Tyrphostin AG490, a tyrosine kinase inhibitor, blocks actively induced experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis

Treadmill training improves neural function recovery in rats with spinal cord injury via JAK2/STAT3 signaling pathway and attenuating apoptosis

To investigate the role of JAK2/STAT3 signaling pathway in neural function recovery in rats with spinal cord injury (SCI) after treadmill training. Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly divided into four groups: (a) sham group; (b) SCI group; (c) SCI+treadmill training group (SCI/TT); and (d) SCI/TT+AG490 group (a JAK2 inhibitor) ( n  = 12). The 12 Sprague-Dawley rats in each group were randomly assigned into 1 st , 3 rd , 7 th , and 14 th  day subgroups. The Basso-Beattie-Bresnahan (BBB) locomotor rating scale was used to assess the spinal cord function, and JAK2, STAT3, and IL-6 protein expressions in the rat spinal cord were evaluated by western blot. The level of cell apoptosis and expressions of apoptotic proteins were evaluated by TUNEL assay and immunohistochemistry, respectively. Rats in the SCI+TT group showed a significantly higher BBB score after SCI compared with the SCI group and the SCI/TT+AG490 group. Mechanistically, the JAK2/STAT3 signal pathway was immediately activated after SCI compared with sham group, and JAK2 and STAT3 were obviously upregulated when treadmill training was performed ( P  < 0.05). Results of TUNEL assay showed that the apoptotic rate in SCI/TT was significantly lower than that in the SCI group and SCI/TT+AG490 group ( P  < 0.05). Besides, the IL-6 expression in the SCI/TT group was significantly attenuated compared with the SCI group ( P  < 0.05). Our results showed that physical treadmill training can enhance activation of JAK2/STAT3 signal pathway and attenuate apoptosis in the injured spinal cord, resulting in better functional recovery. These results underline the importance of synergistic treatment strategies for SCI.

JAK2/STAT3 Pathway Inhibition by AG490 Ameliorates Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis via Regulation of Th17 Cells and Autophagy

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune inflammatory condition affecting the central nervous system, and experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) animal models have been extensively used to study it. T-helper 17 cells, which produce interleukin-17(IL-17), play crucial roles in MS pathogenesis, and the JAK2/STAT3 pathway has an essential function in their differentiation from naive CD4 + T cells. This study investigated the effects of the JAK2/STAT3 pathway inhibitor AG490 on EAE in vivo and in vitro, as well as the underlying mechanisms. AG490 ameliorated EAE severity and attenuated its typical symptoms by downregulating proteins associated with the JAK2/STAT3 pathway. Furthermore, it decreased T-helper 17 cell differentiation from naive CD4 + T cells by inactivating STAT3. In addition, it conferred protective effects against EAE by restoring autophagy. These findings indicate the potential of AG490 as a candidate anti-MS therapeutic.

Ruxolitinib attenuates experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) development as animal models of multiple sclerosis (MS)

AIMS

STAT3 signaling is critical for Th17 development that plays an important role in multiple sclerosis pathogenesis. To evaluate the anti-inflammatory and regulatory T cells effects of JAK1/2 and STAT3 inhibition, we assessed the JAK 1/2 inhibitor ruxolitinib effects on Th17 cell/Tregs balance.

MAIN METHODS

Ruxolitinib was administered to experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) mice via oral gavage, and its effects were assessed. The expression of pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines, including IL-17A and IL-10, were analyzed by real-time PCR. The frequency of Th17 cells and Tregs were evaluated by flow cytometry.

KEY FINDING

Ruxolitinib ameliorated the EAE severity and decreased the proportion of Th17 cells and inflammatory markers levels. In contrast, the balance of Tregs and the level of anti-inflammatory cytokine were increased in ruxolitinib-treated mice. Furthermore, ruxolitinib markedly decreased the expression of Th17 related transcription factor, RORɣt, whereas FOXP3 expression associated with Treg differentiation was increased.

SIGNIFICANCE

Our results show that ruxolitinib may be a promising therapeutic strategy for multiple sclerosis.

Advances in oral immunomodulating therapies in relapsing multiple sclerosis

BACKGROUND

Oral treatment options for disease-modifying therapy in relapsing multiple sclerosis have substantially increased over the past decade with four approved oral compounds now available: fingolimod, dimethyl fumarate, teriflunomide, and cladribine. Although these immunomodulating therapies are all orally administered, and thus convenient for patients, they have different modes of action. These distinct mechanisms of action allow better adaption of treatments according to individual comorbidities and offer different mechanisms of treatment such as inhibition of immune cell trafficking versus immune cell depletion, thereby substantially expanding the available treatment options.

