autosomal recessive manner and is rarely, if ever, involved in complex inheritance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirk Mykytyn
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Medical Genetics, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, and Department of Ophthalmology, University of Iowa, Iowa City; Department of Biochemistry, Ponce School of Medicine, Ponce, Puerto Rico; Division of Genetics and Department of Ophthalmology, Children's Hospital, Boston; Genetics Institute, Soroka Medical Center, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel; Department of Ophthalmology, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis; Scheie Eye Institute, Philadelphia;Casey Eye Institute, Oregon Health Sciences University, Portland; MRC Human Genetics Unit, Western General Hospital, Edinburgh, Scotland; Department of Ophthalmology, Central Hospital of Hedmark, Hamar, Norway; Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam; Department of Medical Biology–Genetics, Arkdeniz University, Antalya, Turkey; and National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda
| | - Darryl Y. Nishimura
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Medical Genetics, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, and Department of Ophthalmology, University of Iowa, Iowa City; Department of Biochemistry, Ponce School of Medicine, Ponce, Puerto Rico; Division of Genetics and Department of Ophthalmology, Children's Hospital, Boston; Genetics Institute, Soroka Medical Center, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel; Department of Ophthalmology, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis; Scheie Eye Institute, Philadelphia;Casey Eye Institute, Oregon Health Sciences University, Portland; MRC Human Genetics Unit, Western General Hospital, Edinburgh, Scotland; Department of Ophthalmology, Central Hospital of Hedmark, Hamar, Norway; Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam; Department of Medical Biology–Genetics, Arkdeniz University, Antalya, Turkey; and National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda
| | - Charles C. Searby
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Medical Genetics, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, and Department of Ophthalmology, University of Iowa, Iowa City; Department of Biochemistry, Ponce School of Medicine, Ponce, Puerto Rico; Division of Genetics and Department of Ophthalmology, Children's Hospital, Boston; Genetics Institute, Soroka Medical Center, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel; Department of Ophthalmology, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis; Scheie Eye Institute, Philadelphia;Casey Eye Institute, Oregon Health Sciences University, Portland; MRC Human Genetics Unit, Western General Hospital, Edinburgh, Scotland; Department of Ophthalmology, Central Hospital of Hedmark, Hamar, Norway; Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam; Department of Medical Biology–Genetics, Arkdeniz University, Antalya, Turkey; and National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda
| | - Gretel Beck
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Medical Genetics, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, and Department of Ophthalmology, University of Iowa, Iowa City; Department of Biochemistry, Ponce School of Medicine, Ponce, Puerto Rico; Division of Genetics and Department of Ophthalmology, Children's Hospital, Boston; Genetics Institute, Soroka Medical Center, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel; Department of Ophthalmology, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis; Scheie Eye Institute, Philadelphia;Casey Eye Institute, Oregon Health Sciences University, Portland; MRC Human Genetics Unit, Western General Hospital, Edinburgh, Scotland; Department of Ophthalmology, Central Hospital of Hedmark, Hamar, Norway; Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam; Department of Medical Biology–Genetics, Arkdeniz University, Antalya, Turkey; and National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda
| | - Kevin Bugge
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Medical Genetics, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, and Department of Ophthalmology, University of Iowa, Iowa City; Department of Biochemistry, Ponce School of Medicine, Ponce, Puerto Rico; Division of Genetics and Department of Ophthalmology, Children's Hospital, Boston; Genetics Institute, Soroka Medical Center, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel; Department of Ophthalmology, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis; Scheie Eye Institute, Philadelphia;Casey Eye Institute, Oregon Health Sciences University, Portland; MRC Human Genetics Unit, Western General Hospital, Edinburgh, Scotland; Department of Ophthalmology, Central Hospital of Hedmark, Hamar, Norway; Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam; Department of Medical Biology–Genetics, Arkdeniz University, Antalya, Turkey; and National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda
| | - Heidi L. Haines
