Objective quantification of homophily in children with and without disabilities in naturalistic contexts

Homophily, the tendency for individuals to preferentially interact with others similar to themselves is typically documented via self-report and, for children, adult report. Few studies have investigated homophily directly using objective measures of social movement. We quantified homophily in children with developmental disabilities (DD) and typical development (TD) using objective measures of position/orientation in preschool inclusion classrooms, designed to promote interaction between these groups of children. Objective measurements were collected using ultra-wideband radio-frequency tracking to determine social approach and social contact, measures of social movement and interaction. Observations of 77 preschoolers (47 with DD, and 30 TD) were conducted in eight inclusion classrooms on a total of 26 days. We compared DD and TD groups with respect to how children approached and shared time in social contact with peers using mixed-effects models. Children in concordant dyads (DD-DD and TD-TD) both moved toward each other at higher velocities and spent greater time in social contact than discordant dyads (DD-TD), evidencing homophily. DD-DD dyads spent less time in social contact than TD-TD dyads but were comparable to TD-TD dyads in their social approach velocities. Children's preference for similar peers appears to be a pervasive feature of their naturalistic interactions.

Associations between social behaviors and experiences with neural correlates of implicit emotion regulation in middle childhood

Emotion regulation is essential for successful social interactions and function, which are important aspects of middle childhood. The current study is one of the first to examine associations between neural correlates of implicit emotion regulation and indices of social behavior and experience during late middle childhood. We examined neural activation during the implicit emotion regulation condition of the Emotional N-back task using data from 8987 9- to 11-year-olds from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development℠ study. The brain regions assessed included areas linked to social cognition, social behavior, and emotion recognition, including the amygdala, insula, middle temporal gyrus, and inferior parietal lobe. Greater number of close friends was associated with significantly higher activation of the fusiform gyrus, insula, temporoparietal junction, inferior parietal lobe, and superior temporal gyrus during implicit emotion regulation. Greater reciprocal social impairments were linked to decreased fusiform gyrus activation during implicit emotion regulation. More experiences of discrimination were associated with a significantly lower activation in the middle temporal gyrus during implicit emotion regulation. This study provides evidence that both positive and negative indices of children's social experiences and behaviors are associated with neural correlates of implicit emotion regulation during late middle childhood. These findings suggest that both positive and negative indices of social behavior and experience, including those within and not within the youth's control, are associated with generally unique neural correlates during implicit emotion regulation.

Increased openness to external influences in adolescents with intellectual disability: Insights from an experimental study on social judgments

BACKGROUND

Making appropriate social judgments about one's peers helps avoid negative influences from peers, yet the cognitive and adaptive difficulties experienced by adolescents with an intellectual disability (ID) may create challenges in this regard.

PROCEDURE

This study used a computer-based task to investigate how adolescents with ID (n = 34, M = 14.89 years, SD = 1.38) and comparison groups of chronological age-matched adolescents without ID (n = 34, M = 14.68, SD = 1.16) and mental age-matched children (n = 34, M = 7.88, SD = .62) make social judgments of photos of adolescents, and the degree to which they are influenced by non-social and social cues in performing this task.

RESULTS

Analyses showed adolescents with ID made significantly more polarizing judgments and showed a positivity bias compared to adolescents without ID. This judgment pattern was similar to that of younger mental age-matched children. Adolescents with ID were also significantly more influenced by non-social cues and peer opinions than adolescents from the control group.

IMPLICATIONS

The results provide new perspectives for future research and support of adolescents with ID.

Social Cognition in Children With Non-specific Intellectual Disabilities: An Exploratory Study

Social cognitive abilities - notably, Theory of Mind (ToM) and social information processing (SIP) - are key skills for the development of social competence and adjustment. By understanding affective and cognitive mental states and processing social information correctly, children will be able to enact prosocial behaviors, to interact with peers and adults adaptively, and to be socially included. As social adjustment and inclusion are major issues for children with intellectual disabilities (IDs), the present study aimed to explore their social cognitive profile by combining cluster analysis of both ToM and SIP competence, and to investigate the structure of relations between these skills in children with IDs. Seventy-eight elementary school children with non-specific IDs were recruited. They had a chronological age ranging from 4 years and 8 months to 12 years and 6 months and presented a preschool developmental age. Performance-based measures were administered to assess ToM and SIP abilities. Questionnaires were completed by the children's parents to evaluate the children's social competence and adjustment and their risk of developing externalizing or internalizing behaviors. Exploratory analysis highlighted strengths and weaknesses in the social cognitive profiles of these children with IDs. It also emphasized that the understanding of affective and cognitive mental states was used differently when facing appropriate vs. inappropriate social behaviors. The present study leads to a better understanding of the socio-emotional profile of children with IDs and offers some suggestions on how to implement effective interventions.

Play Behaviors and Social Interactions of a Child who is Blind: In Theory and Practice

This case study describes the play behaviors and social interactions of a preschool-age girl who is blind and has no additional disabilities. The data obtained from the assessment protocol indicated that although the participant was developmentally at or above age level in most domains, she demonstrated limited play behaviors and compromised social interactions. The results reinforce the variability of social competence skills in young children with visual impairments.

Parent Support of Preschool Peer Relationships in Younger Siblings of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Preschool-aged siblings of children with ASD are at high-risk (HR) for ASD and related challenges, but little is known about their emerging peer competence and friendships. Parents are the main providers of peer-relationship opportunities during preschool. Understanding parental challenges supporting early peer relationships is needed for optimal peer competence and friendships in children with ASD. We describe differences in peer relationships among three groups of preschool-aged children (15 HR-ASD, 53 HR-NonASD, 40 low-risk, LR), and examine parent support activities at home and arranging community-based peer activities. Children with ASD demonstrated precursors to poor peer competence and friendship outcomes. Parents in the HR group showed resilience in many areas, but providing peer opportunities for preschool-age children with ASD demanded significant adaptations.