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS

New sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor (S1PR) modulators with more specific S1PR target profiles and potentially better safety profiles compared with fingolimod were tested in patients with relapsing multiple sclerosis. For example, siponimod, which targets S1PR1 and S1PR5, was approved in March, 2019, by the US Food and Drug Administration for the treatment of relapsing multiple sclerosis including active secondary progressive multiple sclerosis. Ozanimod, another S1P receptor modulator in the approval stage that also targets S1PR1 and S1PR5, reduced relapse rates and MRI activity in two phase 3 trials of patients with relapsing multiple sclerosis. Blocking of matrix metalloproteinases or tyrosine kinases are novel modes of action in the treatment of relapsing multiple sclerosis, which are exhibited by minocycline and evobrutinib, respectively. Minocycline reduced conversion to multiple sclerosis in patients with a clinically isolated syndrome. Evobrutinib reduced MRI activity in a phase 2 trial, and a phase 3 trial is underway, in patients with relapsing multiple sclerosis. Diroximel fumarate is metabolised to monomethyl fumarate, the active metabolite of dimethyl fumarate, reduces circulating lymphocytes and modifies the activation profile of monocytes, and is being tested in this disease with the aim to improve gastrointestinal tolerability. The oral immunomodulator laquinimod did not reach the primary endpoint of reduction in confirmed disability progression in a phase 3 trial of patients with relapsing multiple sclerosis. In a phase 2 trial of patients with primary progressive multiple sclerosis, laquinimod also did not reach the primary endpoint of a reduction in brain volume loss, as a consequence the development of this drug will probably not be continued in multiple sclerosis. WHERE NEXT?: Several new oral compounds are in late-stage clinical development. With new modes of action introduced to the treatment of multiple sclerosis, the question of how to select and sequence different treatments in individual patients arises. Balancing risks with the expected efficacy of disease-modifying therapies will still be key for treatment selection. However, risks as well as efficacy can change when moving from the controlled clinical trial setting to clinical practice. Because some oral treatments, such as cladribine, have long-lasting effects on the immune system, the cumulative effects of sequential monotherapies can resemble the effects of a concurrent combination therapy. This treatment scheme might lead to higher efficacy but also to new safety concerns. These sequential treatments were largely excluded in phase 2 and 3 trials; therefore, monitoring both short-term and long-term effects of sequential disease-modifying therapies in phase 4 studies, cohort studies, and registries will be necessary.

Role of the JAK/STAT signaling pathway in regulation of innate immunity in neuroinflammatory diseases

The Janus Kinase/Signal Transducers and Activators of Transcription (JAK/STAT) signaling pathway is utilized by numerous cytokines and interferons, and is essential for the development and function of both innate and adaptive immunity. Aberrant activation of the JAK/STAT pathway is evident in neuroinflammatory diseases such as Multiple Sclerosis and Parkinson's Disease. Innate immunity is the front line defender of the immune system and is composed of various cell types, including microglia, macrophages and neutrophils. Innate immune responses have both pathogenic and protective roles in neuroinflammation, depending on disease context and the microenvironment in the central nervous system. In this review, we discuss the role of innate immunity in the pathogenesis of neuroinflammatory diseases, how the JAK/STAT signaling pathway regulates the innate immune response, and finally, the potential for ameliorating neuroinflammation by utilization of JAK/STAT inhibitors.

Immune characteristics study of AG490, a signal pathway inhibitor, in EAE model mice

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune disease characterized by demyelination, axonal damage and progressive neurologic dysfunction in central nervous system (CNS). Many evidences show that B cells play an important role in the pathogenesis of MS. Follicular helper T cells (Tfh) secrete IL-21 to prompt the proliferation and differentiation of B cells in germinal center (GC) through clonal proliferation, somatic hypermutation, antibody class switching, antibody affinity maturation process. AG490 is a synthetic inhibitor to JAK-STAT signal pathway, which has been studied in inflammatory, tumor and autoimmune diseases. In the present study, the experimental mice were divided into 3 groups, vehicle group and AG490 group were given MOG35-55 to induce EAE model, from the third day after immunization, the mice were given vehicle or AG490 by intraperitoneal injection every other day. All mice were assessed clinical scores after immunization. On twentieth day, all mice were sacrificed, HE staining and solochrome cyanine staining were performed to evaluate inflammatory cells infiltration and demyelination, spleen sections were stained with PNA-FITC to analyze the difference in germinal center. Compared with vehicle group, the incidence of AG490 group was deceased, onset time was delayed, the severity was significantly reduced. The inflammatory cells and demyelination in AG490 group were lower than those in vehicle group. Immunofluorescence showed the fluorescence intensity of AG490 group was significantly lower than in the vehicle group, but higher than that of control group.

Tyrosine kinase inhibitor tyrphostin AG490 retards chronic joint inflammation in mice

Tyrphostin AG490 is a Janus kinase (JAK) 2 inhibitor that is clinically used as an anticancer agent and is also effective in various models of inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. In this study, we examined the effects of tyrphostin AG490 on the development of collagenase-induced osteoarthritis (CIOA). Our results showed that tyrphostin-ameliorated cartilage and bone destructions. This effect was associated with decreased expression of signal transducers and activators of transcription 3 (STAT3), phosphorylated JAK2, Dickkopf homolog 1, and receptor activator of nuclear factor κB ligand (RANKL) in the joints of arthritic mice. Tyrphostin AG490 suppressed STAT3 phosphorylation and the expression of tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand and RANKL by synovial fluid cells. The drug inhibited RANKL-induced osteoclast differentiation in vitro. Molecules, such as tyrphostin AG490 that limit bone erosion and influence osteoclast generation, might have therapeutic utility in joint degenerative disorders.

Node interference and robustness: performing virtual knock-out experiments on biological networks: the case of leukocyte integrin activation network

The increasing availability of large network datasets derived from high-throughput experiments requires the development of tools to extract relevant information from biological networks, and the development of computational methods capable of detecting qualitative and quantitative changes in the topological properties of biological networks is of critical relevance. We introduce the notions of node and as measures of the reciprocal influence between nodes within a network. We examine the theoretical significance of these new, centrality-based, measures by characterizing the topological relationships between nodes and groups of nodes. Node interference analysis allows topologically determining the context of functional influence of single nodes. Conversely, the node robustness analysis allows topologically identifying the nodes having the highest functional influence on a specific node. A new Cytoscape plug-in calculating these measures was developed and applied to a protein-protein interaction network specifically regulating integrin activation in human primary leukocytes. Notably, the functional effects of compounds inhibiting important protein kinases, such as SRC, HCK, FGR and JAK2, are predicted by the interference and robustness analysis, are in agreement with previous studies and are confirmed by laboratory experiments. The interference and robustness notions can be applied to a variety of different contexts, including, for instance, the identification of potential side effects of drugs or the characterization of the consequences of genes deletion, duplication or of proteins degradation, opening new perspectives in biological network analysis.

