MEK inhibitors induce Akt activation and drug resistance by suppressing negative feedback ERK-mediated HER2 phosphorylation at Thr701

Quantitative systems pharmacology modeling of HER2-positive metastatic breast cancer for translational efficacy evaluation and combination assessment across therapeutic modalities

HER2-positive (HER2+) metastatic breast cancer (mBC) is highly aggressive and a major threat to human health. Despite the significant improvement in patients' prognosis given the drug development efforts during the past several decades, many clinical questions still remain to be addressed such as efficacy when combining different therapeutic modalities, best treatment sequences, interindividual variability as well as resistance and potential coping strategies. To better answer these questions, we developed a mechanistic quantitative systems pharmacology model of the pathophysiology of HER2+ mBC that was extensively calibrated and validated against multiscale data to quantitatively predict and characterize the signal transduction and preclinical tumor growth kinetics under different therapeutic interventions. Focusing on the second-line treatment for HER2+ mBC, e.g., antibody-drug conjugates (ADC), small molecule inhibitors/TKI and chemotherapy, the model accurately predicted the efficacy of various drug combinations and dosing regimens at the in vitro and in vivo levels. Sensitivity analyses and subsequent heterogeneous phenotype simulations revealed important insights into the design of new drug combinations to effectively overcome various resistance scenarios in HER2+ mBC treatments. In addition, the model predicted a better efficacy of the new TKI plus ADC combination which can potentially reduce drug dosage and toxicity, while it also shed light on the optimal treatment ordering of ADC versus TKI plus capecitabine regimens, and these findings were validated by new in vivo experiments. Our model is the first that mechanistically integrates multiple key drug modalities in HER2+ mBC research and it can serve as a high-throughput computational platform to guide future model-informed drug development and clinical translation.

Targeting solid tumor antigens with chimeric receptors: cancer biology meets synthetic immunology

Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cell therapy is a medical breakthrough in the treatment of B cell malignancies. There is intensive focus on developing solid tumor-targeted CAR-T cell therapies. Although clinically approved CAR-T cell therapies target B cell lineage antigens, solid tumor targets include neoantigens and tumor-associated antigens (TAAs) with diverse roles in tumor biology. Multiple early-stage clinical trials now report encouraging signs of efficacy for CAR-T cell therapies that target solid tumors. We review the landscape of solid tumor target antigens from the perspective of cancer biology and gene regulation, together with emerging clinical data for CAR-T cells targeting these antigens. We then discuss emerging synthetic biology strategies and their application in the clinical development of novel cellular immunotherapies.

Blocking of doublecortin-like kinase 1-regulated SARS-CoV-2 replication cycle restores cell signaling network

IMPORTANCE

Severe COVID-19 and post-acute sequelae often afflict patients with underlying co-morbidities. There is a pressing need for highly effective treatment, particularly in light of the emergence of SARS-CoV-2 variants. In a previous study, we demonstrated that DCLK1, a protein associated with cancer stem cells, is highly expressed in the lungs of COVID-19 patients and enhances viral production and hyperinflammatory responses. In this study, we report the pivotal role of DCLK1-regulated mechanisms in driving SARS-CoV-2 replication-transcription processes and pathogenic signaling. Notably, pharmacological inhibition of DCLK1 kinase during SARS-CoV-2 effectively impedes these processes and counteracts virus-induced alternations in global cell signaling. These findings hold significant potential for immediate application in treating COVID-19.

A multi-omics integrative approach unravels novel genes and pathways associated with senescence escape after targeted therapy in NRAS mutant melanoma

Therapy Induced Senescence (TIS) leads to sustained growth arrest of cancer cells. The associated cytostasis has been shown to be reversible and cells escaping senescence further enhance the aggressiveness of cancers. Chemicals specifically targeting senescent cells, so-called senolytics, constitute a promising avenue for improved cancer treatment in combination with targeted therapies. Understanding how cancer cells evade senescence is needed to optimise the clinical benefits of this therapeutic approach. Here we characterised the response of three different NRAS mutant melanoma cell lines to a combination of CDK4/6 and MEK inhibitors over 33 days. Transcriptomic data show that all cell lines trigger a senescence programme coupled with strong induction of interferons. Kinome profiling revealed the activation of Receptor Tyrosine Kinases (RTKs) and enriched downstream signaling of neurotrophin, ErbB and insulin pathways. Characterisation of the miRNA interactome associates miR-211-5p with resistant phenotypes. Finally, iCell-based integration of bulk and single-cell RNA-seq data identifies biological processes perturbed during senescence and predicts 90 new genes involved in its escape. Overall, our data associate insulin signaling with persistence of a senescent phenotype and suggest a new role for interferon gamma in senescence escape through the induction of EMT and the activation of ERK5 signaling.

Hyperactive KRAS/MAPK signaling disrupts normal lymphatic vessel architecture and function

Complex lymphatic anomalies (CLAs) are sporadically occurring diseases caused by the maldevelopment of lymphatic vessels. We and others recently reported that somatic activating mutations in KRAS can cause CLAs. However, the mechanisms by which activating KRAS mutations cause CLAs are poorly understood. Here, we show that KRASG12D expression in lymphatic endothelial cells (LECs) during embryonic development impairs the formation of lymphovenous valves and causes the enlargement of lymphatic vessels. We demonstrate that KRASG12D expression in primary human LECs induces cell spindling, proliferation, and migration. It also increases AKT and ERK1/2 phosphorylation and decreases the expression of genes that regulate the maturation of lymphatic vessels. We show that MEK1/2 inhibition with the FDA-approved drug trametinib suppresses KRASG12D-induced morphological changes, proliferation, and migration. Trametinib also decreases ERK1/2 phosphorylation and increases the expression of genes that regulate the maturation of lymphatic vessels. We also show that trametinib and Cre-mediated expression of a dominant-negative form of MEK1 (Map2k1 K97M) suppresses KRASG12D-induced lymphatic vessel hyperplasia in embryos. Last, we demonstrate that conditional knockout of wild-type Kras in LECs does not affect the formation or function of lymphatic vessels. Together, our data indicate that KRAS/MAPK signaling must be tightly regulated during embryonic development for the proper development of lymphatic vessels and further support the testing of MEK1/2 inhibitors for treating CLAs.

Dual targeting of melanoma translation by MNK/eIF4E and PI3K/mTOR inhibitors

Melanoma is relatively resistant to chemotherapy, and no targeted therapies are fully effective. The most common mutations in melanoma result in hyperactivation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and PI3K/AKT/ mTOR pathways responsible for initiating and controlling oncogenic protein translation. This makes both the signaling pathways potentially important therapeutic targets in melanoma. Our studies were carried out on human melanoma cell lines WM793 and 1205 LU with similar genomic alteration (BRAFV600E and PTEN loss). We used a highly specific PI3K/mTOR inhibitor, dactolisib (NVP-BEZ235), and Mnk inhibitor - CGP57380 alone and in combination. Here, we explore the mechanism of action of these drugs alone and in combination, as well as their effect on the viability and invasiveness of melanoma cells. Although when used independently, both drugs suppressed cell proliferation and migration, their combination has additional antitumor effects. We demonstrate that simultaneous inhibition of both pathways may prevent possible drug resistance.