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Medical Genetics, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, and Department of Ophthalmology, University of Iowa, Iowa City; Department of Biochemistry, Ponce School of Medicine, Ponce, Puerto Rico; Division of Genetics and Department of Ophthalmology, Children's Hospital, Boston; Genetics Institute, Soroka Medical Center, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel; Department of Ophthalmology, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis; Scheie Eye Institute, Philadelphia;Casey Eye Institute, Oregon Health Sciences University, Portland; MRC Human Genetics Unit, Western General Hospital, Edinburgh, Scotland; Department of Ophthalmology, Central Hospital of Hedmark, Hamar, Norway; Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam; Department of Medical Biology–Genetics, Arkdeniz University, Antalya, Turkey; and National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda
| | - Alberto S. Cornier
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Medical Genetics, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, and Department of Ophthalmology, University of Iowa, Iowa City; Department of Biochemistry, Ponce School of Medicine, Ponce, Puerto Rico; Division of Genetics and Department of Ophthalmology, Children's Hospital, Boston; Genetics Institute, Soroka Medical Center, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel; Department of Ophthalmology, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis; Scheie Eye Institute, Philadelphia;Casey Eye Institute, Oregon Health Sciences University, Portland; MRC Human Genetics Unit, Western General Hospital, Edinburgh, Scotland; Department of Ophthalmology, Central Hospital of Hedmark, Hamar, Norway; Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam; Department of Medical Biology–Genetics, Arkdeniz University, Antalya, Turkey; and National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda
| | - Gerald F. Cox
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Medical Genetics, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, and Department of Ophthalmology, University of Iowa, Iowa City; Department of Biochemistry, Ponce School of Medicine, Ponce, Puerto Rico; Division of Genetics and Department of Ophthalmology, Children's Hospital, Boston; Genetics Institute, Soroka Medical Center, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel; Department of Ophthalmology, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis; Scheie Eye Institute, Philadelphia;Casey Eye Institute, Oregon Health Sciences University, Portland; MRC Human Genetics Unit, Western General Hospital, Edinburgh, Scotland; Department of Ophthalmology, Central Hospital of Hedmark, Hamar, Norway; Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam; Department of Medical Biology–Genetics, Arkdeniz University, Antalya, Turkey; and National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda
| | - Anne B. Fulton
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Medical Genetics, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, and Department of Ophthalmology, University of Iowa, Iowa City; Department of Biochemistry, Ponce School of Medicine, Ponce, Puerto Rico; Division of Genetics and Department of Ophthalmology, Children's Hospital, Boston; Genetics Institute, Soroka Medical Center, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel; Department of Ophthalmology, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis; Scheie Eye Institute, Philadelphia;Casey Eye Institute, Oregon Health Sciences University, Portland; MRC Human Genetics Unit, Western General Hospital, Edinburgh, Scotland; Department of Ophthalmology, Central Hospital of Hedmark, Hamar, Norway; Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam; Department of Medical Biology–Genetics, Arkdeniz University, Antalya, Turkey; and National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda
| | - Rivka Carmi
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Medical Genetics, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, and Department of Ophthalmology, University of Iowa, Iowa City; Department of Biochemistry, Ponce School of Medicine, Ponce, Puerto Rico; Division of Genetics and Department of Ophthalmology, Children's Hospital, Boston; Genetics Institute, Soroka Medical Center, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel; Department of Ophthalmology, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis; Scheie Eye Institute, Philadelphia;Casey Eye Institute, Oregon Health Sciences University, Portland; MRC Human Genetics Unit, Western General Hospital, Edinburgh, Scotland; Department of Ophthalmology, Central Hospital of Hedmark, Hamar, Norway; Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam; Department of Medical Biology–Genetics, Arkdeniz University, Antalya, Turkey; and National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda
| | - Alessandro Iannaccone