JAK2 inhibition is neuroprotective and reduces astrogliosis after quinolinic acid striatal lesion in adult mice

Quinolinic acid (QA) striatal lesion in rodents induces neuronal death, astrogliosis and migration of neuroblasts from subventricular zone to damaged striatum. These phenomena occur in some human neurodegenerative illnesses, but the underlying mechanisms are unknown. We investigated the effect of AG490, a Janus-kinase 2 (JAK2) inhibitor, on astrogliosis, neuronal loss and neurogenesis in the striatum of adult mice after unilateral infusion of QA (30 nmol). Animals were given subcutaneous injections of AG490 (10 mg/kg) or vehicle immediately after lesion and then once daily for six days. Brain sections were used for neuronal stereological quantification, immunohistochemical and Western Blotting analyses for GFAP and doublecortin, markers of astrocytes and neuroblasts, respectively. The total area of doublecortin-positive cells (ADPC) and the number of neurons (NN) in the lesioned (L) and contralateral (CL) sides were evaluated. Neurogenesis index (NI=ADPC(L)/ADPC(CL)) and neuronal ratio (NR=NN(L)/NN(CL)) were calculated. After QA administration, blotting for GFAP showed an ipsilateral decrease of 19% in AG490- vs vehicle-treated animals. NR was 25% higher in mice given AG490 vs controls given vehicle. NI showed a decrease of 21% in AG490- vs vehicle-treated mice. Our results indicate that JAK2 inhibition reduces QA lesion and suggest that astrogliosis may impair neuronal survival in this model.

Influence of Tyrphostin AG490 on the expression of diabetes-associated markers in human adipocytes

Tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKi) hold promise as a treatment for a variety of disorders ranging from those in oncology to diseases thought as immune mediated. Tyrphostin AG490 is a potent Jak-Stat TKi shown effective in the prevention of allograft transplant rejection, experimental autoimmune disease, as well as the treatment of cancer. However, given its ability to modulate this important but pleiotropic intracellular pathway, we thought that it is important to examine its effects on glucose metabolism and expression of major transcription factors and adipokines associated with insulin insensitivity and diabetes. We investigated the metabolic effects of AG490 on glucose levels in vivo using an animal model of diabetes, nonobese diabetic (NOD) mice, and transcription factor expression through assessment of human adipocytes. AG490 treatment of young nondiabetic NOD mice significantly reduced blood glucose levels (p = 0.002). In vitro, treatment of adipocytes with rosiglitazone, an insulin sensitizer that binds to peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) receptors and increases the adipocyte response to insulin, significantly increased the expression of the antidiabetic adipokine adiponectin. Importantly, the combination of rosiglitazone plus Tyrphostin AG490 further increased this effect and was specifically associated with significant upregulation of C-enhanced binding protein (C/EBP) (p < 0.0001). In terms of the mechanism underlying this action, regulatory regions of the PPARγ, ADIPOQ, and C/EBP contain the Stat5 DNA-binding sequences and were demonstrated, by gel shift experiments in vitro. These data suggest that blocking Jak-Stat signaling with AG490 reduces blood glucose levels and modulates the expression of transcription factors previously associated with diabetes, thereby supporting its potential as a therapy for this disease.

Tyrphostin AG490 agent modestly but significantly prevents onset of type 1 in NOD mouse; implication of immunologic and metabolic effects of a Jak-Stat pathway inhibitor

Previously, we have reported that the Jak-Stat signaling pathway is defective in NOD mice. In this study, prediabetic female NOD mice (4 weeks) were treated by intraperitoneal injection either with AG490 or DMSO three times per week for 4 consecutive weeks, followed by once a week for an additional 6 weeks. The onset of diabetes was attenuated in NOD mice treated with AG490 relative to DMSO treated control mice (p < 0.02). From an immunological standpoint, AG490 induced the expression of Foxp3 in CD4(+)CD25(-) T-cells and down-regulated expression of co-stimulatory molecules in dendritic cells (DC) both in vitro and in vivo. AG490 treated CD4+CD25- T-cells and DC in vitro, acquired regulatory functions; namely, the ability to suppress proliferation of a responding cell population in vitro. AG490 treatment resulted in significant reduction of blood glucose values and increased expression of PPARγ in splenocytes and markedly increased expression PPARγ2 but not PPARγ1 in adipocyte in vitro. Presence of multiple Stat5 DNA binding consensus sequences within the promoter region of the PPARγ gene in human and in mouse suggests that PPARγ is downstream to the Jak-Stat signaling pathway. This study highlights a critical role of the Jak-Stat signaling pathway in the pathogenesis of T1D and suggests that blocking the Jak-Stat signaling pathway by AG490 as a tyrosine kinase inhibitor may provide an effective means for preventing autoimmune T1D via both immunological and metabolic effects.

The tyrphostin agent AG490 prevents and reverses type 1 diabetes in NOD mice

BACKGROUND

Recent studies in the NOD (non-obese diabetic) mouse model of type 1 diabetes (T1D) support the notion that tyrosine kinase inhibitors have the potential for modulating disease development. However, the therapeutic effects of AG490 on the development of T1D are unknown.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Female NOD mice were treated with AG490 (i.p, 1 mg/mouse) or DMSO starting at either 4 or 8 week of age, for five consecutive week, then once per week for 5 additional week. Analyses for the development and/or reversal of diabetes, insulitis, adoptive transfer, and other mechanistic studies were performed.