Salivary gland cancer organoids are valid for preclinical genotype-oriented medical precision trials

Salivary gland cancers (SGCs) are heterogeneous tumors, and precision oncology represents a promising therapeutic approach; however, its impact on SGCs remains obscure. This study aimed to establish a translational model for testing molecular-targeted therapies by combining patient-derived organoids and genomic analyses of SGCs. We enrolled 29 patients, including 24 with SGCs and 5 with benign tumors. Resected tumors were subjected to organoid and monolayer cultures, as well as whole-exome sequencing. Organoid and monolayer cultures of SGCs were successfully established in 70.8% and 62.5% of cases, respectively. Organoids retained most histopathological and genetic profiles of their original tumors. In contrast, 40% of the monolayer-cultured cells did not harbor somatic mutations of their original tumors. The efficacy of molecular-targeted drugs tested on organoids depended on their oncogenic features. Organoids recapitulated the primary tumors and were useful for testing genotype-oriented molecular targeted therapy, which is valuable for precision medicine in patients with SGCs.

Opportunities and Obstacles to the Development of Health Data Warehouses in Hospitals in France: The Recent Experience of Comprehensive Cancer Centers

Big Data and Artificial Intelligence can profoundly transform medical practices, particularly in oncology. Comprehensive Cancer Centers have a major role to play in this revolution. With the purpose of advancing our knowledge and accelerating cancer research, it is urgent to make this pool of data usable through the development of robust and effective data warehouses. Through the recent experience of Comprehensive Cancer Centers in France, this article shows that, while the use of hospital data warehouses can be a source of progress by taking into account multisource, multidomain and multiscale data for the benefit of knowledge and patients, it nevertheless raises technical, organizational and legal issues that still need to be addressed. The objectives of this article are threefold: 1. to provide insight on public health stakes of development in Comprehensive Cancer Centers to manage cancer patients comprehensively; 2. to set out a challenge of structuring the data from within them; 3. to outline the legal issues of implementation to carry out real-world evidence studies. To meet objective 1, this article firstly proposed a discussion on the relevance of an integrated approach to manage cancer and the formidable tool that data warehouses represent to achieve this. To address objective 2, we carried out a literature review to screen the articles published in PubMed and Google Scholar through the end of 2022 on the use of data warehouses in French Comprehensive Cancer Centers. Seven publications dealing specifically with the issue of data structuring were selected. To achieve objective 3, we presented and commented on the main aspects of French and European legislation and regulations in the field of health data, hospital data warehouses and real-world evidence.

Crosstalk between protein kinases AKT and ERK1/2 in human lung tumor-derived cell models

There is no doubt that cell signaling manipulation is a key strategy for anticancer therapy. Furthermore, cell state determines drug response. Thus, establishing the relationship between cell state and therapeutic sensitivity is essential for the development of cancer therapies. In the era of personalized medicine, the use of patient-derived ex vivo cell models is a promising approach in the translation of key research findings into clinics. Here, we were focused on the non-oncogene dependencies of cell resistance to anticancer treatments. Signaling-related mechanisms of response to inhibitors of MEK/ERK and PI3K/AKT pathways (regulators of key cellular functions) were investigated using a panel of patients' lung tumor-derived cell lines with various stemness- and EMT-related markers, varying degrees of ERK1/2 and AKT phosphorylation, and response to anticancer treatment. The study of interactions between kinases was the goal of our research. Although MEK/ERK and PI3K/AKT interactions are thought to be cell line-specific, where oncogenic mutations have a decisive role, we demonstrated negative feedback loops between MEK/ERK and PI3K/AKT signaling pathways in all cell lines studied, regardless of genotype and phenotype differences. Our work showed that various and distinct inhibitors of ERK signaling - selumetinib, trametinib, and SCH772984 - increased AKT phosphorylation, and conversely, inhibitors of AKT - capivasertib, idelalisib, and AKT inhibitor VIII - increased ERK phosphorylation in both control and cisplatin-treated cells. Interaction between kinases, however, was dependent on cellular state. The feedback between ERK and AKT was attenuated by the focal adhesion kinase inhibitor PF573228, and in cells grown in suspension, showing the possible role of extracellular contacts in the regulation of crosstalk between kinases. Moreover, studies have shown that the interplay between MEK/ERK and PI3K/AKT signaling pathways may be dependent on the strength of the chemotherapeutic stimulus. The study highlights the importance of spatial location of the cells and the strength of the treatment during anticancer therapy.

PSMG2-controlled proteasome-autophagy balance mediates the tolerance for MEK-targeted therapy in triple-negative breast cancer

Although the MAPK pathway is aberrantly activated in triple-negative breast cancers (TNBCs), the clinical outcome of MEK-targeted therapy is still poor. Through a genome-wide CRISPR-Cas9 library screening, we find that inhibition of PSMG2 sensitizes TNBC cells BT549 and MB468 to the MEK inhibitor AZD6244. Mechanistically, PSMG2 knockdown impairs proteasome function, which in turn activates autophagy-mediated PDPK1 degradation. The PDPK1 degradation significantly enhances AZD6244-induced tumor cell growth inhibition by interrupting the negative feedback signals toward the AKT pathway. Consistently, co-targeting proteasomes and MEK with inhibitors synergistically suppresses tumor cell growth. The autophagy inhibitor chloroquine partially relieves the PDPK1 degradation and reverses the growth inhibition induced by combinatorial inhibition of MEK and proteasome. The combination regimen with the proteasome inhibitor MG132 plus AZD6244 synergistically inhibits tumor growth in a 4T1 xenograft mouse model. In summary, our study not only unravels the mechanism of MEK inhibitor resistance but also provides a combinatorial therapeutic strategy for TNBC in clinics.

Co-Targeting MAP Kinase and Pi3K-Akt-mTOR Pathways in Meningioma: Preclinical Study of Alpelisib and Trametinib

Simple Summary

Multi recurrent or high-grade meningiomas remain an unmet medical need in neuro-oncology. Several studies have highlighted the potential therapeutic efficacy of mTor inhibitors to control tumoral growth of meningiomas. However, a positive feedback on AKT oncogenic pathway from these drugs may explain the modest success. Our aim was to target Pi3kinase upstream mTor, and MAP kinase pathway, overactivated in meningiomas, alone or in combined targeting in comparison to mTor targeting. Our in vitro results obtained on three meningioma cell lines and on a large series of fresh human meningiomas, including 35 WHO grade 1, 23 grade 2, and five grade 3, showed that co-targeting Pi3kinase and MAP kinase seemed promising, opening new therapeutic strategies in these tumors.