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Predictors of Emotion Regulation in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Difficulties regulating emotion have been linked to comorbid psychopathology in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), but little empirical work has examined predictors of dysregulation in this population. Forty-six families of children with ASD participated in a laboratory visit that included direct measurement of children's IQ, ASD symptoms, and psychophysiological reactivity. Child emotion regulation was observed during independent and co-regulatory tasks, and parental scaffolding was rated in the dyadic context. ASD symptom severity emerged as the strongest predictor of child emotion dysregulation across contexts. Child age and parental scaffolding also uniquely predicted child dysregulation in the dyadic task. Implications for conceptualizing intrinsic and extrinsic influences on emergent emotion regulation in children with ASD are discussed, as are applications to intervention.

Family-Peer Linkages for Children with Intellectual Disability and Children with Learning Disabilities

Family interactions are potential contexts for children with intellectual and learning disabilities to develop skillful social behaviors needed to relate effectively with peers. This study examined problem solving interactions within families of elementary school-age children (7-11 years) with intellectual disability (n = 37), specific learning disabilities (n =48), and without disabilities (n = 22). After accounting for group differences in children's behaviors and peer acceptance, across all groups, mothers' behaviors that encouraged egalitarian problem solving predicted more engaged and skillful problem solving by the children. However, mothers' controlling, directive behaviors predicted fewer of these behaviors by the children. Fathers' behaviors had mixed associations with the children's actions, possibly because they were reactive to children's unengaged and negative behaviors. For the children, greater involvement, more facilitative behaviors, and less negativity with their families were associated with greater acceptance from their peers, supporting family-peer linkages for children at risk for peer rejection.

Examining young children's social competence using functional ability profiles

PURPOSE

To explore the use of International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health for Children and Youth (ICF-CY) based profiles of children's functional abilities in relation to their social competence. Subgroups based on shared profiles of functional ability were investigated as an alternative or complement to subgroups defined by disability categories.

METHODS

Secondary analysis of a nationally representative data set of young children identified for special education services in the United States was used for the present study. Using five subgroups of children with shared profiles of functional ability, derived from latent class analysis in previous work, regression analyses were used to examine the relationships between social competence and functional abilities profile subgroup membership. Differences among the subgroups were examined using standardized effect sizes. R² values were used to examine explained variance in social competence in relation to subgroup membership, disability category, and these variables in combination.

RESULTS

Functional ability profile subgroup membership was moderately related to children's social competence outcomes: social skills and problem behaviors. Effect sizes showed significant differences between subgroups. Subgroup membership accounted for more variance in social competence outcomes than disability category.

CONCLUSIONS

The results provide empirical support for the importance of functional ability profiles when examining social competence within a population of young children with disabilities. Implications for Rehabilitation The extent to which children with disabilities experience difficulty with social competence varies by their functional characteristics. Functional ability profiles can provide practitioners and researchers working young children with disabilities important tools to examine social competence and to inform interventions.

Use of a UDL Literacy Environment by Middle School Students With Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities

Universal Design for Learning (UDL) has been shown to have benefits for students with disabilities. However, little is known about its potential to support literacy for students with intellectual and developmental disabilities (IDD). This qualitative study explored (a) to what extent students with IDD are able to use Udio, an online UDL literacy environment; and (b) how students with IDD experienced and perceived Udio. A grounded theory approach was used to analyze classroom observations, as well as teacher and student interviews. Electronic usage logs and student-produced discussions and projects were analyzed descriptively. Students independently navigated the environment and used embedded supports, including audio-assisted reading and sentence starters. In addition, findings indicate that age-relevant content, choice, and opportunities to socialize in online discussions were especially engaging for students. Further research is warranted to determine how UDL environments affect the literacy development of students with IDD.

Social-emotional competences in very young visually impaired children

Social-emotional competences are an important developmental domain for children with a visual impairment (VI). Therefore, early diagnosis in this regard is needed to ensure that VI children receive appropriate support. In this study, we used two preliminary German versions of the Infant–Toddler Social Emotional Assessment (ITSEA) and the Social-Emotional Assessment/Evaluation Measure (SEAM) to assess social-emotional competences in 92 VI infants and toddlers aged 12–36 months. Our results indicate that both instruments provide valid, reliable data and are suitable for use in practice. The results still reveal that understanding the emotions of other persons, paying attention to things around them and engaging with their environment, in addition to relating to other peers, seem to be the most important challenges for early intervention in VI toddlers. An additional disability is yet another condition that poses a specific challenge for VI education. The data also corroborate well-known findings from other research on the education of children with different conditions; in particular, the role of parental responsivity for the development of social-emotional competences is confirmed. Overall, the results suggest that the two instruments employed provide important information for educational practice, but further research is needed to demonstrate their full value.

Family Interactions and Developmental Risk Associated With Early Cognitive Delay: Influences on Children's Behavioral Competence

Family interactions can be important contributors to the development of child psychopathology, yet the mechanisms of influence are understudied, particularly for populations at risk. This prospective longitudinal study addresses differences in whole family interactions in 194 families of young children with and without early-identified developmental risk associated with cognitive delay. The influence of family interactions on children's later externalizing behaviors, internalizing behaviors, and social skills was examined, and developmental risk was tested as a potential moderator of these relations. Results indicated that the presence of cognitive developmental risk was linked to higher levels of family control than in families of typically developing children, but groups did not differ on dimensions of cohesion, warmth, organization, or conflict. Observed cohesion and organization were associated with better social skills for all children, regardless of risk status. Significant interactions emerged, indicating that higher levels of conflict and control were associated with higher levels of behavior problems, but only for families of typically developing children. These findings underscore the importance of family-level assessment in understanding the development of children's behavior and suggest the need for deeper analysis of the nuances of family process over time.