RESULTS

AG490 significantly inhibited the development of T1D (p = 0.02, p = 0.005; at two different time points). Monotherapy of newly diagnosed diabetic NOD mice with AG490 markedly resulted in disease remission in treated animals (n = 23) in comparision to the absolute inability (0%; 0/10, p = 0.003, Log-rank test) of DMSO and sustained eugluycemia was maintained for several months following drug withdrawal. Interestingly, adoptive transfer of splenocytes from AG490 treated NOD mice failed to transfer diabetes to recipient NOD.Scid mice. CD4 T-cells as well as bone marrow derived dendritic cells (BMDCs) from AG490 treated mice, showed higher expression of Foxp3 (p<0.004) and lower expression of co-stimulatory molecules, respectively. Screening of the mouse immune response gene arrary indicates that expression of costimulaotry molecule Ctla4 was upregulated in CD4+ T-cell in NOD mice treated with AG490, suggesting that AG490 is not a negative regulator of the immune system.

CONCLUSION

The use of such agents, given their extensive safety profiles, provides a strong foundation for their translation to humans with or at increased risk for the disease.

Tyrphostin-like compounds with ubiquitin modulatory activity as possible therapeutic agents for multiple myeloma

With the goal of developing small molecules as novel regulators of signal transduction and apoptosis, a series of tyrphostin-like compounds were synthesized and screened for their activity against MM-1 (multiple myeloma) cells and other cell lines representing this malignancy. Synthesis was completed in solution-phase initially and then adopted to solid-phase for generating a more diverse set of compounds. A positive correlation was noted between compounds capable of inducing apoptosis and their modulation of protein ubiquitination. Further analysis suggested that ubiquitin modulation occurs through inhibition of cellular deubiquitinase activity. Bulky groups on the sidechain near the α,β-unsaturated ketone caused a complete loss of activity, whereas cyclization on the opposite side was tolerated. Theoretical calculations at the B3LYP/LACV3P(∗∗) level were completed on each molecule, and the resulting molecular orbitals and Fukui reactivity values for C(β) carbon were utilized in developing a model to explain the compound activity.

Inhibition of zymosan-induced kidney dysfunction by tyrphostin AG-490

Background

Zymosan-induced shock has been associated with an increased production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and mediators, causing a generalized dysfunction of liver, lung and kidneys. Herein, we investigate the effects of tyrphostin AG-490 on the early inflammation and on the late renal injury provoked by zymosan injection.

Methods

Shock was induced by intraperitoneal injection of zymosan in a dose of 0.8–1.0 mg/g body weight in BALB/c mice and 0.8 mg/g body weight in SCID mice. Tyrphostin AG-490 was administered intraperitoneally in a dose of 5 mg/kg immediately after shock induction. Blood, peritoneal lavage and kidneys were collected at certain time points after zymosan injection. The levels of MIP-1α, RANTES, IL-6, IL-10, α1-antitrypsin and C5a in plasma were determined by ELISA. The number of IL-10-secreting cells in peritoneum was assayed by ELISPOT. Kidney function was monitored by measurement of urine/plasma creatinine levels and proteinuria. Histological assessment of renal injury was performed in a blinded fashion after hematoxylin/eosin staining. Immunohistochemistry analyses were used to evaluate the expression of C5aR, STAT1, STAT3 and the binding ability of IgGs in kidneys.

Results

Tyrphostin AG-490 attenuated the early phase of zymosan-induced shock via inhibition of MIP-1α, RANTES and C5a plasma levels and via elevation of IL-10 in plasma. The drug increased IL-10 production in peritoneum and the number of IL-10-secreting peritoneal cells. AG-490 was able to retain the time of coagulation and the level of α1-antitrypsin to normal values. At the late stage of shock, AG-490 decreased scores of tubular injury, cell infiltration and glomerular lesions in parallel with diminished creatinine plasma level and protein excretion. These beneficial effects of AG-490 were related to lowered levels of circulating IL-6, MIP-1α and C5a, and to inhibited expression of STAT1, STAT3 and C5aR in kidneys. The drug diminished the production of zymosan-specific IgG antibodies and hindered the glomeruli from IgGs recognition.

Conclusion

Tyrphostin AG-490 reduced the magnitude of the initial inflammatory response in zymosan-induced shock and prevented the development of severe kidney dysfunction. Our data suggest that the drug might be used as a therapeutic approach in cases where shock is combined with acute renal injury.

Chemokine signaling and integrin activation in lymphocyte migration into the inflamed brain

The interaction between lymphocytes and brain endothelium is a central pathogenetic event in CNS autoimmunity and, thus, represents an important focus of investigation. Chemokine binding through specific G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) on lymphocyte surface activates integrins and induces inside-out signaling and lymphocyte arrest in microcirculation under physiological and pathological conditions. The complexity emerged from the signaling networks controlling integrin activation and the differences observed in the adhesion mechanisms between leukocyte subtypes and between vascular districts, suggest that future therapies designed to interfere with signal transduction pathways involved in integrin-dependent adhesion may be useful in treating inflammatory diseases of the central nervous system (CNS).

Tolerogenic effect of fiber tract injury: reduced EAE severity following entorhinal cortex lesion

Despite transient, myelin-directed adaptive immune responses in regions of fiber tract degeneration, none of the current models of fiber tract injuries evokes disseminated demyelination, implying effective mechanisms maintaining or re-establishing immune tolerance. In fact, we have recently detected CD95L upregulation accompanied by apoptosis of leukocytes in zones of axonal degeneration induced by entorhinal cortex lesion (ECL), a model of layer-specific axonal degeneration. Moreover, infiltrating monocytes readily transformed into ramified microglia exhibiting a phenotype of immature (CD86+/CD80-) antigen-presenting cells. We now report the appearance of the axonal antigen neurofilament-light along with increased T cell apoptosis and enhanced expression of the pro-apoptotic gene Bad in cervical lymph nodes after ECL. In order to test the functional significance of such local and systemic depletory/regulatory mechanisms on subsequent immunity to central nervous system antigens, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis was induced by proteolipid protein immunization 30 days after ECL. In three independent experiments, we found significantly diminished disease scores and infiltrates in lesioned compared to sham-operated SJL mice. This is consistent with a previous meta-statistical analysis (Goodin et al. in Neurology 52:1737-1745, 1999) rejecting the O-hypothesis that brain trauma causes or exacerbates multiple sclerosis. Conversely, brain injuries may involve long-term tolerogenic effects towards brain antigens.