Abstract

Recurrent or high-grade meningiomas are an unmet medical need. Recently, we demonstrated that targeting mTOR by everolimus was relevant both in vitro and in humans. However, everolimus induces an AKT activation that may impact the anti-proliferative effect of the drug. Moreover, the MAP kinase pathway was shown to be involved in meningioma tumorigenesis. We therefore targeted both the Pi3k-AKT-mTOR and MAP kinase pathways by using combinations of the Pi3k inhibitor alpelisib and the MEK inhibitor trametinib. Our study was performed in vitro on the human meningioma cell lines and on a large series of primary cultures providing from 63 freshly operated meningiomas including 35 WHO grade 1, 23 grade 2, and five grade 3, half of which presented a NF2 genomic alteration. Alpelisib induced a higher inhibitory effect on cell viability and proliferation than everolimus in all cell lines and 32 randomly selected tumors no matter the genomic status, the histological subtype or grade. Trametinib also strongly inhibited cell proliferation and induced AKT activation. Combined treatment with alpelisib plus trametinib reversed the AKT activation induced by trametinib and induced an additive inhibitory effect irrespective of the cell lines or tumor features. Co-targeting pathways seems promising and may be considered particularly for aggressive meningioma.

Jagged-1 is induced by mTOR inhibitors in renal cancer cells through an Akt/ALK5/Smad4-dependent mechanism

The mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) plays an important role in the aggressiveness and therapeutic resistance of many cancers. Targeting mTOR continues to be under clinical investigation for cancer therapy. Despite the notable clinical success of mTOR inhibitors in extending the overall survival of patients with certain malignancies including metastatic renal cell carcinomas (RCCs), the overall impact of mTOR inhibitors on cancers has been generally disappointing and attributed to various compensatory responses. Here we provide the first report that expression of the Notch ligand Jagged-1 (JAG1), which is associated with aggressiveness of RCCs, is induced by several inhibitors of mTOR (rapamycin (Rap), BEZ235, KU-0063794) in human clear cell RCC (ccRCC) cells. Using both molecular and chemical inhibitors of PI3K, Akt, and TGF-β signaling, we provide evidence that the induction of JAG1 expression by mTOR inhibitors in ccRCC cells depends on the activation of Akt and occurs through an ALK5 kinase/Smad4-dependent mechanism. Furthermore, we show that mTOR inhibitors activate Notch1 and induce the expression of drivers of epithelial-mesenchymal transition, notably Hic-5 and Slug. Silencing JAG1 with selective shRNAs blocked the ability of KU-0063794 and Rap to induce Hic-5 in ccRCC cells. Moreover, Rap enhanced TGF-β-induced expression of Hic-5 and Slug, both of which were repressed in JAG1-silenced ccRCC cells. Silencing JAG1 selectively decreased the motility of ccRCC cells treated with Rap or TGF-β1. Moreover, inhibition of Notch signaling with γ-secretase inhibitors enhanced or permitted mTOR inhibitors to suppress the motility of ccRCC cells. We suggest targeting JAG1 may enhance therapeutic responses to mTOR inhibitors in ccRCCs.

A preclinical model of patient-derived cerebrospinal fluid circulating tumor cells for experimental therapeutics in leptomeningeal disease from melanoma

BACKGROUND

Leptomeningeal disease (LMD) occurs as a late complication of several human cancers and has no rationally designed treatment options. A major barrier to developing effective therapies for LMD is the lack of cell-based or preclinical models that recapitulate human disease. Here, we describe the development of in vitro and in vivo cultures of patient-derived cerebrospinal fluid circulating tumor cells (PD-CSF-CTCs) from patients with melanoma as a preclinical model to identify exploitable vulnerabilities in melanoma LMD.

METHODS

CSF-CTCs were collected from melanoma patients with melanoma-derived LMD and cultured ex vivo using human meningeal cell-conditioned media. Using immunoassays and RNA-sequencing analyses of PD-CSF-CTCs, molecular signaling pathways were examined and new therapeutic targets were tested for efficacy in PD-CSF-CTCs preclinical models.

RESULTS

PD-CSF-CTCs were successfully established both in vitro and in vivo. Global RNA analyses of PD-CSF-CTCs revealed several therapeutically tractable targets. These studies complimented our prior proteomic studies highlighting IGF1 signaling as a potential target in LMD. As a proof of concept, combining treatment of ceritinib and trametinib in vitro and in vivo demonstrated synergistic antitumor activity in PD-CSF-CTCs and BRAF inhibitor-resistant melanoma cells.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrates that CSF-CTCs can be grown in vitro and in vivo from some melanoma patients with LMD and used as preclinical models. These models retained melanoma expression patterns and had signaling pathways that are therapeutically targetable. These novel models/reagents may be useful in developing rationally designed treatments for LMD.

Fine-tuning of MEK signaling is pivotal for limiting B and T cell activation

MEK1 and MEK2, the only known activators of ERK, are attractive therapeutic candidates for both cancer and autoimmune diseases. However, how MEK signaling finely regulates immune cell activation is only partially understood. To address this question, we specifically delete Mek1 in hematopoietic cells in the Mek2 null background. Characterization of an allelic series of Mek mutants reveals the presence of distinct degrees of spontaneous B cell activation, which are inversely proportional to the levels of MEK proteins and ERK activation. While Mek1 and Mek2 null mutants have a normal lifespan, 1Mek1 and 1Mek2 mutants retaining only one functional Mek1 or Mek2 allele in hematopoietic cell lineages die from glomerulonephritis and lymphoproliferative disorders, respectively. This establishes that the fine-tuning of the ERK/MAPK pathway is critical to regulate B and T cell activation and function and that each MEK isoform plays distinct roles during lymphocyte activation and disease development.

Delineation of gastric tumors with activated ERK/MAPK signaling cascades for the development of targeted therapeutics

The ERK/MAPK signaling pathway is activated in various cancers including gastric cancer. Targeting the ERK/MAPK/MEK pathway has been considered as a promising strategy for cancer therapy. However, MEK inhibition leads to a series of resistance mechanisms due to mutations in MEK, elevated expression of RAS or RAF proteins and activation of the associated signaling pathways. In the present study, ERK/MAPK pathway specific gene signatures were identified to be highly activated in intestinal subtype gastric tumors. Inhibition of ERK/MAPK pathway with the inhibitor PD98059 in gastric cancer cell lines by in vitro signaling pathway and genome-wide expression profiling revealed the associated signaling pathways. Functional genomic investigation of the ERK/MAPK regulated genes reveals the association of ERK/MAPK pathway with E2F, Myc, SOX-2, TGF-β, OCT4 and Notch pathways in gastric cancer cells. Of these, E2F, Myc and SOX-2 pathways are activated in intestinal subtype gastric tumors and TGF-β, OCT4, Notch pathways are activated in diffuse subtype gastric tumors. Further, the mutational load of gastric tumors was found to have association and correlation with the activation pattern of ERK/MAPK pathways across gastric tumors. ERK/MAPK activation was also found to represent the EBV and MSI activated subtypes of gastric tumors. Identification of potent drug candidates inhibiting the ERK/MAPK and associated pathways would pave a way for developing the targeted therapeutics for a subset of gastric tumors with activated ERK/MAPK signaling cascade.