Children with PIMD in interaction with peers with PIMD or siblings

BACKGROUND

The complex disabilities of children with profound intellectual and multiple disabilities (PIMD) impede their presentation of peer directed behaviours. Interactions with typically developing peers have been observed to be more frequent than those with peers with PIMD. The typically developing peers with whom people with PIMD have frequent contact are their siblings. In this study, the amount of peer directed behaviours was compared between an interaction with a sibling and an interaction with a peer with PIMD. In addition, the attention directing strategies of the siblings, and how these affect the presentation of peer directed behaviours, were examined.

METHOD

Thirteen children and young people with PIMD, who had a typically developing sibling, were identified. For each of these thirteen children, a peer with PIMD and a sibling were selected. The child with PIMD was observed together with a peer with PIMD and together with a sibling. In both conditions, video observations were conducted. A coding scheme for the peer directed behaviours of the children and young people with PIMD and a coding scheme for the attention directing behaviours of the siblings were used. Descriptive, comparative and sequential analyses were conducted.

RESULTS

Significantly, more peer directed behaviours of the children with PIMD were observed in the condition with the sibling (30.76%) compared with that of the condition with the peer with PIMD (13.73%). The siblings presented attention directing behaviours in 30% of the time; the most frequently used was nonverbal behaviour. When the siblings presented a combination of verbal and nonverbal attention directing behaviours, they elicited multiple peer directed behaviours in the children and young people with PIMD.

CONCLUSIONS

Persons with PIMD interact more with their siblings compared with their peers with PIMD. Interacting with siblings may probably be more motivating and encouraging. Presenting a combination of verbal and nonverbal behaviours attracts more attention of the persons with PIMD.

The nature of peer-directed behaviours in children with profound intellectual and multiple disabilities and its relationship with social scaffolding behaviours of the direct support worker

BACKGROUND

The multiple and complex disabilities of persons with profound intellectual and multiple disabilities (PIMD) form a barrier for peer interactions and peer-directed behaviours. In this study, we further explore the nature of peer-directed behaviours in persons with PIMD and its relationship with social scaffolding behaviour of direct support workers (DSWs).

METHODS

Fourteen dyads of children with PIMD, who knew each other for at least 12 months, participated. They were sitting in close proximity while they were filmed with and without the presence of the DSW. Video recordings were coded continuously making use of observation schemes for the peer-directed behaviours of the children and the peer interaction influencing behaviours of the DSW.

RESULTS

Significantly more singular peer-directed behaviour (without DSW: 18.00%; with DSW: 3.81%) was observed than multiple peer-directed behaviour (without DSW: 4.01%; with DSW: 0.52%). The amount of time the singular and multiple peer-directed behaviours were observed was significantly lower in the presence of a DSW. When the DSW shows peer interaction influencing behaviour, it was mostly social scaffolding behaviour (2.17%). The conditional probability of observing social scaffolding behaviour in the 10 s following on singular peer-directed behaviour was 0.02 with a Yule's Q of 0.04 and following on multiple peer-directed behaviour 0.04 with a Yule's Q of 0.33.

CONCLUSION

The way in which peer interactions in children with PIMD are defined could have an impact on the amount of observed peer-directed behaviours and on the effect of the social scaffolding behaviours presented by DSW.

Development of a School Adaptation Program for Elementary School Students with Hearing Impairment

Background and Objectives

Although new technology of assistive listening device leads many hard of hearing children to be mainstreamed in public school programs, many clinicians and teachers still wonder whether the children are able to understand all instruction, access educational materials, and have social skills in the school. The purpose of this study is to develop a school adaptation program (SAP) for the hearing-impaired children who attend public elementary school.

Subjects and Methods

The theoretical framework of the SAP was a system model including microsystem, mesosystem, and macrosystem merged with Keller's ARCS theory.

Results

The SAP consisted of 10 sessions based on five categories (i.e., school life, activity in the class, relationship with friends, relationship with teacher, and school environments). For preliminary validity testing, the developed SAP was reviewed by sixteen elementary school teachers, using the evaluation questionnaire. The results of evaluation showed high average 3.60 (±0.52) points out of 4 while proving a reliable and valid school-based program.

Conclusions

The SAP indicated that it may serve as a practical and substantive program for hearing-impaired children in the public school in order to help them achieve better academic support and social integrations.

Evaluating the Psychometric Quality of Social Skills Measures: A Systematic Review

Introduction

Impairments in social functioning are associated with an array of adverse outcomes. Social skills measures are commonly used by health professionals to assess and plan the treatment of social skills difficulties. There is a need to comprehensively evaluate the quality of psychometric properties reported across these measures to guide assessment and treatment planning.

Objective

To conduct a systematic review of the literature on the psychometric properties of social skills and behaviours measures for both children and adults.

Methods

A systematic search was performed using four electronic databases: CINAHL, PsycINFO, Embase and Pubmed; the Health and Psychosocial Instruments database; and grey literature using PsycExtra and Google Scholar. The psychometric properties of the social skills measures were evaluated against the COSMIN taxonomy of measurement properties using pre-set psychometric criteria.

Results

Thirty-Six studies and nine manuals were included to assess the psychometric properties of thirteen social skills measures that met the inclusion criteria. Most measures obtained excellent overall methodological quality scores for internal consistency and reliability. However, eight measures did not report measurement error, nine measures did not report cross-cultural validity and eleven measures did not report criterion validity.