Tyrosine kinase inhibition reduces inflammation in the acute stage of experimental pneumococcal meningitis

Bacterial meningitis is an acute inflammatory disease of the central nervous system with a mortality rate of up to 30%. Excessive stimulation of the host immune system by bacterial surface components contributes to this devastating outcome. In vitro studies have shown that protein tyrosine kinase inhibitors are highly effective in preventing the release of proinflammatory cytokines induced by pneumococcal cell walls in microglia. In a well-established rat model, intracisternal injection of purified pneumococcal cell walls induced meningitis characterized by increases in the regional cerebral blood flow and intracranial pressure, an influx of leukocytes, and high concentrations of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) in the cerebrospinal fluid. Compared with the values at the beginning of the experiment, intraperitoneal injection of tyrphostin AG 126 reduced the increases in regional cerebral blood flow (at 6 h, 127% +/- 14% versus 222% +/- 51% of the baseline value; P < 0.05) and intracranial pressure (at 6 h, 0.8 +/- 2.4 versus 5.4 +/- 2.0 mm of Hg; P < 0.05), the influx of leukocytes (at 6 h, 1,336 +/- 737 versus 4,350 +/- 2,182 leukocytes/microl; P < 0.05), and the TNF-alpha concentration (at 6 h, 261 +/- 188 versus 873 +/- 135 pg/microl; P < 0.05). These results demonstrate that inhibition of AG 126-sensitive tyrosine kinase pathways may provide new approaches for preventing excessive inflammation and reducing the increases in blood flow and intracranial pressure in the acute phase of bacterial meningitis.

Inhibition of acute lymphoblastic and myeloid leukemias by a novel kinase inhibitor

In recent years, synthetic tyrosine kinase inhibitors have made a rapid transition from basic research to therapeutic application. These compounds represent a major clinical advance in the approach to cancer in their relative specificity of action and decreased toxicity. We report here the effects of a novel tyrosine kinase inhibitor CR4 that interferes with growth-promoting pathways to markedly inhibit the growth and survival of both Philadelphia-positive and -negative acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) as well as acute myeloid leukemia (AML). While efficiently ablating leukemic cell growth, normal cell growth and differentiation remain unaffected by CR4. CR4 demonstrates an ability to inhibit the function of multiple growth-critical kinases and yet exhibits a low level of cytotoxicity. These findings suggest that CR4 may prove to be highly effective as a therapeutic agent.

Janus kinase 2 is involved in lipopolysaccharide-induced activation of macrophages

The mechanisms by which lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is recognized, and how such recognition leads to innate immune responses, are poorly understood. Stimulation with LPS induces the activation of a variety of proteins, including mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) and NF-kappaB. Activation of protein tyrosine kinases (PTKs) is also necessary for a number of biological responses to LPS. We used a murine macrophage-like cell line, RAW264.7, to demonstrate that Janus kinase (JAK)2 is tyrosine phosphorylated immediately after LPS stimulation. Anti-Toll-like receptor (TLR)4 neutralization antibody inhibits the phosphorylation of JAK2 and the c-Jun NH2-terminal protein kinase (JNK). Both the JAK inhibitor AG490 and the kinase-deficient JAK2 protein reduce the phosphorylation of JNK and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) via LPS stimulation. Pharmacological inhibition of the kinase activity of PI3K with LY-294002 decreases the phosphorylation of JNK. Finally, we show that JAK2 is involved in the production of IL-1beta and IL-6. PI3K and JNK are also important for the production of IL-1beta. These results suggest that LPS induces tyrosine phosphorylation of JAK2 via TLR4 and that JAK2 regulates phosphorylation of JNK mainly through activation of PI3K. Phosphorylation of JAK2 via LPS stimulation is important for the production of IL-1beta via the PI3K/JNK cascade. Thus JAK2 plays a pivotal role in LPS-induced signaling in macrophages.

Inhibitors that target protein kinases for the treatment of ovarian carcinoma

OBJECTIVE

Ovarian cancer is the leading cause of death from gynecologic malignancies in the United States. In an attempt to develop drugs that suppress ovarian cancer cells, we examined the effect of selective inhibitors of protein tyrosine kinases-tyrphostins, which are likely to play a role in ovarian cancer cells.

STUDY DESIGN

We examined the cellular and biochemical effects of tyrphostins AG1478, PP2, AGL2592, and AG490 from four different families on the ovarian carcinoma cell line OV1063.

RESULTS

We found that the AG1478, PP2, AGL2592, and AG490 tyrphostins suppressed cell proliferation and altered cell cycle distribution of the OV1063 cells in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Immunoblotting analysis indicated that AG1478 effectively inhibited epidermal growth factor receptor autophosphorylation, that AG490 decreased the level of Jak2 and phosphorylated Stat3, and that PP2 decreased the level of pp60Src protein. AGL2592 decreased the level of constitutive activated epidermal growth factor receptor and pStat3, but its molecular targets have not been identified completely.

CONCLUSION

The growth-arresting properties of these tyrphostins identify them as possible candidates for signal transduction therapy.