LC-MS/MS bioanalytical method for quantification of binimetinib and venetoclax, and their pharmacokinetic interaction

Aim: Because of several prospective benefits, binimetinib (BMT)-venetoclax (VTC) combination can be a better therapeutic strategy to treat cancer. Results: An LC-MS/MS method for simultaneous quantification of BMT and VTC in rat plasma has been developed and validated. Specificity, accuracy, precision and stability results met the acceptance criteria for validation. Accuracy and precisions at all quality control levels were <15%. The study revealed that co-administration of BMT and VTC has no significant effect on their pharmacokinetics. Conclusion: The developed method can provide accurate results for quantification of BMT and VTC over the range of 5-500 ng/ml. The reported pharmacokinetic interaction study results will be useful for future consideration of the combined treatment of BMT and VTC in anticancer chemotherapy regimens.

Early response in phosphorylation of ribosomal protein S6 is associated with sensitivity to trametinib in colorectal cancer cells

Mutations in RAS or BRAF are associated with poor prognosis and resistance to epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR)-targeted therapy in colorectal cancer (CRC). Despite their common ability to activate downstream genes such as MEK and ERK, the therapeutic benefit of MEK inhibitors for patients with RAS/BRAF mutant CRC is limited, highlighting the need for biomarkers to predict the efficacy of MEK inhibition. Previously, we reported that a change in phosphorylation of ribosomal protein S6 (pS6) after MEK inhibition was significantly associated with sensitivity to MEK inhibition in gastric cancer cells. Here, we investigated the value of the response in pS6 for predicting the efficacy of trametinib, a MEK inhibitor, in patients with RAS/BRAF mutant CRC using patient-derived CRC organoids. We found that a subset of CRC cell lines and organoids were sensitive to trametinib. The change in phosphorylated ERK, a downstream molecule of the RAS/RAF/MEK pathway, was not significantly associated with trametinib sensitivity. On the other hand, only those with sensitivity showed a reduction of pS6 levels in response to trametinib. The change in pS6 after trametinib treatment was detectable by Western blotting, immunohistochemistry or immunocytochemistry. We also demonstrated an impact of MEK inhibition on pS6 in vivo using a xenograft model. Our data suggest that, in combination with patient-derived organoids, immunostaining-based detection of pS6 could be useful for prediction of trametinib sensitivity.

PKCδ-mediated SGLT1 upregulation confers the acquired resistance of NSCLC to EGFR TKIs

The tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) targeting epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) have been widely used for non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients, but the development of acquired resistance remains a therapeutic hurdle. The reduction of glucose uptake has been implicated in the anti-tumor activity of EGFR TKIs. In this study, the upregulation of the active sodium/glucose co-transporter 1 (SGLT1) was found to confer the development of acquired EGFR TKI resistance and was correlated with the poorer clinical outcome of the NSCLC patients who received EGFR TKI treatment. Blockade of SGLT1 overcame this resistance in vitro and in vivo by reducing glucose uptake in NSCLC cells. Mechanistically, SGLT1 protein was stabilized through the interaction with PKCδ-phosphorylated (Thr678) EGFR in the TKI-resistant cells. Our findings revealed that PKCδ/EGFR axis-dependent SGLT1 upregulation was a critical mechanism underlying the acquired resistance to EGFR TKIs. We suggest co-targeting PKCδ/SGLT1 as a potential strategy to improve the therapeutic efficacy of EGFR TKIs in NSCLC patients.

Combination Treatment With Inhibitors of ERK and Autophagy Enhances Antitumor Activity of Betulinic Acid in Non-small-Cell Lung Cancer In Vivo and In Vitro

Aberrant activation of the Ras-ERK signaling pathway drives many important cancer phenotypes, and several inhibitors targeting such pathways are under investigation and/or approved by the FDA as single- or multi-agent therapy for patients with melanoma and non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC). Here, we show that betulinic acid (BA), a natural pentacyclic triterpenoid, inhibits cell proliferation, and induces apoptosis and protective autophagy in NSCLC cells. Thus, the cancer cell killing activity of BA is enhanced by autophagy inhibition. Mitogen-activated protein kinases, and especially ERK that facilitates cancer cell survival, are also activated by BA treatment. As such, in the presence of ERK inhibitors (ERKi), lung cancer cells are much more sensitive to BA. However, the dual treatment of BA and ERKi results in increased protective autophagy and AKT phosphorylation. Accordingly, inhibition of AKT has a highly synergistic anticancer effect with co-treatment of BA and ERKi. Notably, autophagy inhibition by hydroxychloroquine (HCQ) increases the response of lung cancer cells to BA in combination with ERKi. In vivo, the three-drug combination (BA, ERKi, and HCQ), resulted in superior therapeutic efficacy than single or dual treatments in the xenograft mouse model. Thus, our study provides a combined therapy strategy that is a highly effective treatment for patients with NSCLC.

RASAL2 Confers Collateral MEK/EGFR Dependency in Chemoresistant Triple-Negative Breast Cancer

PURPOSE

While chemotherapy remains the standard treatment for triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC), identifying and managing chemoresistant tumors has proven elusive. We sought to discover hallmarks and therapeutically actionable features of refractory TNBC through molecular analysis of primary chemoresistant TNBC specimens.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

We performed transcriptional profiling of tumors from a phase II clinical trial of platinum chemotherapy for advanced TNBC (TBCRC-009), revealing a gene expression signature that identified de novo chemorefractory tumors. We then employed pharmacogenomic data mining, proteomic and other molecular studies to define the therapeutic vulnerabilities of these tumors.

RESULTS

We reveal the RAS-GTPase-activating protein (RAS-GAP) RASAL2 as an upregulated factor that mediates chemotherapy resistance but also an exquisite collateral sensitivity to combination MAP kinase kinase (MEK1/2) and EGFR inhibitors in TNBC. Mechanistically, RASAL2 GAP activity is required to confer kinase inhibitor sensitivity, as RASAL2-high TNBCs sustain basal RAS activity through suppression of negative feedback regulators SPRY1/2, together with EGFR upregulation. Consequently, RASAL2 expression results in failed feedback compensation upon co-inhibition of MEK1/2 and EGFR that induces synergistic apoptosis in vitro and in vivo. In patients with TNBC, high RASAL2 levels predict clinical chemotherapy response and long-term outcomes, and are associated via direct transcriptional regulation with activated oncogenic Yes-Associated Protein (YAP). Accordingly, chemorefractory patient-derived TNBC models exhibit YAP activation, high RASAL2 expression, and tumor regression in response to MEK/EGFR inhibitor combinations despite well-tolerated intermittent dosing.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings identify RASAL2 as a mediator of TNBC chemoresistance that rewires MAPK feedback and cross-talk to confer profound collateral sensitivity to combination MEK1/2 and EGFR inhibitors.