Conclusions

The overall quality of the psychometric properties of most measures was satisfactory. The SSBS-2, HCSBS and PKBS-2 were the three measures with the most robust evidence of sound psychometric quality in at least seven of the eight psychometric properties that were appraised. A universal working definition of social functioning as an overarching construct is recommended. There is a need for ongoing research in the area of the psychometric properties of social skills and behaviours instruments.

Peer Interactions among Children with Profound Intellectual and Multiple Disabilities during Group Activities

BACKGROUND

Children with profound intellectual and multiple disabilities (PIMD) meet other children with PIMD in day care centres or schools. This study explores the peer-directed behaviours of children with PIMD, the peer interaction-influencing behaviour of the direct support workers and the children's positioning.

METHOD

Group activities for children with PIMD initiated by a direct support worker were video-recorded. The behaviour and positioning of the children and the behaviour of the direct support workers were coded.

RESULTS

Limited peer-directed behaviour of the children with PIMD and peer interaction-influencing behaviour of the direct support workers are observed. Weak associations were found between the positioning or peer interaction-influencing behaviours and the behaviour of children with PIMD.

CONCLUSIONS

Children with PIMD show social interest in each other during group activities. More knowledge is needed to create an environment which facilitates peer-directed behaviours of persons with PIMD.

Longitudinal study of neuropsychological functioning and internalizing symptoms in youth with spina bifida: social competence as a mediator

OBJECTIVE

To examine the longitudinal relationship between neuropsychological functioning and internalizing symptoms, as mediated by social competence in youth with spina bifida (SB).

METHODS

A total of 111 youth (aged 8-15 years, M = 11.37) with SB, their parents, and teachers completed questionnaires regarding attention, social competence, and internalizing symptoms. Youth also completed a battery of neuropsychological tests.

RESULTS

An indirect-only mediation model revealed that social competence mediated the relation between neuropsychological functioning and subsequent levels of teacher-reported internalizing symptoms, but not parent or youth report of internalizing symptoms. Specifically, better neuropsychological functioning was associated with better social competence, which, in turn, predicted fewer internalizing symptoms 2 years later.

CONCLUSIONS

Youth with SB with lower levels of neuropsychological functioning may be at risk for poorer social competence and, as a result, greater internalizing symptoms. Interventions that promote social competence, while being sensitive to cognitive capacities, could potentially alleviate or prevent internalizing symptoms in these youth.

Developmental level and psychopathology: comparing children with developmental delays to chronological and mental age matched controls

Children with developmental delays (DD) are at heightened risk for developing clinically significant behavioral and emotional difficulties as compared to children with typical development (TD). However, nearly all studies comparing psychopathology in youth with DD employ TD control groups of the same chronological age (CA). It is unclear, then, whether the heightened symptomology found in age-matched children with DD is beyond what would be expected given their developmental level. The present study assessed rates of behavior problems and mental disorder in 35 children with DD at age 9 years. These were compared with rates from 35 children with TD matched for CA at age 9 and also earlier rates for these same children at age 6, when matched for mental age (MA). Children with DD had significantly more behavior problems in 7 of the 17 scales of the CBCL when compared to TD children matched for CA, and 6 of 17 scales when compared to the MA-matched group. Rates of meeting DSM-IV criteria for a psychiatric disorder were significantly higher in the DD group than both the CA- and MA-matched TD groups for three and four, respectively, of the seven diagnoses examined. Descriptively, the mean ratings for all variables assessed were higher for the DD group than both TD comparison groups, with the exception of the Anxious/Depressed scale of the CBCL. These findings validate the heightened risk for clinically significant behavior problems and mental disorders in youth with DD above and beyond their developmental functioning.

Maternal supportive and interfering control as predictors of adaptive and social development in children with and without developmental delays

BACKGROUND

Parents of children with developmental delays (DD) have been found to use more controlling behaviour with their children than parents of children with typical development (TD). While controlling behaviour is related to poorer developmental outcomes in TD children, there is little research on how it predicts outcomes in DD children. Furthermore, existing research tends to use inconsistent or non-specific definitions of controlling behaviour, often combining parent control which follows the child's goal (e.g. supportive direction) and that which interferes with the child's goal (e.g. interference).

METHODS

Participants were 200 mother-child dyads observed at child age 3, with follow-up assessments of adaptive behaviour and social skills administered at child ages 5 and 6, respectively. We coded the frequency of both types of controlling behaviour based on mothers' interactions with their children with TD (n = 113) or DD (n = 87) at age 3.

RESULTS

Mothers in the DD group used more interfering but not more supportive directive acts compared to mothers in the TD group. Adaptive behaviour was assessed at child age 5 and social skills were assessed at age 6. Higher frequency of supportive directive acts predicted better adaptive functioning for the TD group and better social skills for the DD group. Higher frequency of interfering acts predicted lower adaptive and social skills for children with DD but not with TD.

CONCLUSIONS

Results are discussed in terms of the differential developmental needs of children with and without DD as well as implications for early intervention.

Parent-child problem solving in families of children with or without intellectual disability

OBJECTIVE

To examine differences in child social competence and parent-child interactions involving children with intellectual disability (ID) or typical development (TD) during a Parent-Child Problem-Solving Task.

DESIGN

Mothers and their 9-year-old children (n = 122) participated in a problem-solving task in which they discussed and tried to resolve an issue they disagreed about. The interactions were coded on child and mother problem solving and affect behaviours, as well as the dyad's problem resolution.