Treatment of relapsing paralysis in experimental encephalomyelitis by targeting Th1 cells through atorvastatin

Statins, known as inhibitors of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) reductase, exhibit numerous functions related to inflammation, such as MHC class II down-regulation, interference with T cell adhesion, and induction of apoptosis. Here we demonstrate that both subcutaneous and oral administration of atorvastatin inhibit the development of actively induced chronic experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis in SJL/J mice and significantly reduce the inflammatory infiltration into the central nervous system (CNS). When treatment was started after disease onset, atorvastatin reduced the incidence of relapses and protected from the development of further disability. Both the reduced autoreactive T cell response measured by proliferation toward the encephalitogenic peptide PLP139-151 and the cytokine profile indicate a potent blockade of T helper cell type 1 immune response. In in vitro assays atorvastatin not only inhibited antigen-specific responses, but also decreased T cell proliferation mediated by direct TCR engagement independently of MHC class II and LFA-1. Inhibition of proliferation was not due to apoptosis induction, but linked to a negative regulation on cell cycle progression. However, early T cell activation was unaffected, as reflected by unaltered calcium fluxes. Thus, our results provide evidence for a beneficial role of statins in the treatment of autoimmune attack on the CNS.

CCR7-mediated physiological lymphocyte homing involves activation of a tyrosine kinase pathway

Homing of blood-borne lymphocytes to peripheral lymph nodes (PLNs) is a multistep process dependent on the sequential engagement of L-selectin, which mediates lymphocyte rolling along the luminal surface of high endothelial venules (HEVs), followed by activation of lymphocyte integrins and transmigration through HEVs. Within lymphoid tissue, B and T lymphocytes then migrate toward specific microenvironments such as B-cell follicles and the paracortex, respectively. The lymphocyte-expressed chemokine receptor CCR7 is playing an important role during this process, as its HEV-presented ligands CCL19 and CCL21 can trigger rapid integrin activation under flow in addition to inducing a chemotactic response, which may participate in transmigration and/or interstitial migration. Here, we report that Tyrphostin (Tyr) AG490, a pharmacological inhibitor of Janus family tyrosine kinases (Jaks), blocked the chemotactic response of primary mouse lymphocytes to CCL19 and CCL21 in a dose-dependent manner. Furthermore, Tyr AG490 inhibited rapid CCL21-mediated up-regulation of alpha4 and beta2 integrin adhesiveness in static adhesion assays and under physiological flow, whereas adhesion induced by phorbol myristate acetate remained unaltered. Using intravital microscopy of subiliac PLNs in mice, we found that adoptively transferred Tyr AG490-treated lymphocytes adhered significantly less in HEVs compared with control cells, although L-selectin-mediated rolling was similar in both samples. Finally, we observed rapid Jak2 phosphorylation in CCL21-stimulated primary mouse lymphocytes. Thus, our study suggests a role for Jak tyrosine kinases during CCR7-mediated lymphocyte recirculation.

Mechanisms involved in interleukin-15-induced suppression of human neutrophil apoptosis: role of the anti-apoptotic Mcl-1 protein and several kinases including Janus kinase-2, p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase and extracellular signal-regulated kinases-1/2

Interleukin-15 (IL-15) is a pro-inflammatory cytokine known as a general inhibitor of apoptosis, which possesses potential therapeutic properties. Although IL-15 was previously found to be a human neutrophil agonist, its mode of action remains unknown. Herein, we were interested in elucidating the mechanisms by which it delays neutrophil apoptosis. IL-15 was found to induce tyrosine phosphorylation events and to prevent loss of the anti-apoptotic Mcl-1 protein expression. Using different signal transduction inhibitors, we found that Janus kinase (Jak)-2, Jak-3, p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), but not G proteins, are involved in IL-15-induced suppression of apoptosis. Furthermore, we found that IL-15 activates Jak-2, p38 MAPK and ERK-1/2, but, unlike granulocyte macrophage-colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), it does not activate signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT)-5a/b. We conclude that IL-15 delays neutrophil apoptosis via several pathways, and that Mcl-1 and several kinases contribute to this. We also conclude that, unlike GM-CSF, IL-15 does not activate the Jak-2/STAT-5 pathway found to be important in neutrophil signaling.

Inhibition of Rho GTPases with protein prenyltransferase inhibitors prevents leukocyte recruitment to the central nervous system and attenuates clinical signs of disease in an animal model of multiple sclerosis

The ICAM-1-mediated brain endothelial cell (EC)-signaling pathway induced by adherent lymphocytes is a central element in facilitating lymphocyte migration through the tight endothelial barrier of the brain. Rho proteins, which must undergo posttranslational prenylation to be functionally active, have been shown to be an essential component of this signaling cascade. In this study, we have evaluated the effect of inhibiting protein prenylation in brain ECs on their ability to support T lymphocyte migration. ECs treated in vitro with protein prenylation inhibitors resulted in a significant reduction in transendothelial T lymphocyte migration. To determine the therapeutic potential of this approach, an animal model of multiple sclerosis, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, was induced in Biozzi ABH mice. Animals treated before disease onset with protein prenylation inhibitors exhibited a dramatic and significant reduction in both leukocyte infiltration into the CNS and clinical presentation of disease compared with untreated animals. These studies demonstrate, for the first time, the potential for pharmacologically targeting CNS EC signaling responses, and particularly endothelial Rho proteins, as a means of attenuating leukocyte recruitment to the CNS.