Overcoming resistance to BRAFV600E inhibition in melanoma by deciphering and targeting personalized protein network alterations

BRAFV600E melanoma patients, despite initially responding to the clinically prescribed anti-BRAFV600E therapy, often relapse, and their tumors develop drug resistance. While it is widely accepted that these tumors are originally driven by the BRAFV600E mutation, they often eventually diverge and become supported by various signaling networks. Therefore, patient-specific altered signaling signatures should be deciphered and treated individually. In this study, we design individualized melanoma combination treatments based on personalized network alterations. Using an information-theoretic approach, we compute high-resolution patient-specific altered signaling signatures. These altered signaling signatures each consist of several co-expressed subnetworks, which should all be targeted to optimally inhibit the entire altered signaling flux. Based on these data, we design smart, personalized drug combinations, often consisting of FDA-approved drugs. We validate our approach in vitro and in vivo showing that individualized drug combinations that are rationally based on patient-specific altered signaling signatures are more efficient than the clinically used anti-BRAFV600E or BRAFV600E/MEK targeted therapy. Furthermore, these drug combinations are highly selective, as a drug combination efficient for one BRAFV600E tumor is significantly less efficient for another, and vice versa. The approach presented herein can be broadly applicable to aid clinicians to rationally design patient-specific anti-melanoma drug combinations.

Cell Type-specific Adaptive Signaling Responses to KRASG12C Inhibition

PURPOSE

Covalent inhibitors of KRAS^G12C specifically target tumors driven by this form of mutant KRAS, yet early studies show that bypass signaling drives adaptive resistance. Although several combination strategies have been shown to improve efficacy of KRAS^G12C inhibitors (KRASi), underlying mechanisms and predictive strategies for patient enrichment are less clear.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

We performed mass spectrometry-based phosphoproteomics analysis in KRAS^G12C cell lines after short-term treatment with ARS-1620. To understand signaling diversity and cell type-specific markers, we compared proteome and phosphoproteomes of KRAS^G12C cells. Gene expression patterns of KRAS^G12C cell lines and lung tumor tissues were examined.

RESULTS

Our analysis suggests cell type-specific perturbation to ERBB2/3 signaling compensates for repressed ERK and AKT signaling following ARS-1620 treatment in epithelial cell type, and this subtype was also more responsive to coinhibition of SHP2 and SOS1. Conversely, both high basal and feedback activation of FGFR or AXL signaling were identified in mesenchymal cells. Inhibition of FGFR signaling suppressed feedback activation of ERK and mTOR, while AXL inhibition suppressed PI3K pathway. In both cell lines and human lung cancer tissues with KRAS^G12C, we observed high basal ERBB2/3 associated with epithelial gene signatures, while higher basal FGFR1 and AXL were observed in cells/tumors with mesenchymal gene signatures.

CONCLUSIONS

Our phosphoproteomic study identified cell type-adaptive responses to KRASi. Markers and targets associated with ERBB2/3 signaling in epithelial subtype and with FGFR1/AXL signaling in mesenchymal subtype should be considered in patient enrichment schemes with KRASi.

Therapeutic strategies of different HPV status in Head and Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma

Head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) is the 9^th most common malignant tumor in the world. Based on the etiology, HNSCC has two main subtypes: human papillomavirus (HPV) -related and HPV-unrelated. HPV-positive HNSCC is more sensitive to treatment with favorable survival. Due to the different biological behaviors, individual therapy is necessary and urgently required to deduce the therapeutic intensity of HPV-positive disease and look for a more effective and toxicity-acceptable regimen for HPV-negative disease. EGFR amplification and PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway aberrant activation are quite common in HPV-positive HNSCC. Besides, HPV infection alters immune cell infiltrating in HNSCC and encompasses a diverse and heterogeneous landscape with more immune infiltration. On the other hand, the chance of HPV-negative cancers harboring mutation on the P53 gene is significantly higher than that of HPV-positive disease. This review focuses on the updated preclinical and clinical data of HPV-positive and HPV-negative HNSCC and discusses the therapeutic strategies of different HPV status in HNSCC.

Noncoding RNAs Associated with Therapeutic Resistance in Pancreatic Cancer

Therapeutic resistance is an inevitable impediment towards effective cancer therapies. Evidence accumulated has shown that the signaling pathways and related factors are fundamentally responsible for therapeutic resistance via regulating diverse cellular events, such as epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), stemness, cell survival/apoptosis, autophagy, etcetera. Noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs) have been identified as essential cellular components in gene regulation. The expression of ncRNAs is altered in cancer, and dysregulated ncRNAs participate in gene regulatory networks in pathological contexts. An in-depth understanding of molecular mechanisms underlying the modulation of therapeutic resistance is required to refine therapeutic benefits. This review presents an overview of the recent evidence concerning the role of human ncRNAs in therapeutic resistance, together with the feasibility of ncRNAs as therapeutic targets in pancreatic cancer.

POU4F1 confers trastuzumab resistance in HER2-positive breast cancer through regulating ERK1/2 signaling pathway

Over-expression of the human epidermal growth factor receptor-2 (HER2) is related to aggressive tumors and poor prognosis in breast cancer. Trastuzumab (TRA) resistance leads to tumor recurrence and metastasis, resulting in poor prognosis in HER2-positive breast cancer. POU Class 4 Homeobox 1 (POU4F1) is a member of the POU domain family transcription factors, and has a key role in regulating cancers. However, its effects on TRA-resistant HER2-positive breast cancer are still vague. In the present study, we found that POU4F1 expression was dramatically increased in clinical breast cancer specimens with TRA resistance. Higher POU4F1 was also detected in HER2-positive breast cancer cells with TRA resistance than that of the parental ones. Poor prognosis was detected in breast cancer patients with high POU4F1 expression. Under TRA treatment, POU4F1 knockdown significantly reduced the proliferative capacity of HER2-positive breast cancer cells with TRA resistance. POU4F1 silence also sensitized resistant HER-positive breast cancer cells to TRA treatment in vivo using a xenograft mouse model, along with the markedly reduced tumor growth rate and tumor weight. Moreover, we found that POU4F1 deletion greatly decreased the activation of mitogen-activated or extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase kinases 1 and 2 (MEK1/2) and extracellular-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2) signaling pathways in breast cancer cells with TRA resistance. Migration and invasion were also effectively hindered by POU4F1 knockdown in TRA-resistant HER2-positive breast cancer cells. Notably, we found that POU4F1 deletion-improved chemosensitivity of HER2-positive breast cancer cells with drug-resistance to TRA treatment was closely associated with the blockage of ERK1/2 signaling. Collectively, our findings reported a critical role of POU4F1 in regulating TRA resistance, and demonstrated the underlying molecular mechanisms in HER2-positive breast cancer. Thus, POU4F1 may be a promising prognostic and therapeutic target to develop effective treatment for overcoming TRA resistance.