RESULTS

Children with ID (n = 35) were rated lower on expression/negotiation skills and higher on resistance to the task than children with TD (n = 87). Mothers in the ID group (vs. TD group) were more likely to direct the conversation. However, there were no group differences on maternal feeling acknowledgement, engagement, warmth or antagonism. The ID dyads were less likely to come to a resolution and to compromise in doing so than the TD dyads. These group differences were not attributable to differences in children's behaviour problems.

CONCLUSIONS

Children with ID and their mothers had more difficulty resolving problems, and this increased difficulty was not explained by greater behaviour problems. Additionally, with the exception of directiveness, mothers of children with ID displayed similar behaviours and affect towards their children during problem solving as mothers of children with TD. Results suggest that the Parent-Child Problem-Solving Task is a useful way to assess social skills and associated parental behaviours in middle childhood beyond self-report. Implications for future research and intervention are discussed.

Screening for developmental disabilities in developing countries

Despite waxing international interest in child disability, little information exists about the situation of children with disabilities in developing countries. Using a culture-free screen for child disability from the 2005-2007 Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey, this study reports percentages of children in 16 developing countries who screened positive for cognitive, language, sensory, and motor disabilities, covariation among disabilities, deviation contrasts that compare each country to the overall effect of country (including effects of age and gender and their interactions), and associations of disabilities with the Human Development Index. Developmental disabilities vary by child age and country, and younger children in developing countries with lower standards of living are more likely to screen positive for disabilities. The discussion of these findings revolves around research and policy implications.

The relation of parent–child interaction qualities to social skills in children with and without autism spectrum disorders

This study examined associations between parent–child interactions and the development of social skills in 42 children (21 typically developing and 21 with autism spectrum disorders) between the ages of 3 years, 0 months and 6 years, 11 months. We expected that positive parent–child interaction qualities would be related to children’s social skills and would mediate the negative relation between children’s developmental status (typical development vs autism spectrum disorders) and social skills. Videotapes of parents and children during a 5-min wordless book task were coded for parent positive affect and emotional support as well as parent–child cohesiveness. Emotional support and cohesiveness were significantly related to children’s social skills, such that higher emotional support and cohesiveness were associated with higher social skills, R2 = .29, p = .02, and R2 = .38, p = .002, respectively. Additionally, cohesiveness mediated the relation between children’s developmental status and social skills. These findings suggest that parent emotional support and cohesiveness between parents and children positively influence children’s social skills. Parent positive affect was unrelated to social skills. Implications of these findings for social skills interventions are discussed, particularly for young children with autism spectrum disorders.

Socio-emotional regulation in children with intellectual disability and typically developing children, and teachers' perceptions of their social adjustment

This study examined the extent to which socio-emotional regulation displayed in three dyadic interactive play contexts (neutral, competitive or cooperative) by 45 children with intellectual disability compared with 45 typically developing children (matched on developmental age, ranging from 3 to 6 years) is linked with the teachers' perceptions of their social adjustment. A Coding Grid of Socio-Emotional Regulation by Sequences (Baurain & Nader-Grosbois, 2011b, 2011c) focusing on Emotional Expression, Social Behavior and Behavior toward Social Rules in children was applied. The Social Adjustment for Children Scale (EASE, Hugues, Soares-Boucaud, Hochman, & Frith, 1997) and the Assessment, Evaluation and Intervention Program System (AEPS, Bricker, 2002) were completed by teachers. Regression analyses emphasized, in children with intellectual disability only, a positive significant link between their Behavior toward Social Rules in interactive contexts and the teachers' perceptions of their social adjustment. Children with intellectual disabilities who listen to and follow instructions, who are patient in waiting for their turn, and who moderate their externalized behavior are perceived by their teachers as socially adapted in their daily social relationships. The between-groups dissimilarity in the relational patterns between abilities in socio-emotional regulation and social adjustment supports the "structural difference hypothesis" with regard to the group with intellectual disability, compared with the typically developing group. Hierarchical cluster cases analyses identified distinct subgroups showing variable structural patterns between the three specific categories of abilities in socio-emotional regulation and their levels of social adjustment perceived by teachers. In both groups, several abilities in socio-emotional regulation and teachers' perceptions of social adjustment vary depending on children's developmental age. Chronological age in children with intellectual disability had no impact on their socio-emotional regulation and social adjustment.

How could Theory of Mind contribute to the differentiation of social adjustment profiles of children with externalizing behavior disorders and children with intellectual disabilities?

This study compared Theory of Mind (ToM) emotion and belief abilities in 43 children with externalized behavior (EB) disorders presenting low intelligence, 40 children with intellectual disabilities (ID) and 33 typically developing (TD) preschoolers (as a control group), matched for developmental age. The links between their ToM abilities, their level in seven self-regulation strategies as displayed in social problem-solving tasks and their social adjustment profiles (assessed by the Social Competence and Behavior Evaluation, completed by their teachers) were examined. Children with EB presented lower comprehension of causes of emotions and lower self-regulation of joint attention and of attention than children with ID and TD children. In comparison with TD children, lower social adjustment was observed in nearly all dimensions of profiles in both atypical groups. Specifically, children with EB were significantly angrier than children with ID. Although variable patterns of positive correlations were obtained in atypical groups between self-regulation strategies and ToM abilities, the most numerous positive links were obtained in the group with EB. Regression analyses showed that developmental age predicted ToM abilities and certain dimensions of social adjustment profiles in atypical groups. In the ID group, ToM emotions predicted general adaptation, affective adaptation, interactions with peers and with adults and low internalizing problems. In the EB group, general adaptation was predicted by ToM emotions and self-regulation, interactions with peers by ToM beliefs, and a low level of externalizing problems by ToM emotions. Some implications for intervention and perspectives for research are suggested.