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Medical Genetics, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, and Department of Ophthalmology, University of Iowa, Iowa City; Department of Biochemistry, Ponce School of Medicine, Ponce, Puerto Rico; Division of Genetics and Department of Ophthalmology, Children's Hospital, Boston; Genetics Institute, Soroka Medical Center, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel; Department of Ophthalmology, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis; Scheie Eye Institute, Philadelphia;Casey Eye Institute, Oregon Health Sciences University, Portland; MRC Human Genetics Unit, Western General Hospital, Edinburgh, Scotland; Department of Ophthalmology, Central Hospital of Hedmark, Hamar, Norway; Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam; Department of Medical Biology–Genetics, Arkdeniz University, Antalya, Turkey; and National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda
| | - Samuel G. Jacobson
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Medical Genetics, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, and Department of Ophthalmology, University of Iowa, Iowa City; Department of Biochemistry, Ponce School of Medicine, Ponce, Puerto Rico; Division of Genetics and Department of Ophthalmology, Children's Hospital, Boston; Genetics Institute, Soroka Medical Center, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel; Department of Ophthalmology, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis; Scheie Eye Institute, Philadelphia;Casey Eye Institute, Oregon Health Sciences University, Portland; MRC Human Genetics Unit, Western General Hospital, Edinburgh, Scotland; Department of Ophthalmology, Central Hospital of Hedmark, Hamar, Norway; Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam; Department of Medical Biology–Genetics, Arkdeniz University, Antalya, Turkey; and National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda
| | - Richard G. Weleber
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Medical Genetics, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, and Department of Ophthalmology, University of Iowa, Iowa City; Department of Biochemistry, Ponce School of Medicine, Ponce, Puerto Rico; Division of Genetics and Department of Ophthalmology, Children's Hospital, Boston; Genetics Institute, Soroka Medical Center, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel; Department of Ophthalmology, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis; Scheie Eye Institute, Philadelphia;Casey Eye Institute, Oregon Health Sciences University, Portland; MRC Human Genetics Unit, Western General Hospital, Edinburgh, Scotland; Department of Ophthalmology, Central Hospital of Hedmark, Hamar, Norway; Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam; Department of Medical Biology–Genetics, Arkdeniz University, Antalya, Turkey; and National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda
| | - Alan F. Wright
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Medical Genetics, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, and Department of Ophthalmology, University of Iowa, Iowa City; Department of Biochemistry, Ponce School of Medicine, Ponce, Puerto Rico; Division of Genetics and Department of Ophthalmology, Children's Hospital, Boston; Genetics Institute, Soroka Medical Center, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel; Department of Ophthalmology, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis; Scheie Eye Institute, Philadelphia;Casey Eye Institute, Oregon Health Sciences University, Portland; MRC Human Genetics Unit, Western General Hospital, Edinburgh, Scotland; Department of Ophthalmology, Central Hospital of Hedmark, Hamar, Norway; Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam; Department of Medical Biology–Genetics, Arkdeniz University, Antalya, Turkey; and National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda
| | - Ruth Riise
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Medical Genetics, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, and Department of Ophthalmology, University of Iowa, Iowa City; Department of Biochemistry, Ponce School of Medicine, Ponce, Puerto Rico; Division of Genetics and Department of Ophthalmology, Children's Hospital, Boston; Genetics Institute, Soroka Medical Center, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel; Department of Ophthalmology, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis; Scheie Eye Institute, Philadelphia;Casey Eye Institute, Oregon Health Sciences University, Portland; MRC Human Genetics Unit, Western General Hospital, Edinburgh, Scotland; Department of Ophthalmology, Central Hospital of Hedmark, Hamar, Norway; Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam; Department of Medical Biology–Genetics, Arkdeniz University, Antalya, Turkey; and National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda
| | - Raoul C. M. Hennekam
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Medical Genetics, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, and Department of Ophthalmology, University of Iowa, Iowa City; Department of Biochemistry, Ponce School of Medicine, Ponce, Puerto Rico; Division of Genetics and Department of Ophthalmology, Children's Hospital, Boston; Genetics Institute, Soroka Medical Center, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel; Department of Ophthalmology, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis; Scheie Eye Institute, Philadelphia;Casey Eye Institute, Oregon Health Sciences University, Portland; MRC Human Genetics Unit, Western General Hospital, Edinburgh, Scotland; Department of Ophthalmology, Central Hospital of Hedmark, Hamar, Norway; Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam; Department of Medical Biology–Genetics, Arkdeniz University, Antalya, Turkey; and National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda
| | - Güven Lüleci
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Medical Genetics, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, and Department of Ophthalmology, University of Iowa, Iowa City; Department of Biochemistry, Ponce School of Medicine, Ponce, Puerto Rico; Division of Genetics and Department of Ophthalmology, Children's Hospital, Boston; Genetics Institute, Soroka Medical Center, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel; Department of Ophthalmology, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis; Scheie Eye Institute, Philadelphia;Casey Eye Institute, Oregon Health Sciences University, Portland; MRC Human Genetics Unit, Western General Hospital, Edinburgh, Scotland; Department of Ophthalmology, Central Hospital of Hedmark, Hamar, Norway; Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam; Department of Medical Biology–Genetics, Arkdeniz University, Antalya, Turkey; and National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda
| | - Sibel Berker-Karauzum
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Medical Genetics, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, and Department of Ophthalmology, University of Iowa, Iowa City; Department of Biochemistry, Ponce School of Medicine, Ponce, Puerto Rico; Division of Genetics and Department of Ophthalmology, Children's Hospital, Boston; Genetics Institute, Soroka Medical Center, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel; Department of Ophthalmology, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis; Scheie Eye Institute, Philadelphia;Casey Eye Institute, Oregon Health Sciences University, Portland; MRC Human Genetics Unit, Western General Hospital, Edinburgh, Scotland; Department of Ophthalmology, Central Hospital of Hedmark, Hamar, Norway; Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam; Department of Medical Biology–Genetics, Arkdeniz University, Antalya, Turkey; and National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda
| | - Leslie G. Biesecker
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Medical Genetics, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, and Department of Ophthalmology, University of Iowa, Iowa City; Department of Biochemistry, Ponce School of Medicine, Ponce, Puerto Rico; Division of Genetics and Department of Ophthalmology, Children's Hospital, Boston; Genetics Institute, Soroka Medical Center, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel; Department of Ophthalmology, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis; Scheie Eye Institute, Philadelphia;Casey Eye Institute, Oregon Health Sciences University, Portland; MRC Human Genetics Unit, Western General Hospital, Edinburgh, Scotland; Department of Ophthalmology, Central Hospital of Hedmark, Hamar, Norway; Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam; Department of Medical Biology–Genetics, Arkdeniz University, Antalya, Turkey; and National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda
| | - Edwin M. Stone
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Medical Genetics, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, and Department of Ophthalmology, University of Iowa, Iowa City; Department of Biochemistry, Ponce School of Medicine, Ponce, Puerto Rico; Division of Genetics and Department of Ophthalmology, Children's Hospital, Boston; Genetics Institute, Soroka Medical Center, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel; Department of Ophthalmology, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis; Scheie Eye Institute, Philadelphia;Casey Eye Institute, Oregon Health Sciences University, Portland; MRC Human Genetics Unit, Western General Hospital, Edinburgh, Scotland; Department of Ophthalmology, Central Hospital of Hedmark, Hamar, Norway; Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam; Department of Medical Biology–Genetics, Arkdeniz University, Antalya, Turkey; and National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda
| | - Val C. Sheffield
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Medical Genetics, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, and Department of Ophthalmology, University of Iowa, Iowa City; Department of Biochemistry, Ponce School of Medicine, Ponce, Puerto Rico; Division of Genetics and Department of Ophthalmology, Children's Hospital, Boston; Genetics Institute, Soroka Medical Center, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel; Department of Ophthalmology, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis; Scheie Eye Institute, Philadelphia;Casey Eye Institute, Oregon Health Sciences University, Portland; MRC Human Genetics Unit, Western General Hospital, Edinburgh, Scotland; Department of Ophthalmology, Central Hospital of Hedmark, Hamar, Norway; Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam; Department of Medical Biology–Genetics, Arkdeniz University, Antalya, Turkey; and National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda
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