Nf1-Mutant Tumors Undergo Transcriptome and Kinome Remodeling after Inhibition of either mTOR or MEK

Loss of the tumor suppressor NF1 leads to activation of RAS effector pathways, which are therapeutically targeted by inhibition of mTOR (mTORi) or MEK (MEKi). However, therapeutic inhibition of RAS effectors leads to the development of drug resistance and ultimately disease progression. To investigate molecular signatures in the context of NF1 loss and subsequent acquired drug resistance, we analyzed the exomes, transcriptomes, and kinomes of Nf1-mutant mouse tumor cell lines and derivatives of these lines that acquired resistance to either MEKi or mTORi. Biochemical comparisons of this unique panel of tumor cells, all of which arose in Nf1^+/- mice, indicate that loss of heterozygosity of Nf1 as an initial genetic event does not confer a common biochemical signature or response to kinase inhibition. Although acquired drug resistance by Nf1-mutant tumor cells was accompanied by altered kinomes and irreversibly altered transcriptomes, functionally in multiple Nf1-mutant tumor cell lines, MEKi resistance was a stable phenotype, in contrast to mTORi resistance, which was reversible. Collectively, these findings demonstrate that Nf1-mutant tumors represent a heterogeneous group biochemically and undergo broader remodeling of kinome activity and gene expression in response to targeted kinase inhibition.

IGF-1R inhibition induces MEK phosphorylation to promote survival in colon carcinomas

The insulin-like growth factor 1 receptor (IGF-1R) governs several signaling pathways for cell proliferation, survival, and anti-apoptosis. Thus, targeting IGF-1R appears as a reasonable rationale for tumor treatment. However, clinical studies showed that inhibition of IGF-1R has very limited efficacy due to the development of resistance to IGF-1R blockade in tumor cells. Here, we discovered that prolonged treatment of colon cancer cells with IGF-1R inhibitors (BMS-754807 and GSK1838705A) stimulates p70 KDa ribosomal protein S6 kinase 1 (p70S6K1) activation, a well-known kinase signaling for cell survival. We also found that p70S6K1 activation by IGF-1R inhibition is independent of K-Ras and PIK3CA mutations that frequently occur in colon cancer. Besides the increased p70S6K1 phosphorylation, the phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase 1 and 2 (MEK1/2) was elevated in the cells treated with BMS-754807. Interestingly, the increases in MEK1/2 and p70S6K1 phosphorylation were also observed when cells were subjected to the treatment of AKT inhibitor or genetic knockdown of AKT2 but not AKT1, suggesting that AKT2 inhibition stimulates MEK1/2 phosphorylation to activate p70S6K1. Conversely, inhibition of MEK1/2 by MEK1/2 inhibitor (U0126) or knockdown of MEK1 and MEK2 by corresponding mek1 and mek2 siRNA enhanced AKT phosphorylation, indicating mutual inhibition between AKT and MEK. Furthermore, the combination of BMS-754807 and U0126 efficiently decreased the cell viability and increased cleaved caspase 3 and apoptosis in vitro and in vivo. Our data suggest that the treatment of colon tumor cells with IGF-1R inhibitors stimulates p70S6K1 activity via MEK1/2 to promote survival, providing a new strategy for colorectal cancer therapeutics.

AKT drives sustained motility following MEK inhibition via promoting SNAIL and AXL in MDA-MB-231 LM2

The adaptive activation of alternative signaling pathways contributes to acquired resistance against targeted cancer therapies. Our previous research has shown that blocking Ras/ERK signaling promotes PI3K/AKT signaling in the lung metastatic derivative of MDA-MB-231 (LM2). Because AKT activation was required to drive sustained cell motility following MEK suppression, we extend our research to elucidate how activation of the PI3K/AKT signaling drives sustained motility following MEK inhibition. Reverse phase protein array (RPPA) revealed that SNAIL (SNAI1) was upregulated in U0126 (MEK inhibitor)-treated LM2 cells. Importantly, LM2 cells simultaneously treated with U0126 and PI3K inhibitor LY294002 exhibited reduced expression of SNAIL. Furthermore, depletion of SNAIL led to reduced cell motility in U0126-treated LM2 cells. In addition, we identified AXL as another downstream effector of AKT. These results suggest that SNAIL and AXL are key factors mediating sustained motility of LM2 cells following MEK suppression. Because AKT mediates motile behavior under MEK suppression, our results suggest that AKT and AXL may be targeted to overcome resistance against drugs targeting the Ras/ERK pathway.

Specific Roles of HSP27 S15 Phosphorylation Augmenting the Nuclear Function of HER2 to Promote Trastuzumab Resistance

Trastuzumab (TZMB) is widely used as first line therapy for breast cancer (BC) patients overexpressing human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2). Despite its clinical benefits, many patients suffer from primary or secondary resistance to this drug within one year. As diverse molecular mechanisms occur contemporaneously during the resistance development, we focused on elucidating the role of heat shock protein 27 (HSP27) in TZMB-resistance, as this protein simultaneously regulates the function of diverse client molecules that are involved in the resistance mechanism. By extensively utilizing TZMB-refractory breast cancer cell lines transduced with diverse phosphovariants of HSP27, our study newly revealed that specific phosphorylation of HSP27 at S15 promoted its S78 phosphorylation and served as key mediator to promote direct interactions that increase the stability of HER2 and protein kinase B (AKT). This phosphorylation promoted nuclear translocation of HER2, enhancing the distinct nuclear function of HER2 that promoted AKT activation and cyclin D1 expression. Co-administration of TZMB and a functional inhibitor of HSP27, J2, significantly reduced the S15/78 phosphorylation of HSP27, which downregulated HER2 and its downstream signals, sensitizing TZMB-refractory cell, and JIMT1-xenograft mouse models to TZMB. Collectively, p-HSP27^S15 could serve as a valuable predictive marker and also a therapeutic target for TZMB-resistance.

Concurrent inhibition of ErbB family and MEK/ERK kinases to suppress non-small cell lung cancer proliferation

Lung cancer ranks as the most common cancer and leading cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide. Of all lung cancer types, non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) accounts for 85 percent of all cases. The high mortality of NSCLC occurs mainly because of poor prognosis in patients with recurrent and metastatic cancer. Cisplatin-containing chemotherapy is the first option to treat recurrent and metastatic NSCLC. Additionally, targeted therapy plays an important role to prolong life in patients. Currently, EGFR inhibitors are the most important targeted anti-cancer drugs for patients with EGFR mutations in the clinical setting. Another important kinase inhibitor for targeted therapy is the MEK inhibitor, Trametinib, which is often used for patients with BRAF mutation or MEK/ERK activation in the tumors. In this study, we determined whether a combination of the pan-ErbB kinase inhibitor, Afatinib, and MEK inhibitor, Trametinib, could more effectively inhibit NSCLC cell proliferation when compared to either single treatment. We found that Afatinib inhibited phosphorylation of EGFR, HER2, HER3, and HER4, as well as Akt, whereas it elevated ERK phosphorylation. Conversely, Trametinib treatment led to ERK inhibition, but induced Akt phosphorylation. However, the combination of Afatinib and Trametinib inhibited all of the above-mentioned signaling pathways and synergistically suppressed cell proliferation. Our data indicate that co-targeting of ErbB family and MEK/ERK pathways through a combination of Afatinib and Trametinib could be a potential effective strategy to treat NSCLC.