Intrusive fathering, children's self-regulation and social skills: a mediation analysis

BACKGROUND

Fathers have unique influences on children's development, and particularly in the development of social skills. Although father-child relationship influences on children's social competence have received increased attention in general, research on fathering in families of children with developmental delays (DD) is scant. This study examined the pathway of influence among paternal intrusive behaviour, child social skills and child self-regulatory ability, testing a model whereby child regulatory behaviour mediates relations between fathering and child social skills.

METHODS

Participants were 97 families of children with early identified DD enrolled in an extensive longitudinal study. Father and mother child-directed intrusiveness was coded live in naturalistic home observations at child age 4.5, child behaviour dysregulation was coded from a video-taped laboratory problem-solving task at child age 5, and child social skills were measured using independent teacher reports at child age 6. Analyses tested for mediation of the relationship between fathers' intrusiveness and child social skills by child behaviour dysregulation.

RESULTS

Fathers' intrusiveness, controlling for mothers' intrusiveness and child behaviour problems, was related to later child decreased social skills and this relationship was mediated by child behaviour dysregulation.

CONCLUSIONS

Intrusive fathering appears to carry unique risk for the development of social skills in children with DD. Findings are discussed as they related to theories of fatherhood and parenting in children with DD, as well as implications for intervention and future research.

Perceived social acceptance, theory of mind and social adjustment in children with intellectual disabilities

Perceived social acceptance, theory of mind (ToM) and social adjustment were investigated in 45 children with intellectual disabilities (ID) compared with 45 typically developing (TD) preschoolers, matched for developmental age assessed by means of the Differential Scales of Intellectual Efficiency-Revised edition (EDEI-R, Perron-Borelli, 1996). Children's understanding of beliefs and emotions was assessed by means of ToM belief tasks (Nader-Grosbois & Thirion-Marissiaux, 2011) and ToM emotion tasks (Nader-Grosbois & Thirion-Marissiaux, 2011). Seven items from the Pictorial Scale of Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance for children (PSPCSA, Harter & Pike, 1980) assessed children's perceived social acceptance. Their teachers completed the Social Adjustment for Children Scale (EASE, Hughes, Soares-Boucaud, Hochmann, & Frith, 1997). For both groups together, the results showed that perceived social acceptance mediates the relation between ToM skills and social adjustment. The presence or absence of intellectual disabilities does not moderate the relations either between ToM skills and perceived social acceptance, or between perceived social acceptance and social adjustment. The study did not confirm the difference hypothesis of structural and relational patterns between these three processes in children with ID, but instead supported the hypothesis of a similar structure that develops in a delayed manner.

Social function in children and adolescents after traumatic brain injury: a systematic review 1989-2011

Clinical reports and case studies suggest that traumatic brain injury (TBI) can have significant social consequences, with social dysfunction reported to be the most debilitating problem for child and adolescent survivors. From a social neuroscience perspective, evidence suggests that social skills are not localized to a specific brain region, but are mediated by an integrated neural network. Many components of this network are susceptible to disruption in the context of TBI. In early development, a brain injury can disrupt this neural network while it is in the process of being established, resulting in social dysfunction. In order to clarify the prevalence and nature of social dysfunction after child TBI, studies of social outcomes in children and adolescents after TBI over the last 23 years have been reviewed. Despite casting a wide net initially, only 28 articles met review criteria. These studies were characterized by methodological weaknesses, including variations in definitions of TBI, limited assessment tools, reliance on parent reports, small sample sizes, and absent control groups. Despite these limitations, the weight of evidence confirmed an elevated risk of social impairment in the context of moderate and severe injury. While rarely examined, younger age at insult, pathology to frontal regions and the corpus callosum, and social disadvantage and family dysfunction may also increase the likelihood of social difficulties. More research is needed to obtain an accurate picture of social outcomes post-brain injury.

Parental child abuse potential and subsequent coping competence in disadvantaged preschool children: moderating effects of sex and ethnicity

This study evaluated the effects of abuse potential in parents on subsequent coping competence domains in their children, using a model empirically supported in a high-risk community sample by Moreland and Dumas (2007). Data from an ethnically diverse sample of 579 parents enrolled in the PACE (Parenting Our Children to Excellence) program was used to evaluate whether parental child abuse potential assessed at pre-intervention negatively contributed to child affective, achievement, and social coping competence in preschoolers one year later, and whether these associations were moderated by sex or ethnicity. Cross-sectional results indicated that parental child abuse potential was negatively related to child affective and achievement coping competence, after accounting for variance associated with child behavior problems. However, child abuse potential was not predictive of subsequent coping competence in any domain after controlling for previous levels of child coping competence. No moderating effects were found for sex and ethnicity, but results showed main effects of sex and ethnicity in cross-sectional analyses. Clinical implications and future directions are discussed.

Intellectual Disability and Anxiety in Children: A Group-based Parent Skills-training Intervention

Anxiety is a highly prevalent problem with various manifestations in young children, especially those with an intellectual disability. Many parents of children with disabilities also experience a wide range of health problems, including anxiety, stress and depression. Very few group-based programs for parents of disabled children have been evaluated, and none of the existing research studies specifically address child or parental anxiety. Given the success of cognitive-behavioural interventions for anxious children without disabilities, it is logical that these interventions be applied to anxious intellectually disabled children. This paper presents a rationale for a new parent training-based early intervention program, targeting anxiety in this population of young people.