Molecular mechanisms involved in lymphocyte recruitment in inflamed brain microvessels: critical roles for P-selectin glycoprotein ligand-1 and heterotrimeric G(i)-linked receptors

Lymphocyte recruitment into the brain is a critical event in the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis and experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. We developed a novel intravital microscopy model to directly analyze through the skull the interactions between lymphocytes and the endothelium in cerebral venules of mice. No adhesive interactions were observed between lymphocytes and the nonactivated endothelium in the cerebral microcirculation. When brain venules were activated by pretreating mice with TNF-alpha or LPS, proteolipid protein 139-151 autoreactive T lymphocytes rolled and arrested; notably, only a few peripheral lymph node cells rolled and firmly adhered. Abs anti-P-selectin glycoprotein ligand-1 and anti-E- and P-selectin blocked tethering and rolling of autoreactive lymphocytes, suggesting that P-selectin glycoprotein ligand-1/endothelial selectins are critical in the recruitment of lymphocytes in inflamed brain venules. E- and P-selectin were expressed on cerebral vessels upon in vivo activation and had a patchy distribution during the preclinical phase of active and passive experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. LFA-1/ICAM-1 and alpha(4) integrins/VCAM-1 supported rolling, but were not relevant to rolling velocity. Firm arrest was mainly mediated by LFA-1 and ICAM-1. Pretreatment of autoreactive lymphocytes with pertussis toxin blocked integrin-dependent arrest, implicating a requirement for G(i) protein-dependent signaling in vessels from nonlymphoid districts. In conclusion, our data unveils the molecular mechanisms controlling the recruitment of autoreactive lymphocytes in inflamed cerebral vessels and suggest new insights into the pathogenesis of autoimmune inflammatory diseases of the CNS.

The JAK2 inhibitor AG490 predominantly abrogates the growth of human B-precursor leukemic cells with 11q23 translocation or Philadelphia chromosome

The Janus kinase (JAK) family is one of intracellular protein tyrosine kinases (PTKs) present in hematopoietic and lymphoid cells and has been shown to play a crucial role in a variety of biological responses. It was reported that a human B-precursor leukemic cell line was potently inhibited in its proliferation by one of synthetic PTK inhibitors (tyrphostins), AG490, via anti-JAK2 activity. However, no extensive studies about it have been performed. In the present study, we tested 16 human lymphoid leukemic cell lines (B-precursor, 12; T cell, four) for their sensitivity to AG490 using 3H-thymidine incorporation and colony formation assays, and found that B-precursor cell lines with 11q23 translocation or Philadelphia chromosome (Ph1) whose JAK2 proved to be constitutively phosphorylated were predominantly sensitive to AG490 at a concentration that has few inhibitory effect on normal hematopoiesis. We first revealed the association of JAK2 with BCR-ABL in Ph1-positive cell lines and with Bruton's tyrosine kinase (BTK) in cell lines with 11q23 translocation by coimmunoprecipitation experiments. Of interest, AG490 markedly down-regulated phosphorylation of JAK2, but rather transiently up-regulated phosphorylation of BCR-ABL and BTK, suggesting direct implication of AG490 in the process of the JAK2 dephosphorylation. These results indicate that AG490 exerts a potent inhibitory activity to B-precursor leukemia with specific chromosomal abnormalities, and a therapeutic approach using AG490 is expected.

Suppression of primary T-cell responses and induction of alloantigen-specific hyporesponsiveness in vitro by the Janus kinase inhibitor tyrphostin AG490

BACKGROUND

Tyrphostin AG490 has recently been shown to block interleukin (IL)-2 receptor gamma-chain-associated Janus kinase 3. Here, we analyzed the effect of AG490 on T-cell alloresponses in vitro.

METHODS

For the evaluation of T-cell activation, DNA synthesis, surface marker expression, cytokine secretion, intracellular calcium mobilization, early protein tyrosine phosphorylation, and apoptosis were measured.

RESULTS

AG490 effectively inhibited T-cell proliferation in human mixed lymphocyte culture (MLC) even when added 4 days after culture initiation. Inhibition of IL-2-dependent proliferation in T-cell blasts and the incapability of IL-2 or IL-15 to restore proliferation in AG490-treated MLC suggests interference with cytokine receptor signaling. T-cell receptor-triggered early protein tyrosine phosphorylation, calcium mobilization, up-regulation of CD69, and initial CD25 expression were not affected. Interestingly, AG490 substantially inhibited production of IL-2 and interferon-gamma in T cells stimulated with alloantigen or via CD3 and CD28. In CD28-independent activation models (e.g., stimulation with phorbol myristate acetate plus ionomycin), however, cytokine secretion was not inhibited. Pretreatment of primary MLC with AG490 resulted in substantial down-regulation of secondary responses to cells from the original donor as opposed to third-party cells or phytohemagglutinin. Unresponsiveness was induced also in T cells stimulated with CD3 monoclonal antibody. Induction of apoptosis in polyclonally activated T cells and the incapability of IL-2 to reverse specific hyporesponsiveness, suggest programmed cell death as an important mechanism underlying antigen-specific down-regulation of alloresponses.

CONCLUSIONS

We demonstrate that AG490 blocks different manifestations of T-cell activation. This and its ability to induce alloantigen-specific hyporesponsiveness point to a potential use for interfering with alloreactivities in vivo.

Selective disruption of interleukin 4 autocrine-regulated loop by a tyrosine kinase inhibitor restricts activity of T-helper 2 cells

Interleukin (IL) 4 is a potent immunomodulatory cytokine secreted by T-helper 2 (Th2) cells and Th2 mast cells that promotes the commitment of cells. However, unregulated production and release of IL-4 can exacerbate allergic reactions and increase susceptibility to infectious organisms and viruses. Here, we present evidence that AG-490, a Janus tyrosine kinase (JAK) 2-JAK3 inhibitor, effectively blocked IL-4 gene expression and secretion in the Th2 cell line D10 that was not occurring after anti-CD3 antibody stimulation, whereas AG-490 had no inhibitory effect on production of other Th2 cytokines or cytokines synthesized by the corresponding Th1 cell line clone 29. AG-490 potently inhibited IL-4–mediated proliferation of both D10 and the IL-4–dependent cell line CT.4S. Moreover, AG-490 markedly inhibited IL-4 activation of JAK3 and blocked the downstream activation of signal transducer and activator of transcription 6, as judged by tyrosine phosphorylation, DNA binding, and transcription assays. In contrast, AG-490 did not affect tumor necrosis factor  activation of NF-κB at similar concentrations of drug. These data suggest that tyrosine kinase inhibitors that inhibit JAK3 may have previously unrecognized and selective clinical potential as immunotherapeutic drugs to treat Th2-mediated diseases driven by IL-4.