Influence of Casein kinase II inhibitor CX-4945 on BCL6-mediated apoptotic signaling in B-ALL in vitro and in vivo

Background

Casein kinase II (CK2) is involved in multiple tumor-relevant signaling pathways affecting proliferation and apoptosis. CK2 is frequently upregulated in acute B-lymphoblastic leukemia (B-ALL) and can be targeted by the ATP-competitive CK2 inhibitor CX-4945. While reduced proliferation of tumor entities including B-ALL after CX-4945 incubation has been shown in vitro and in vivo, the detailed way of action is unknown. Here, we investigated the influence on the PI3K/AKT and apoptosis cascades in vivo and in vitro for further clarification.

Methods

A B-ALL xenograft model in NSG mice was used to perform in vivo longitudinal bioluminescence imaging during six day CX-4945 treatment. CX-4945 serum levels were determined at various time points. Flow cytometry of bone marrow and spleen cells was performed to analyze CX-4945-induced effects on tumor cell proliferation and distribution in B-ALL engrafted mice. ALL cells were enriched and characterized by targeted RNA sequencing. In vitro, B-ALL cell lines SEM, RS4;11 and NALM-6 were incubated with CX-4945 and gene expression of apoptosis regulators BCL6 and BACH2 was determined.

Results

In B-ALL-engrafted mice, overall tumor cell proliferation and distribution was not significantly influenced by CK2 inhibition. CX-4945 was detectable in serum during therapy and serum levels declined rapidly after cessation of CX-4945. While overall proliferation was not affected, early bone marrow and spleen blast frequencies seemed reduced after CK2 inhibition. Gene expression analyses revealed reduced expression of anti-apoptotic oncogene BCL6 in bone marrow blasts of CX-4945-treated animals. Further, BCL6 protein expression decreased in B-ALL cell lines exposed to CX-4945 in vitro. Surprisingly, levels of BCL6 opponent and tumor suppressor BACH2 also declined after prolonged incubation. Simultaneously, increased phosphorylation of direct CK2 target and tumor initiator AKT was detected at respective time points, even in initially pAKT-negative cell line NALM-6.

Conclusions

The CK2 inhibitor CX-4945 has limited clinical effects in an in vivo B-ALL xenograft model when applied as a single drug over a six day period. However, gene expression in B-ALL cells was altered and suggested effects on apoptosis via downregulation of BCL6. Unexpectedly, the BCL6 opponent BACH2 was also reduced. Interactions and regulation loops have to be further evaluated.

Microscaled proteogenomic methods for precision oncology

Cancer proteogenomics promises new insights into cancer biology and treatment efficacy by integrating genomics, transcriptomics and protein profiling including modifications by mass spectrometry (MS). A critical limitation is sample input requirements that exceed many sources of clinically important material. Here we report a proteogenomics approach for core biopsies using tissue-sparing specimen processing and microscaled proteomics. As a demonstration, we analyze core needle biopsies from ERBB2 positive breast cancers before and 48–72 h after initiating neoadjuvant trastuzumab-based chemotherapy. We show greater suppression of ERBB2 protein and both ERBB2 and mTOR target phosphosite levels in cases associated with pathological complete response, and identify potential causes of treatment resistance including the absence of ERBB2 amplification, insufficient ERBB2 activity for therapeutic sensitivity despite ERBB2 amplification, and candidate resistance mechanisms including androgen receptor signaling, mucin overexpression and an inactive immune microenvironment. The clinical utility and discovery potential of proteogenomics at biopsy-scale warrants further investigation.

Connecting genomics and proteomics allows the development of more efficient and specific treatments for cancer. Here, the authors develop proteogenomic methods to defining cancer signaling in-vivo starting from core needle biopsies and with application to a HER2 breast cancer focused clinical trial.

Proteomic profiling of extracellular vesicles allows for human breast cancer subtyping

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are a potential source of disease-associated biomarkers for diagnosis. In breast cancer, comprehensive analyses of EVs could yield robust and reliable subtype-specific biomarkers that are still critically needed to improve diagnostic routines and clinical outcome. Here, we show that proteome profiles of EVs secreted by different breast cancer cell lines are highly indicative of their respective molecular subtypes, even more so than the proteome changes within the cancer cells. Moreover, we detected molecular evidence for subtype-specific biological processes and molecular pathways, hyperphosphorylated receptors and kinases in connection with the disease, and compiled a set of protein signatures that closely reflect the associated clinical pathophysiology. These unique features revealed in our work, replicated in clinical material, collectively demonstrate the potential of secreted EVs to differentiate between breast cancer subtypes and show the prospect of their use as non-invasive liquid biopsies for diagnosis and management of breast cancer patients.

Cell signaling and cancer: a mechanistic insight into drug resistance

Drug resistance is a major setback for advanced therapeutics in multiple cancers. The increasing prevalence of this resistance is a growing concern and bitter headache for the researchers since a decade. Hence, it is essential to revalidate the existing strategies available for cancer treatment and to look after a novel therapeutic approach for target based killing of cancer cells at the genetic level. This review outlines the different mechanisms enabling resistance including drug efflux, drug target alternation, alternative splicing, the release of the extracellular vesicle, tumor heterogeneity, epithelial-mesenchymal transition, tumor microenvironment, the secondary mutation in the receptor, epigenetic alternation, heterodimerization of receptors, amplification of target and amplification of components rather than the target. Furthermore, existing evidence and the role of various signaling pathways like EGFR, Ras, PI3K/Akt, Wnt, Notch, TGF-β, Integrin-ECM signaling in drug resistance are explained. Lastly, the prevention of this resistance by a contemporary therapeutic strategy, i.e., a combination of specific signaling pathway inhibitors and the cocktail of a cancer drug is summarized showing the new treatment strategies.

MEK Inhibition Induces Canonical WNT Signaling through YAP in KRAS Mutated HCT-15 Cells, and a Cancer Preventive FOXO3/FOXM1 Ratio in Combination with TNKS Inhibition

The majority of colorectal cancers are induced by subsequent mutations in APC and KRAS genes leading to aberrant activation of both canonical WNT and RAS signaling. However, due to induction of feedback rescue mechanisms some cancers do not respond well to targeted inhibitor treatments. In this study we show that the APC and KRAS mutant human colorectal cancer cell line HCT-15 induces canonical WNT signaling through YAP in a MEK dependent mechanism. This inductive loop is disrupted with combined tankyrase (TNKS) and MEK inhibition. RNA sequencing analysis suggests that combined TNKS/MEK inhibition induces metabolic stress responses in HCT-15 cells promoting a positive FOXO3/FOXM1 ratio to reduce antioxidative and cryoprotective systems.