Challenges Faced and Lessons Learned in the Development of a New Measure of Social Competence for Children and Adolescents With Acquired Brain Injury (ABI)

Recently, there has been a surge of interest and research in social functioning throughout childhood and adolescence, and how social development is affected by acquired brain injury (ABI). Despite ongoing research and theoretical advances, there remains a lack of specific, relevant and robust measurement tools that draw upon current clinical and social neuroscience knowledge, and which are developmental in nature, to assess social competence within the nonclinical and the ABI population. The aim of the current project was to develop a questionnaire to measure social competence and the quality of relationships of children and adolescents between the ages of 5 and 18 years. This questionnaire, the Developmental Assessment of Social Competence (DASC), also aimed to be sensitive to the specific social problems often associated with children who have suffered ABI. The current article outlines the process and challenges faced in developing such a measure up to the initial pilot stage. Participants included a pilot group of 40 parents who completed the pilot questionnaire, as well as an established questionnaire that assesses social functioning. Parents rated their own children who were aged between 6 and 14 years, and who were within the nonclinical population. Preliminary analyses found that the children generally scored highly on the DASC, and that a higher score on most scales of the DASC tended to be associated with a higher score on an established questionnaire measuring social skills. These data are promising, and provide important information for the following stages of development and evaluation of this new questionnaire.

Child psychiatry

This paper first summarizes the main findings of clinical studies conducted over the past two and a half decades on psychopathology (i.e., psychiatric diagnoses, behavior and emotional problems) in children with new onset and chronic epilepsy both with and without intellectual disability who are treated medically and surgically. Although impaired social relationships are core features of the psychiatric disorders found in pediatric epilepsy, few studies have examined social competence (i.e., social behavior, social adjustment, and social cognition) in these children. There also is a dearth of treatment studies on the frequent psychiatric comorbidities of pediatric epilepsy, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, anxiety disorders, and depression. Drs. Hamiwka and Jones then describe their current and planned studies on social competence and cognitive behavioral treatment of anxiety disorders, respectively, in these children and how they might mitigate the poor long-term psychiatric and social outcome of pediatric epilepsy.

Bidirectional Relationships Between Parenting Stress and Child Coping Competence: Findings From the Pace Study

The present study was designed to evaluate the bidirectional relationships between parenting stress and child coping competence. Data from a diverse sample of 610 parents enrolled in the parenting our children to excellence program was used to evaluate whether parenting stress negatively contributes to affective, achievement, and social coping competence in preschoolers, as well as whether child coping competence predicts parenting stress; after accounting for child disruptive behavior. Results from cross-lagged panel analyses demonstrated a bidirectional relationship, such that parenting stress predicted later child coping competence and child coping competence predicted later parenting stress. Assessment of ethnicity differences indicated that child coping continues to have a long-term impact on parenting stress, regardless of parent ethnicity. The same relationship did not hold for earlier parenting stress on later child coping competence, however, indicating a bidirectional relationship for African American families, but not for their European American counterparts. The relationship between parenting stress and child coping competence is discussed with respect to their conceptual and clinical implications. Suggestions for parent training intervention and prevention programs are given.

Emotion discourse, social cognition, and social skills in children with and without developmental delays

This study examined parent-child emotion discourse, children's independent social information processing, and social skills outcomes in 146 families of 8-year-olds with and without developmental delays. Children's emergent social-cognitive understanding (internal state understanding, perspective taking, and causal reasoning and problem solving) was coded in the context of parent-child conversations about emotion, and children were interviewed separately to assess social problem solving. Mothers, fathers, and teachers reported on children's social skills. The proposed strengths-based model partially accounted for social skills differences between typically developing children and children with delays. A multigroup analysis of the model linking emotion discourse to social skills through children's prosocial problem solving suggested that processes operated similarly for the two groups. Implications for ecologically focused prevention and intervention are discussed.

The Peer Social Networks of Young Children with Down Syndrome in Classroom Programmes

BACKGROUND: The nature and characteristics of the peer social networks of young children with Down syndrome in classroom settings were examined within a developmental framework. METHOD: Comparisons were made with younger typically developing children matched on mental age and typically developing children matched on chronological age. RESULTS: Similar patterns were found for all three groups for most peer social network measures. However, group differences were obtained for measures of teacher assistance and peer interactions in unstructured situations. CONCLUSIONS: Positive patterns appeared to be related to the social orientation of children with Down syndrome and the special efforts of teachers to support children's peer social networks. Findings also suggested that fundamental peer competence problems for children with Down syndrome remain and may best be addressed within the framework of contemporary models of peer-related social competence.

Peer-related social competence of young children with Down syndrome

The peer-related social competence of children with Down syndrome was examined in an observational study. Dyadic interactions with peers of children with Down syndrome were compared with the dyadic interactions of matched groups of typically developing children and with playmates differing in both familiarity and social skills. Results suggested that both risk and protective factors influenced the peer interactions of children with Down syndrome. Recommendations are made for applying contemporary models of peer-related social competence to etiologic subgroups to better understand the mechanisms involved and to provide direction for the design of intervention programs.

Early Intervention Approaches to Enhance the Peer-Related Social Competence of Young Children With Developmental Delays: A Historical Perspective

This article presents a framework for future research and program development designed to support children's peer-related social competence. Intervention research is examined within a historical perspective culminating with a discussion of contemporary translational approaches capable of integrating models of normative development, developmental models of risk and disability, and intervention science.

Social problem-solving skills as a mediator between executive function and long-term social outcome following paediatric traumatic brain injury

There is debate regarding the relationship between executive function and social outcome following paediatric traumatic brain injury (TBI), due to inconsistent findings in the literature. It has been suggested that these contradictory results may reflect the absence of an established mechanism to explain this relationship. Yeates and colleagues (2004) proposed a possible model in which the maturity of social problem-solving skills mediates the relationship between executive function and social outcome. The current study aimed to explore this model and determine whether social problem solving mediates the relationship between executive function and social outcome in a TBI population. The sample consisted of 36 adolescents and young adults who sustained a TBI between 8 and 12 years of age. They ranged between 16 and 22 years of age and were 7-10 years post-injury. Findings indicated that a higher level of executive dysfunction was associated with less sophisticated social problem-solving skills and poorer social outcome. Further, the maturity of social problem-solving skills was found to mediate the relationship between executive function and social outcome in this group.