Selective disruption of interleukin 4 autocrine-regulated loop by a tyrosine kinase inhibitor restricts activity of T-helper 2 cells

Interleukin (IL) 4 is a potent immunomodulatory cytokine secreted by T-helper 2 (Th2) cells and Th2 mast cells that promotes the commitment of cells. However, unregulated production and release of IL-4 can exacerbate allergic reactions and increase susceptibility to infectious organisms and viruses. Here, we present evidence that AG-490, a Janus tyrosine kinase (JAK) 2-JAK3 inhibitor, effectively blocked IL-4 gene expression and secretion in the Th2 cell line D10 that was not occurring after anti-CD3 antibody stimulation, whereas AG-490 had no inhibitory effect on production of other Th2 cytokines or cytokines synthesized by the corresponding Th1 cell line clone 29. AG-490 potently inhibited IL-4–mediated proliferation of both D10 and the IL-4–dependent cell line CT.4S. Moreover, AG-490 markedly inhibited IL-4 activation of JAK3 and blocked the downstream activation of signal transducer and activator of transcription 6, as judged by tyrosine phosphorylation, DNA binding, and transcription assays. In contrast, AG-490 did not affect tumor necrosis factor  activation of NF-κB at similar concentrations of drug. These data suggest that tyrosine kinase inhibitors that inhibit JAK3 may have previously unrecognized and selective clinical potential as immunotherapeutic drugs to treat Th2-mediated diseases driven by IL-4.

Blockade of JAK2 by tyrphostin AG-490 inhibits antigen-induced eosinophil recruitment into the mouse airways

We studied the effect of tyrphostin AG-490, a specific Janus kinase 2 (JAK2) inhibitor, on antigen-induced eosinophil recruitment into the airways of sensitized mice and on IL-5-induced chemokinesis and adhesiveness of eosinophils. The in vivo administration of AG-490 prevented antigen-induced eosinophil infiltration in the airways of sensitized mice in a dose-dependent manner. However, the administration of AG-490 did not affect antigen-induced IL-5 production in the airways nor in vitro antigen-induced IL-5 production and T cell proliferation of spleen cells. Furthermore, AG-490 inhibited IL-5-induced chemokinesis and beta1-integrin adhesiveness of eosinophils in vitro. Because antigen-induced eosinophil recruitment into the airways is mediated by IL-5, these results indicate that JAK2 activation is critical for antigen-induced, IL-5-dependent mobilization of eosinophils into the tissue.

New strategies for preventing graft-versus-host disease

Graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) is a complex condition that can occur after allogeneic bone marrow transplantation and remains a significant cause of morbidity. GVHD occurs when donor immunocompetent T cells react to and attack the genetically disparate host. The etiology of GVHD is complex, with numerous variables affecting its incidence and severity. Recent work has focused upon blunting the initial interactions between the donor T cell and the host. Because GVHD is linked with the beneficial graft-versus-tumor (GVT) effect that occurs after allogenic bone marrow transplantation, previous attempts to circumvent GVHD (i.e. by depletion of T cells from the donor graft) also resulted in increased relapse rates from the original tumor. The ideal scenario involves the tolerization or anergy of the donor T cell that attacks the host while allowing donor cells to mediate GVT effects. Recent work has attempted to address several pivotal features of GVHD: the variables that affect its induction and severity; the effector mechanisms; and whether GVHD can be suppressed yet GVT effects be maintained. Questions about these features need answers to enable us to design successful approaches for intervention.

Tyrphostin B42 Inhibits IL-12-Induced Tyrosine Phosphorylation and Activation of Janus Kinase-2 and Prevents Experimental Allergic Encephalomyelitis

IL-12 is a macrophage-derived cytokine that induces proliferation, cytokine production, and cytotoxic activity of T and NK cells. Signaling through its receptor, IL-12 induces these cellular responses by tyrosine phosphorylation and activation of Janus kinase-2 (Jak-2), Tyk-2, Stat3, and Stat4. We have used tyrphostin B42 (AG490), a Jak-2 inhibitor, to determine the role of Jak-2 kinase in IL-12 signaling and IL-12-induced T cell functions. Treatment of activated T cells with tyrphostin B42 inhibited the IL-12-induced tyrosine phosphorylation and activation of Jak-2 without affecting Tyk-2 kinase. In contrast, treatment with tyrphostin A1 inhibited the tyrosine phosphorylation of Tyk-2 but not that of Jak-2 kinase. Inhibition of either Jak-2 or Tyk-2 leads to a decrease in the IL-12-induced tyrosine phosphorylation of Stat3, but not of Stat4, protein. While inhibition of Jak-2 lead to programmed cell death, the inhibition of Jak-2 or Tyk-2 resulted a decrease in IFN-γ production. We have further tested the in vivo effects of tyrphostin B42 in experimental allergic encephalomyelitis, a Th1 cell-mediated autoimmune disease. In vivo treatment with tyrphostin B42 decreased the proliferation and IFN-γ production of neural Ag-specific T cells. Treatment of mice with tyrphostin B42 also reduced the incidence and severity of active and passive EAE. These results suggest that tyrphostin B42 prevents EAE by inhibiting IL-12 signaling and IL-12-mediated Th1 differentiation in vivo.