Dual inhibition of MEK1/2 and AKT by binimetinib and MK2206 induces apoptosis of chronic lymphocytic leukemia cells under conditions that mimic the tumor microenvironment

Several key pathways mediate signaling via the B-cell receptor, including the mitogen-activated protein kinase-ERK1/2 pathway. However, inhibition of MEK1/2, a key component of the MAPK-ERK1/2 signaling cascade, results in paradoxical activation of AKT in chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) cells. In the current study we demonstrate synergy between the MEK1/2 inhibitor binimetinib and the AKT inhibitor MK2206, which combined induce apoptosis of primary CLL cells and restrict the cell cycle progression and proliferation of the OSU-CLL cell line. The mechanisms of action of the drug combination involve dual inhibition of MAPK-ERK1/2 and AKT signaling and down-regulation of Mcl-1 expression. Collectively, these data suggest that dual inhibition of MEK1/2 and AKT may represent a therapeutic option for CLL, capable of overcoming the pro-survival effects of the lymph node and bone marrow microenvironments.

Enhanced ZnR/GPR39 Activity in Breast Cancer, an Alternative Trigger of Signaling Leading to Cell Growth

Acquired resistance to the estrogen receptor (ER) antagonist tamoxifen, is a major obstacle in treatment of breast cancer. Changes in Zn2+ accumulation and distribution are associated with tamoxifen-resistance and breast cancer progression. The Zn2+-sensing G-protein coupled receptor, ZnR/GPR39, triggers signaling leading to cell growth, but a role for this receptor in breast cancer in unknown. Using fluorescence imaging, we found Zn2+-dependent Ca2+ release, mediated by ZnR/GPR39 activity, in TAMR tamoxifen-resistant cells derived from MCF-7 cells, but not in ER-expressing MCF-7 or T47D cells. Furthermore, ZnR/GPR39 signaling was monitored in ER negative BT20, MDA-MB-453 and JIMT-1 cells. Expression of ZnR/GPR39 was increased in grade 3 human breast cancer biopsies compared to grade 2. Consistently, analysis of two breast cancer patient cohorts, GDS4057 and TCGA, indicated that in ER-negative tumors higher ZnR/GPR39 mRNA levels are associated with more aggressive tumors. Activation of ZnR/GPR39 in TAMR cells triggered MAPK, mTOR and PI3K signaling. Importantly, enhanced cell growth and invasiveness was observed in the ER negative breast cancer cells, TAMR, MDA-MB-453 and BT20 cells but not in the ER expressing MCF-7 cells. Thus, we suggest ZnR/GPR39 as a potential therapeutic target for combination treatment in breast cancer, particularly relevant in ER negative tumors.

Blockage of the mevalonate pathway overcomes the apoptotic resistance to MEK inhibitors with suppressing the activation of Akt in cancer cells

With increasing clinical demands for MEK inhibitors in cancer treatment, overcoming the resistance to MEK inhibitors is an urgent problem to be solved. Numerous reports have shown that MEK inhibition results in the activation of PI3K-Akt signaling, which may confer apoptotic resistance to MEK inhibitors. We here demonstrate that the blockade of the mevalonate pathway using the antilipidemic drug statins represses Akt activation following MEK inhibition and induces significant apoptosis when co-treated with CH5126766 or trametinib. These events were clearly negated by the addition of mevalonate or geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate, indicating that the protein geranylgeranylation is implicated in the apoptotic resistance to MEK inhibitors. Furthermore, mechanistically, the combined treatment of CH5126766 with statins upregulated TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL), which was dependent on inhibition of the mevalonate pathway and is involved in apoptosis induction in human breast cancer MDA-MB-231 cells. The present study not only revealed that the mevalonate pathway could be targetable to enhance the efficacy of MEK inhibitors, but also proposes that combinatorial treatment of MEK inhibitors with statins may be a promising therapeutic strategy to sensitize cancer cells to apoptosis.

Kanglaite reverses multidrug resistance of HCC by inducing apoptosis and cell cycle arrest via PI3K/AKT pathway

BACKGROUND

Multidrug resistance (MDR) frequently contributes to the failure of chemotherapeutic treatments in patients diagnosed with hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Revealing the molecular mechanism of MDR is indispensable for the development of effective chemotherapeutic drugs.

PURPOSE

Due to the low-toxicity modulators to inhibit MDR, we considered that Kanglaite (KLT) is a potential agent for reversing MDR in HCC.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

BEL-7402/5-fluorouracil (5-FU) and HepG2/adriamycin (ADM) were analyzed for cell viability, colony formation assay, cell scratch assay, and cell cycle analysis and apoptosis assay by flow cytometry. The expression of PARP, caspase-3, Bax, Bcl-2, CDC25C, Cyclin B1 and phosphorylation of PTEN, PI3K, and AKT in HepG2/ADM cells were detected by western blotting.

RESULTS

The proliferation of drug-resistant cell lines BEL-7402/5-FU and HepG2/ADM pretreated with KLT was significantly inhibited when compared with drug alone. KLT could increase the accumulation of ADM in HepG2/ADM cells. In this study, we found that KLT treatment notably reduced cell viability, induced apoptosis and cell cycle arrest in human HepG2/ADM and BEL-7402/5-FU cells, and effectively reversed the MDR by p-glycoprotein (P-gp) inhibition. Moreover, KLT decreased the phosphorylation of AKT and PI3K in KLT-treated HepG2/ADM cells. These data together implied that KLT might reverse drug resistance in HCC by blocking the PI3K/AKT signaling.

CONCLUSION

We demonstrated that KLT reversed MDR of human HCC by inducing apoptosis and cell cycle arrest via the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway.

AS1041, a Novel Synthesized Derivative of Marine Natural Compound Aspergiolide A, Arrests Cell Cycle, Induces Apoptosis, and Inhibits ERK Activation in K562 Cells

AS1041 is a novel synthesized anthraquinone lactone derivative of marine natural compound aspergiolide A (ASP-A) with new structure skeleton and marked cytotoxicity in cancer cells. To study its cytotoxicity in detail, we evaluated its activity on human K562 chronic myelogenous leukemia cells and investigated the related molecule mechanisms. AS1041 significantly inhibited the proliferation and colony formation of K562 cells. Moreover, AS1041 arrested cell cycle progression at G2/M phase in a concentration-dependent manner, and also caused concentration- and time-dependent induction of apoptosis. In addition, the molecular mechanisms investigation showed that AS1041 did not localize in the cellular nucleus and did not affect topoisomerases I or II. However, AS1041 could inactivate extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) and contribute to AS1041-induced apoptosis. We concluded that AS1041 was cytotoxic to K562 leukemia cells and the cytotoxicity related to the cell cycle arrest, apoptosis induction, and ERK inhibition. These results implied that AS1041 was a novel derivative of ASP-A with significant cytotoxicity to chronic myelogenous leukemia cells and may have therapeutic potential for the treatment of cancer and leukemia.