Home-based peer social networks of young children with Down syndrome: a developmental perspective

Numerous dimensions of the peer social networks of children with Down syndrome were examined within a developmental framework. Results revealed that for many key measures, particularly involvement in play, linkages to other settings, and control of play, children with Down syndrome have less well-developed peer networks even in comparison to a mental age matched group of typically developing children. This suggests both an absence of any social advantage in the peer context for children with Down syndrome and the existence of unusual difficulties that may be traced to underlying problems in peer-related social competence. The need for future observational studies of peer interactions for this group of children was emphasized.

Patterns of intellectual, adaptive and behavioral functioning in individuals with mild mental retardation

Many researchers have studied the population of individuals with mild mental retardation (MIMR) as if it is a clear entity. Few researchers have investigated potential subtypes within the MIMR population. The purpose of the present study was to investigate which subtypes can be identified on the basis of intellectual, adaptive and behavioral functioning. Seventy-three individuals with MIMR were assessed on measures of intellectual, adaptive and behavioral functioning. An agglomerative hierarchical cluster-analytic technique was used to define potential subgroups with characteristic behavioral patterns. Four subtypes were identified. The behavioral patterns are described and implications for assessment are discussed.

Sibling relationship quality and social functioning of children and adolescents with intellectual disability

We examined sibling relationships for children and adolescents with intellectual disability and assessed implications for their social functioning. Targets (total N = 212) had either intellectual disability, a chronic illness/physical disability, or no disability. Nontarget siblings reported on relationship quality, sibling interactions were observed, and teachers reported on social adjustment. Group comparisons highlighted the asymmetrical hierarchy and low conflict unique to siblings and targets with intellectual disability. Sibling relationships characterized by high warmth/closeness, positive affect, and few negative behaviors were predictive of fewer behavior problems for the targets at school. Both high warmth/ closeness and high conflict predicted greater social competence for the targets with intellectual disability, though warmth, conflict, and sibling management had different implications depending on the sibling's gender.

Developmentally delayed children's influence attempts with mothers predict interactions with peers over time

We examined whether influence attempts of 4-6 year-old children with mild developmental delays occurring when interacting with their mothers predicted children's interactions with peers two years later. Hierarchical regressions controlling for relevant child characteristics and a measure of direct parental actions to influence their children's peer interactions revealed a consistent association between influence attempts with mothers and four important aspects of children's peer relationships: successful social bids to peers, initiations to peers, extent of involvement with peers, and overall level of peer interactions. Results were consistent with social communicative processes likely to emerge during children's influence attempts with mothers, which are relevant to peer relationships. The fact that influence attempts with mothers were associated with peer interactions over a time period when peers occupy a more dominant role in children's social relationships supports the role of indirect family influences as a potential intervention strategy to further the peer competence of children with delays.

Attitudes of children towards peers with acquired brain injury (ABI)

RESEARCH OBJECTIVE

Children with acquired brain injury (ABI) can experience severe problems in establishing peer relationships. The attitudes peers hold toward a child with an ABI can significantly impact on their willingness to befriend. The present work sought to investigate the attitudes peers hold toward a fictional child with ABI.

METHODS AND PROCEDURES

Fifty children from a primary school were compared against a similar number from a secondary school. Gender was evenly split across both groups. A vignette describing a young boy acquiring a brain injury, and his subsequent change in behaviour, was presented to the children. The Friendship Activity Scale (FAS) was then used to judge how likely the children were to befriend the fictional character.

OUTCOMES AND RESULTS

Results showed a statistically significant interaction between gender and age [F(1, 96) 6.285, p = 0.014] with older males expressing more positive attitudes than younger males.

CONCLUSION

The study suggests that children with ABI are more likely to experience negative attitudes in primary school, and concludes in calling for additional research to more fully explore the social experience of children with ABI.

Intensity of CNS treatment for pediatric cancer: prediction of social outcomes in survivors

PURPOSE

To evaluate the association of central nervous system (CNS) treatment intensity and the social functioning of children who have completed treatment for leukemia, lymphoma, and solid tumors outside the CNS. Furthermore, we expected that these associations would be moderated by child age at diagnosis and gender.

METHOD

Peer, teacher, and self-report data were obtained for 82 cancer survivors (age 9-17 years) using classroom rating and nomination procedures that are widely used in research on social development. Information regarding cranial radiation therapy (CRT), intrathecal chemotherapy (ITC), and systemic methotrexate were obtained from medical records and used to create a composite index of CNS treatment intensity.

RESULTS

Higher scores on the index of CNS treatment intensity were associated with poorer peer acceptance, fewer friendships, greater social sensitivity-isolation, and diminished leadership-popularity based on peer-report. These associations were stronger for boys and children who were younger (<10 years old) at diagnosis. In contrast, CNS treatment intensity was only predictive of teacher-perceptions of aggressive-disruptive behavior and it was unrelated to social self-perceptions.

CONCLUSION

These results suggest that children who receive CRT and ITC are at risk for problematic peer relations, particularly if they are male or younger at diagnosis. Given the stability of poor peer relationships and documented linkages between peer problems and subsequent academic and psychiatric difficulties, clinical services should address these issues. Research is needed to identify mechanisms that account for these outcomes and provide direction for prevention and treatment efforts.